FrSc103: Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology arising in connection with the administration of justice.

arising in connection with the administration of justice. Its scope span from identifying
evidence, its physical and chemical properties, collection procedures for each type of
Lesson 1.1: Scope of Forensic Chemistry and evidence, examination, testing and analysis of evidence, and giving expert testimony in court.
Toxicology and the Roles of a Forensic Chemist The evidence of concern to forensic chemistry includes the examination of semen, blood
and bloodstains and other body fluids, dangerous drugs and examination of body fluids for
Lesson Summary abused substances, arson investigation, gunshot residue analysis, and paraffin test, the
macro etching examination on metal surfaces, and serial number restoration, tools, and other
Forensic Chemistry is one of the disciplines under Forensic Science that applies chemical marks, explosives substances and residues, hair and textile fibers, problems on fake
principles to help solve crimes. Forensic chemists in the laboratory can help investigators products, chemical aspect of document examination, glass fragments and glass fractures,
identify and analyze unknown material and physical evidence recovered from crime scenes. moulage, soil analysis, and examination of DNA for legal purposes.
Chemical analysis, using instruments and standard methods, can be done on drugs, glass
fragments, arson and explosive debris, gunshot residue, bloodstains, fibers, and hair, to Forensic toxicology, on the other hand, deals with the examination of biological evidence
mention some. The forensic chemist can give expert testimony in court based on the findings like internal organs, food samples, and body fluids for the presence or absence of poisonous
of the analysis. substances. Also included are the identification of poisons, dosage, effects to the living
systems, and treatment.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to: Listed below some of the scope of forensic chemistry, defined;
1. Understand the scope and importance of Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology; 1. Crime Scene – any physical location in which a crime has occurred or is suspected of
2. Discuss the significance and value of Forensic Science in a criminal investigation, and; having occurred
3. Understand the roles of the forensic chemist in the laboratory, in the forensic community, 2. Physical evidence – refers to any material items that would be present at the crime scene,
and in court. on the victims, or found in a suspect's possession
3. Drugs – natural or synthetic substance that is used to produce physiological or
Motivation Question psychological effects in human or other higher-order animals
Considering crime drama shows like CSI and Criminal Minds, do you find chemistry or 4. Explosives – a substance containing a great amount of stored energy that can produce an
chemistry principles applied by investigators? Give some specific examples. explosion
5. Poison – a substance that is harmful to living organisms because of its detrimental effects
Discussion on tissues, organs, or biological processes
Forensic Science applies scientific principles, techniques, and methods to those criminal 6. Arson – the crime of intentionally and maliciously setting fire to structures or wildland
and civil laws enforced by police agencies in the criminal justice system. It applies Chemistry, areas
Biology, Physics, and Geology to civil and criminal laws. 7. Gunshot residue (GSR) - principally composed of burned and unburned particles from the
explosive primer, the propellant, components from the bullet, the cartridge case, and the
Criminalistics describes the branch of Forensic Science focused on evaluating physical firearm used.
evidence collected at crime scenes. It places physical evidence into a professional discipline. 8. Fibers –thin filaments of material that can either be organic or synthetic in origin
Scientists working in the field of criminalistics are called criminalists. They may conduct crime 9. DNA – stands for “deoxyribonucleic acid, one of the most reliable forms of evidence in
scene investigations, perform analyses in the laboratory, write reports, and testify as expert many criminal cases; this maybe collected from blood, hair, skin cells, and other
witnesses in court. Criminalists focus on recognizing, documenting, collecting, preserving, substances from the body.
analyzing, and reporting on physical evidence. Criminalistics is often confused with Forensic
Chemistry in the earlier years of the latter’s development into a specific discipline. The Roles of Forensic Chemist in Forensic Investigation
Forensic scientists, including Forensic Chemists, can analyze only the physical evidence
On the other hand, Forensic Chemistry is a subdiscipline of Forensic Science. Its roots lie in brought to the crime lab by investigators. They spend little time at the crime scene. Contrary
the medicolegal investigation, toxicology, and microscopy. Its principles and techniques guide to what many popular television shows are portraying, forensic scientists do not directly solve
the analysis performed in modern forensic laboratories. crimes; they simply analyze the physical evidence. This evidence is typically collected by
police officers or specially trained crime scene investigators; however, the evidence of a crime
Forensic Toxicology is concerned with toxic substances in human tissues, organs, and may not be limited to those sent to the crime laboratory.
body fluids such as urine and blood, and any toxic agents may have contributed to or caused
death. The roles of a forensic chemist in the forensic investigation are summarized, as follows:
1. Conducts qualitative and quantitative determination of abused drugs, volatile substances,
Scope of Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology and new psychoactive substances;
As mentioned, forensic chemistry applies chemical principles in solving crime or problems 2. Conducts chemical examination of explosives and explosive residues and debris;
3. Examines paraffin cast and firearms to determine the presence of gunpowder nitrates and
heavy metals; Lesson 1.2: The History of Forensic Chemistry
4. Conducts chemico-toxico examination of human internal organs, gastric contents, blood
water, food sample, and other substances; Lesson Summary
5. Examines on arson and fire debris; The past centuries have been challenging for the police, as both population and crime rate
6. Conducts examination of fake products in cases of unfair trade competition; grew. However, the police have been forced to change approaches in solving crimes by
7. Conducts blood alcohol determinations; integrating scientific principles. The latter may be attributed to Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's first
8. Conducts blood, bloodstain, and bloodstain pattern examination; Sherlock Holmes novel. Almost all advances in science have become part of forensic science,
9. Make cast and moulage for tool marks and impressions; and by extension, many scientists have contributed to the current practice of forensic
10. Conducts chemical examination on questioned documents; chemistry. Some of the earliest contributors were Zacharias Janssen, Mathieu Orfila, Hans
11. Conducts macro-etching examination and serial number restoration; Gross, Edmond Locard, Leone Lattes, and the FBI (formerly, U.S. BOI). Then in the 19th
12. Examines urine samples and other body fluids for the presence of abused drugs; century, many innovations in microscopy, spectroscopy, and chemical methods have resulted
13. Examines on hair, fibers, and tapes; in the modernization of crime laboratories. These further resulted in the admissibility of new
14. Conducts physical and chemical examination on glass and glass fractures; forms of evidence in courts.
15. Collects and preserves samples containing DNA;
16. Conducts researches related to cases being examined; Learning Outcomes
17. Testifies and gives an expert opinion in court; At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
18. Gives lectures on Forensic Chemistry and Chemical-toxicology to various schools, 1. Understand the historical development of forensic science with emphasis to forensic
universities, police training centers, and investigating units, and; chemistry and toxicology and;
19. Responds to queries of all investigating units and render an expert opinion in court 2. Recognize the important contributors to the development of forensic science, specifically
forensic chemistry.

Motivation Question
Do you know Sherlock Holmes or watch any Sherlock Holmes movie? In the novel, Mr.
Sherlock is a great detective who used many different scientific ways to analyze evidence left
behind in the crime scene. Do you consider his approaches to solving crimes as a fiction in
the 21st century? Kindly elaborate on your answer.

Discussion
The table below shows the most notable advances in science that became part of forensic
science, specifically forensic chemistry, tabulated in chronological order.

Table 1.A brief history of some notable advances in forensic science with emphasis to
forensic chemistry and toxicology

1590's - Zacharias Janssen develops the first compound light microscope.

1752 - James Marsh develops the first analytical test for arsenic, called the Marsh test

1814 - Matthieu Orfila, the "father of toxicology," writes the first scientific paper on the
detection of poisons

1828 - William Nichol invents the polarized light microscope

1835 - Charles Wheatstone invents emission spectroscopy

1853 - Ludwig Teichmann develops the hematin test to test blood for the presence of the
characteristic rhomboid crystals

1858 - Johann Peter Griess develops a test for nitrites

1875 - Wilhelm Konrad Röentgen discovers x-rays 1973 - GC-MS application to the analysis of drugs and metabolites

1883 - K. Mandelin develops a test for strychnine later applied to alkaloids 1974 - The application of SEM-EDX to gunshot residue analysis

1885 - Alexandre Lacassagne matches bullets using lands and grooves to a gun barrel 1977 - Application of FT-IR in forensic science

1887 - Sir Arthur Conan Doyle publishes his first Sherlock Holmes novel that awakens the 1984 - Sir Alec Jeffreys develops the DNA "fingerprint" technique
public to demand the use of science in the criminal investigation
1987 - Colin Pitchfork becomes the first criminal identified by the use of DNA in England
1891 - Hans Gross describes the use of physical evidence in solving crimes in his book
Criminal Investigation and coins the term Criminalistics 1988 - Introduction of enzyme-multiplied immunoassay technique (EMIT) in forensic
toxicology
1892 - Francis Galton publishes the first book on fingerprints
1991 - Richard Ernst develops high-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
1894 - Will West prison case solved using latent fingerprints
1992 - The application of GC-IR is to forensic drug analysis
1898 - Paul Jeserich develops forensic chemistry; known to use a microscope for forensic
comparison 1996 - The introduction of Raman spectroscopy to forensic use

1901 - Karl Landsteiner discovers the ABO blood groups and, later, the Rh factor in blood 2001 - US FBI investigates Amerithrax case of deaths due to mailed letters containing anthrax
spores
1901 - Paul Uhlenhuth devises a method used to test whether blood is human or animal

1903 - M. S. Tswett separates plant pigments using paper chromatography

1910 - Albert Sherman Osborn publishes Questioned Documents

1912 - Masaeo Takayama develops a microcrystalline test for blood hemoglobin

1915 - The first use of chemical weapons

1919 - Francis Aston builds the first fully functional mass spectrometer and later uses it to
discover 212 naturally occurring isotopes

1923 - August Vollmer, LA Police Chief, establishes the first forensic laboratory

1928 - Geneva Protocol signed that prohibits the use of chemical weapons and biological
weapons in war

1930 - Edmond Locard's Principle de I'echange "Exchange Principle" coined

1930’s - Pierre Duquinois develops color test for THC (tetrahydrocannabinol)

1948 - The founding of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences

1951 - Archer John Porter Martin and Richard Laurence Millington Synge invent modern gas
chromatography
Lesson 1.5: Physical evidence Part 3: Trace evidence for windows of cars and used to protect the LCD of smartphones. It does not shatter into
pieces when broken, unlike ordinary glass, but rather fragments into cubes. Laminated glass
Lesson Summary is the type of glass used for the windshield of most cars. A plastic layer is sandwiched
This lesson deals with the classification, characteristics, and properties of trace evidence between two layers of glass.
like glass, soil, paint, hair, fiber, and tape. These trace evidence may often be left undetected
at crime scenes. Table 1. Chemical composition of common glass glass types (in %)

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
1. Discuss the physical and chemical properties of each trace evidence (glass, soil, paint,
hair, fiber, and tape);
2. Describe the phases of hair growth;
3. Describe natural and synthetic fibers, and;
4. List the parts and types of paints and tapes.

Motivation Question
Hair is one of the trace pieces of evidence.
Supply with an answer: Hair helps solve crimes by…?

Discussion
Both the physical and chemical properties of trace evidence can be used to differentiate
and identify the samples. Physical properties include density, magnetism, size and diameter,
morphology, fracture edge matching, and refractive index. Chemical properties include Soil
percent composition, pH, spectroscopic properties, and elemental composition. Edmond By definition, the soil is the upper layer composed of naturally deposited materials,
Locard was a forensic geologist interested in dust transferred from the crime scene to the including minerals and organic matter, which covers the earth's surface and supports plant
perpetrator. He is most famous for his Principe de l'echange (known widely as Locard's growth. Soil may be analyzed to determine its constituent minerals and trace pollen and
exchange principle) that states, "It is impossible for a criminal to act, especially considering biological material present. Often, using these features of soil, criminalists can determine the
the intensity of a crime, without leaving traces of this presence." The traces that Locard origin of a soil sample. As the earth's surface is vast in size, the evidential value of soil can be
wanted to speak here are of two kinds: Sometimes the perpetrator leaves traces at a scene excellent. In terms of statistical probability, the likelihood of a given sample having the same
by their actions; sometimes, alternatively, he/she picked up on their clothes or their body properties is very small. The soil varies widely in composition but consists of varying
traces of their location or presence" or is described as "whenever two objects come into proportions of sand, silt, clay, and organic matter. The probative value can be increased by
contact, a transfer of material occurs. The transfer of trace evidence can be used to associate finding rare or unusual minerals in the sample, fossils, rocks, pollen and spores, and
objects, individuals, or locations. manufactured particles.

Glass More than 2000 mineral components have been identified in soil. Of these, approximately
The first of trace evidence commonly submitted to crime labs for analysis is glass. It is twenty are common in soil, but most soils contain only three to five minerals. Minerals
usually hard, amorphous, and brittle solid. It may come in various colors and could be commonly found in soil include sodium, manganese, iron, boron, copper, zinc, molybdenum,
transparent or opaque. Glass fragments may originate from broken windows and other items. and chlorine. Minerals can be identified by their size, color, luster, density, fracture, streak,
These fragments may exhibit a conchoidal, smooth, or rounded fracture. and magnetism. Rocks can be natural (e.g., granite) or man-made (e.g., concrete). Fossils
are the remains of plants and animals. They can be used to determine the age of rocks. As
A major component of glass is sand or silicon dioxide (SiO2). Other elemental oxides impart some are scarce, they can be used to identify specific regions or locations. Pollen and spores
varying colors and properties to glass. Common glass types include soda-lime, soda-lead, can also be characteristic of certain areas.
lead glass, silica, borosilicate, aluminosilicate, tempered, and laminated glass.
The class characteristics of soil include the percentage of components, color, density, and
Soda-lime glass is used in plate and window glass and glass containers and is the most so on. Individual characteristics of soil include unusual components such as pollen, seeds,
common and least expensive. Both soda-lead and lead glass types are used in art. However, spores, vegetation, fossils, or other fragments. Sand is characterized by natural particles,
soda-lead glass is used in fine tableware while the lead glass is for thermometer tubing. including clay ranging from less than 0.002 mm to very coarse sand of up to 2.00 mm and
Aluminosilicate glass is used for resistors and silica glass is for glasswares. On the other rocks and gravel that exceed these sizes. Its color is dependent on the parent rock and
hand, borosilicate glass is for heat-resistant glass applications, including lightbulbs, Pyrex surrounding plant and animal life trace material that may be contained in the soil. Sand can
bakeware, laboratory glassware, and automobile sealed-beam headlights. Tempered glass is also be sorted by its type using microscopy.
 compared to color charts provided (annually) by automobile manufacturers or a database
Table 2. Type of soil by particle size such as the Paint Data Query (PDQ), which allows the forensic chemist to determine the
possible make and model of the vehicle.

Other coatings that may be encountered include varnish, stain, and enamel. The stain
comprises a mixture of organic dyes dissolved in a solvent used to impart a color to wood.
The varnish is a film former used to protect the wood, typically a polyurethane dissolved in an
organic solvent containing color or stain. Enamel was originally a term used to refer to a
glossy, thermosetting paint but now includes any paint that dries glossy.

Paint Hair
Paint is used for protecting and decorating surfaces and providing warnings (e.g., Hairs are commonly found at crime scenes at which there was a physical struggle, like in rape
reflective paint, fluorescent paint). One of the most common types of evidence submitted to and kidnapping cases. The hair has been forcibly shed or pulled from the scalp or areas of
the laboratory is paint originating from vehicles. In hit-and-run cases, a small chip of paint the body. Pubic hairs are short in length and exhibit a characteristic kink or twist. Although
may be all that is available for analysis. The paint "chip" is a small piece of the paint layer or hair is characteristic class evidence, this does not mean that hair has no value. Non-matching
layers detached from its surface. Typically, all layers detach together. Care must be taken not hairs can be used to exclude an individual or suspect or to rule out proposed scenarios. Hair
to damage the paint chip or smooth out any impressions in the paint. evidence can also corroborate (support) other physical evidence if consistent with the rest of
the evidence. Hair is excellent for examining forensic evidence as it resists decomposition, is
The chemistry of paint is very complex. Paint is often a homogenous mixture applied with a abundant and easily transferred, and can provide valuable information.
volatile solvent. It has three components: solvent, pigment, and binders.
Collagen and keratin are the components of hair. The two main pigments found in human
The solvent dissolves the pigment and binder into a liquid solution. The solvent evaporates hair that give hair its characteristic color is called eumelanin and pheomelanin. Eumelanin is
and leaves the binder and pigment behind when the paint is applied to a surface. responsible for the brown or black hair color while pheomelanin produces the color blond or
red.
Pigments are organic or inorganic substances added to paint to give it color. Different
manufacturers use different pigments. We can say that the chemicals used to make Ford red Various parts of the body exhibit different characteristics of hair, such as color, length, and
are quite different from the chemicals used to make Ferrari red, identified by chemical diameter. Even hair from different parts of the same area will differ slightly. Hair color may
analysis, of course. also be influenced by the optical effects of light reflecting and bouncing off the surfaces of the
different hair layers. Hair shape (round or oval cross-section) and texture (curly or straight) is
Binders are substances that hold the pigment to the surface that has been painted. They influenced heavily by genes. However, nutritional status and intentional alteration (heat
combine with smaller molecules to form a protective coating like a plastic skin over a painted curling,
object via polymerization reaction. Paints are often named after the binder is used. Binders "perms") can affect the physical appearance of hair.
include latex, acrylate, polyurethane, and oil. In spray paints, the solvent uses are usually low
molecular weight alcohols. House paint, on the other hand, typically use water.
Humans develop hair follicles – where hair grows - during fetal development, and no new
Automobile manufacturers typically apply four coatings to the exterior of new automobiles. follicles are produced after birth. The hair root (composed of melanocyte cells) may contain
The coatings include the electrocoat primer, primer surfacer, basecoat, and clearcoat. external adhering cells from the external root wreath of the follicle. The texture and diameter
of hairs may vary significantly from the root to the tip (the far end opposite the root) of the hair.
The electrocoat primer layer consists of an epoxy-based resin applied to reduce corrosion. From the hair root comes the hair shaft. The hair shaft can be dissected into three regions.
It is black to gray and uniformly applied for even thickness and appearance.

The primer surfacer layer also serves in corrosion control and smooths out seams or
imperfections. It is composed of an epoxy-modified polyester or urethane material and is
highly pigmented to minimize the contrast between the electrocoat primer and the top
clearcoat layers.

The basecoat consists of an acrylic-based polymer that contains pigments to impart the
color of the vehicle.

Finally, the clearcoat is the top layer applied to the automobile. Paint evidence is
 Figure 1. Schematic and cross-section of hair. (Source: https://tinyurl.com/yxv537l5) follicle. Hanging follicular material (the follicular tag) bound to the root of the hair will indicate
The outermost layer that covers and protects the hair shaft is the cuticle. The cuticle can that a hair was in an active growth phase and has been forcibly pulled.
appear as overlapping shingles on a roof and varies in its appearance under the microscope
from imbricate (looks like skin cells) to petals (spinous) to stacked cups (coronal). Other Hair is shed naturally over a 2- to 6-month period when it is in the telogen phase when
cuticle scale patterns include mosaic, irregular petal, pectinate, chevron, and diamond petal. growth ends. The telogen root will appear club-shaped. This phase often becomes a primary
Characteristics of the cuticle are not useful in distinguishing between different people as source of evidentiary material because hair is routinely lost. It is in this phase that the follicle
human hairs are all imbricate. If the hair is dyed with temporary hair dye or henna, the dye sits becomes dormant. The germ cells below the club-shaped root will give rise to the next
on the cuticle. generation of anagen hair.

The cortex is the second layer from the surface. This protein-rich cellular region contains Hair could shed off naturally by combing, and hair transfer to another individual or place
the hair pigment. The cortex varies in thickness, texture, and color, and distribution of is not uncommon. It could also become dislodged from the scalp even while in an actively
pigments. Permanent hair dye opens the cortex via hydrogen peroxide. Bleach reacts with the growing state by pulling or striking with an object. Naturally shed hairs display undamaged,
melanin in the cortex to remove the color by oxidation. The yellow color that remains is that of club shaped roots while forcibly-removed hairs exhibit stretching and damage to the root area.
the keratin protein of the cortex.

The innermost portion of the hair shaft is the medulla. It may or may not be present in the
hair, but, if present, it runs down the center of the hair shaft. The medulla may vary in
thickness, continuity (one continuous structure or broken into pieces), and opacity (how much
light can pass through it). The medulla may be continuous, segmented, interrupted (regular
interruption) or fragmented (irregular interruption) and amorphous, fine or wide lattice,
globular, aeriform lattice, or multi-serial ladder. Like the cuticle, the medulla does not lend
much important information to the differentiation between hairs from different people.

The three phases of hair growth are as follows: anagen, catagen, and telogen. The anagen
is the longest-lasting phase. It is the growth phase and may last up to 6 years. The root is
attached to the follicle for continued growth, and hair pulled at this stage will have a flame-
shaped root bulb. In this phase, actively dividing cells above and around the dermal papilla of
the follicle grow upward, forming the major components of hair, namely: cuticle, cortex, and
medulla.

The percentage of hair follicles in the human head in the anagen, catagen, and telogen
phase is 80 to 90%, 2%, and 10 to 18%. The average period of growth for scalp hair is
approximately 1,000 days; the resting phase lasts about 100 days.

Cellular material on the hair root can be used in autosomal DNA typing analysis. Cellular
material of the hair shaft can be used in mitochondrial DNA typing, and adhering material and
material within the hair shaft can be used in drug and poison analysis.

Fibers
Fiber trace evidence is often carried or transferred in criminal cases. Fibers recovered as
forensic evidence may be naturally occurring, man-made, or mineral. There are over 1000
different types of fibers. A list of fiber types and examples for each category is given in
Table7.

Fibers can be vital evidence in forensic investigation, especially that it is transferred rare.
However, common fibers have little to no forensic value. Cotton, for instance, is commonly
The catagen phase is like a transition phase between the anagen and telogen phases. This used in clothing. It could be found in samples of household dust. Its use has decreased
phase lasts 2 to 3 weeks. Hair continues to grow in this phase but at a decreasing rate. The significantly since the development of synthetic fibers. Even less common than wool is silk.
root appears elongated, and the root bulb shrinks in size as the hair is pushed out of the
Silk does not shed easily. Hence, its recovery is rare. Recovery of are fiber types, like
cashmere or camel hair, can be quite valuable as forensic evidence.
Like human hairs, animal hairs will exhibit a cuticle, cortex, and medulla and damage and Tapes
forceful removal features. These features are discussed in Module 3 Forensic Examination of Other trace evidence may be found in the crime scene, like duct tapes or other tapes torn,
Physical Evidence. matches and matchbooks, fragments from explosions like tearing components. Duct tape is
composed of three layers: the backing, the scrim, and the adhesive.
Asbestos mineral fibers are used in siding and fireproof materials, common in old buildings,
and can be valuable forensic evidence when collected. Its use, however, has been The scrim is the cotton or polyester-blend fabric or yarn used to reinforce the tape
condemned because it is hazardous to humans. These fibers are not commonly seen in structure. The backing is most often polyethylene and comes in various colors and
forensic evidence. Asbestos minerals break into microscopic particles that are easily airborne thicknesses. Yarn may span across the tape, called fill, or runs along its length, called a warp.
and transferred from one place to another and may be drawn into the lungs on breathing. The number of fibers, diameter, and type of yarn varies between brands and grades of tape.
For example, industrial-grade tapes have a higher yarn count and thicker yarn than general
retail tape. The adhesive components vary by manufacturer, but duct tape is composed of
elastomers, resins, and fillers. Duct tape fractures are due to faults in the backing and scrim
materials, often due to an outside force.
Lesson 1.6: Physical evidence Part 4: Fire and arson The fire triangle shows the interdependence of the elements in creating and sustaining fire
chemicals and teaches us that removing any of these elements would prevent or extinguish the fire.
There must be a material to be burned - referred to as fuel- for a fire to start. Fuel is a
Lesson Summary combustible substance or material like plastics, wood, paper, fabrics, gases, and rubber. In
For a fire to occur or sustain, all three elements must be present: fuel, oxygen, and heat. addition to the fuel source, heat must be present for ignition to take place. All flammable
Important terms related to fire are defined in this lesson, i.e., ignition temperature, flame point, materials give off flammable vapors when the heat is present, combust or burn. Heat spreads
pyrolysis. The three stages, namely: incipient, free burning, and smoldering, are also and maintains fire as it removes the moisture from nearby fuel, thereby warming the
discussed. surrounding area and pre-heating fuel in its path, enabling it to travel and develop with greater
ease. The fire also needs oxygen, acting as an oxidizing agent. Ambient air or atmospheric air
Learning Outcomes is made up of approximately 21% oxygen, and most fires only require at least 16% oxygen to
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to: burn.
1. List the requirements to initiate and sustain fire;
2. Classify fire; As mentioned, fire is a decomposition reaction where fuel is burned and oxygen serving
3. Understand the stages of a fire, and; as an oxidizing agent. For a complete combustion reaction, oxygen is sufficiently present, and
4. List some potential evidence in arson crime scene. the color of the flame appears bluish. The chemical reaction for the combustion of the fuel
methane is given below.
Motivation Question CH4 + O2 ---> CO2 + H2O + heat + light
Wildfires are the type that burns out of control, unplanned in a rural area or natural area, Otherwise, if it is incomplete combustion where oxygen is insufficient, the color of the flame is
like grassland or forest. Can you explain the science behind wildfire? yellowish. This type of fire also leaves unreacted fragments, including soot, carbon black, and
particulate matter.
Discussion
Fire The heat generated when the fuel burns are called the heat of combustion. Heat is defined
Fire is the rapid oxidation of matter in an exothermic decomposition reaction resulting in as the energy needed to maintain or change the temperature of the fuel. When heat is
gases, heat, light (flame), and other reaction products. Fire is also an example of an transferred to solid, liquid, or gas, its temperature may increase or be maintained. The
oxidationreduction (redox) reaction or combustion. In a redox reaction, there is a transfer of chemical reaction is sustained by heating more material to the gas phase to burn.
electrons from one chemical, called reducing agents, to another chemical, called an oxidizing
agent. The reducing agent in a combustion reaction of fire is often called fuel. The oxidizing Heat can be transferred by direct flame contact, convection, radiation, or conduction.
agent, mostly, is oxygen from the air and is often called the oxidant. Conduction is the transfer of heat by direct contact with the material, such as a metal fire poke
in the heat from a fire. Heat is transferred to the fuel by conduction. Convection occurs when
For a fire to occur, there must be an ignition source or sufficient heat, fuel, and oxygen. A the density of liquids and gases is reduced, causing them to expand and rise. Infrared
simple model for understanding the chemical reaction which must occur to create a fire is radiation causes the radiative transfer of heat until the flames ignite the vaporized (pyrolyzed)
given below. fuel. Finally, with direct flame contact, the hot gases and flames from the reaction come into
contact with the fuel.

Fires are grouped into classes by fuel types. Class A fires are fueled by wood, paper, cloth,
plastics, and rubber. Flammable and combustible liquids, greases, and gases are fueled by
class B fires, while energized electrical equipment fuels Class C fires. Combustible metals
such as magnesium, sodium, potassium, titanium, and zirconium fuel Class D fires.

For a liquid, the temperature needed for vaporization is the flashpoint, while for a solid, the
phase change from a solid to gas by heat alone is pyrolysis. For pyrolysis, as little as 8%
oxygen is needed, and smoldering and charring are observed. In contrast, forced pyrolysis
results when solid fuel comes in contact with an external heat source; no smoldering or
flames are produced. In forced pyrolysis, wood or other solid material degrades, gasifies, and
releases vapors in a non-oxidative, endothermic process. In an endothermic process, heat is
transferred from the environment to an object. Table 8 shows some common ignitable liquids
and their flashpoint and auto-ignition temperature.
Based on their flash points, ignitable liquids can either be flammable or combustible. charring. More toxic compounds are released in this stage than in the previous stages with
Generally speaking, flammable liquids will ignite or catch fire) or burn easily at ambient flaming combustion. New hazards can present themselves if a new source of oxygen is
temperature. They have flashpoints of less than 37.8˚C. On the other hand, combustible introduced or enters the area. The oxygen can cause the accumulated soot, particulate
liquids can burn at temperatures that are usually higher than room temperature. They have matter,
flashpoints above 37.8 ˚C. Spontaneous combustion may occur when there is an appropriate and gases to ignite and cause an explosion in a backdraft. A backdraft can lead to significant
proportion of fuel and oxygen are present in poorly ventilated containers or close areas where structural damage.
the natural heatproducing process occurs. When there is not enough heat to pyrolyze, the
fuel, glowing combustion or smoldering happen. This type of burning happens at the fuel-air Arson and Accelerants
interface or surface (e.g., charcoal) without producing a flame. For a fire or burn act to be considered arson, there must be criminal intent and burning
with damage to property. Law enforcement must prove that the fire occurred as a result of
arson and not by accident. Some indications of arson include an isolated fire or smoke in one
part of a structure, “streamers” such as gasoline or paper to spread the fire from one room or
area to another and connect fires, an abnormally bright fire, a colored fire, white smoke, and
the presence of out-of-place ignitable liquids such as accelerants and/or their containers
and/or severe burning on the floor where such a liquid was poured.

Accelerants include inexpensive and easily obtained ignitable liquids, including hydrocarbon
fuels, oils, and cleaning agents. Some examples of accelerants are gasoline, kerosene, diesel
fuel, motor oil, mineral spirits, turpentine, and butane. Other indicators of arson include the
A few degrees above the flashpoint is the flame point, pertaining to the temperature use of a timer or sensor time delay device and evidence of breaking and entering or theft.
necessary to produce sufficient vapors to sustain the flame. The fire triangle becomes a These indicators of arson should be documented and collected as evidence for processing
tetrahedron with the addition of the fourth variable—an uninhibited chain reaction. Fire a potential arson case.
suppression measures will be based on the control or removal of one of these components.

Stages of Fire
The fire also has three stages, namely: incipient, free burning, and smoldering. Incipient
or growth is the first stage, beginning from ignition in which the fuel reaches the flashpoint.
Upon ignition, hot gases, including carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide, rise and fill the room,
convection draws the oxygen to the bottom of the flames. If there is solid fuel above the
flame,
both convection and direct contact methods will transfer heat.

Free-burning or development is the second stage. In this stage, more fuel and oxygen are
consumed, spreading the flame from the ignition source outward. The oxygen concentration
in
the air is reduced to approximately 16%. The hot gases, including carbon monoxide,
hydrochloric acid, and hydrogen cyanide and smoke that collect at the ceiling or high points of
the room or structure begin to radiate downward and spread throughout the room and
beyond, unless the room is tightly sealed. The high area at the ceiling will be hot, and the floor
or low area will be cool. Secondary fires may break out.Rollover occurs when particulate
matter and fuel at the upper layer or level of the room ignite into flames and spread the fire
across the ceiling level. When the temperature of the upper level reaches 1100°F, sufficient
heat is generated to simultaneously ignite all of the remaining fuels in the room in an event
called a flashover, leading to temperatures of 2000°F at the ceiling level and over 1000°F at
the floor. Such a rapid temperature rise and increase in pressure results in the breaking of
window glass, if present, the intense burning of all remaining fuel, and even the burning of the
undersides of objects if oxygen is not limited.

Smoldering or decay is the third and final stage. In this stage, the final oxygen concentration
is approximately 13%, a bit low to sustain the fire and results in significant smoldering and
 1. Explosive bases. They could be solid or liquid, which, upon applying heat or shock, breaks
down very rapidly into gases, with an accompanying release of heat energy. Nitroglycerine
is an example.
2. Combustibles. A combustible combines with excess oxygen in an explosive to achieve
oxygen balance, to prevent the formation of nitrous oxides (toxic fumes), and to lower the
Lesson 1.7: Physical evidence Part 5: Explosive heat of the explosion.
substances 3. Oxygen carriers. Oxygen carriers assure complete oxidation of the carbon in the explosive
mixture, which inhibits the formation of carbon monoxide. The oxygen carriers assist in
Lesson Summary preventing a lowering of the exploding temperature.
Explosives are substances that undergo rapid decomposition that produce heat. Explosive 4. Antacids. Antacids are added to an explosive compound to increase its long term storage
can be classified based on the speed at which it decomposes as either high or low explosive. life and to reduce the acidic value of the explosive base.
Examples of low explosives include black and smokeless powders, chlorates, and air-gas 5. Absorbents. Absorbents are used in dynamite to hold the explosive base from exudation,
mixtures. High explosives can be further classified based on their sensitivity to heat as seepage, and settlement to the bottom of the cartridge or container. Sawdust, wood
primary or secondary. Primary explosives are used as detonating charges. Examples are meals, rice hulls, and nutshells are often used as absorbents.
mercury fulminate, silver fulminate, lead azide, lead styphnate, diazonitrophenol, and silver 6. Antifreeze. Antifreeze is used to lower the freezing point of the explosive.
azide. Secondary high explosives include nitroglycerin, ammonium ANFO, ethylene glycol
dinitrate, trinitrotoluene, among others. A closer look at low and high explosives
The low explosive has a burn rate of less than 3000 ft/sec. Its crucial element is the physical
Learning Outcomes mixture of oxygen and fuel. Examples of this type include black powder, smokeless
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to: powder, chlorates, and gas-air mixtures.
1. Understand the characteristics and properties of explosives and explosive
substances; Black powder is a mixture of potassium or sodium nitrate, charcoal, and sulfur. The
2. Classify explosives; smokeless powder consists of nitrated cotton (nitrocellulose) or nitroglycerin and
3. List some examples of commercial, military, and homemade explosives, and; nitrocellulose.
4. List the evidence to collect at bomb scenes. Chlorate mixtures are composed of potassium chlorate and sugar or carbon, sulfur, starch,
phosphorus, magnesium filings, and sulfuric acid. The gas-air mixtures use natural gas, such
Motivation Question as 5.3% to 13.9% methane. In the low explosive group, black powder and smokeless powder
Do you think all explosions resulted from the chemical reaction of explosive chemical are most widely used.
substances?
The percentage of each component in low explosives vary per manufacturer. Typically,
Discussion black powder contains 75% KNO3, 15% charcoal, and 10% sulfur. Gunpowder contains 15
Explosives parts KNO3, three parts of charcoal, and two parts sulfur. The chemical reaction on its
A chemical explosive is a substance or a mixture of compounds that, when subjected to detonation is given below:
heat, impact, friction, or shock, undergoes very rapid, self-propagating, heat-producing
decomposition. 3C + 2 KNO3 + S ----> 3 CO2 + N2 + K2S + energy

Explosives contain oxygen atoms in their structures, especially reactive nitrates, chlorates, Approximately 50% of the black powder burns, producing residue traces of K + , NO3 - , SO4
perchlorates, and peroxides. The speed at which explosives decompose permits their 2- , SCN- , HS- , and OCN- .
classification as high or low explosives.
The high explosive has burn rates ranging from 3000 to 9000 ft/sec. Its oxygen is usually
The typical explosive has four basic characteristics, as follows: contained in fuel molecules. High explosives can be initiating or non-initiating.
1. It is a substance or mixture ignited by heat, shock, impact, or friction, or a combination of
these conditions; Initiating explosives is sensitive and will readily detonate when subjected to heat or shock.
2. It decomposes rapidly or detonates upon ignition; It is used to detonate other explosives in the explosive train. On the other hand, the non-
3. There is a quick release of heat and high-pressure gases that expand rapidly with sufficient initiating explosive is relatively insensitive and will require heat or shock. The majority of
force to overcome confining forces, and; commercial and military explosives are high explosives.
4. The energy that is rapidly released by the detonation of explosives produces four basic
effects; (a) rock fragmentation, (b) rock displacement, (c) ground vibration, and (d) air blast. Commercial explosives are manufactured products used for blasting rock for construction
applications, including preparations for roads, basements, and parking garages. High
Components of explosives explosives can be categorized as primary and secondary types, based on brisance. Brisance
is the shattering potential of the explosion and could be described by how rapid or violent a
reaction is. The speed of the reaction is key to building up a large amount of energy in a small
volume. Slow reaction rates allow the energy that is released to be dissipated. An explosion
resulting from this reaction could create either throw fragments outward, a shock wave, or
both.
If there is slow energy release, the shock wave will be gradual and extended, and the A closer look at improvised explosive devices (IEDs)
fragment velocity low. On the other hand, a violent reaction is characterized by a very sharp
(short duration, high pressure) shock wave and large fragment velocities. Incendiary weapons are IEDs made using flammable material, a container, and an ignition
source. Flammable materials include common household chemicals and those discussed
Examples of primary explosives are mercury fulminate (Hg(CNO)2), silver fulminate previously, including gasoline, kerosene, and diesel fuel, among others. They are produced
(AgCNO), lead azide (Pb(N3)2), lead styphnate (PbC6HN3O8), diazonitrophenol using instructions from the internet or “underground publications,” typically with inaccurate
(C6H2N4O5), and silver azide (AgN3). Primary high explosives are ultrasensitive to shock, instructions and incomplete or missing safety information.
friction, and heat. These are used as a detonating charge.
A pipe bomb is a type of illegal improvised explosive device. Usually, when a pipe bomb
Examples of secondary high explosives are nitroglycerin, ammonium nitrate/fuel oil consists of black powder, the pipe’s seam will split, and its faceplates on the capped ends will
(ANFO), ethylene glycol dinitrate (EGDN), trinitrotoluene (TNT), tetraethyl pyrophosphate be pushed out. Another IED is a Molotov cocktail consisting of a glass bottle containing a
(TEPP), trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (Tetryl), cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX), high flammable liquid and a rag as a wick.
melting-point explosive (HMX), and triacetone triperoxide (TATP). They are more stable to
shock, heat, and friction than primary explosives. Another type of simple IED is black powder rolled in paper with a lead string. Containers
may include light bulbs, propane and butane cylinders, plastic pipes, bottles, and cans.
Ignition sources can consist of matches, gas lighters, fireworks, roadway flares, and electrical
components and devices. Ignition sources may be paired with timing devices, sensors, a
radio-operated remote control, or a cell phone.

The most famous commercial high explosive is dynamite, created by Alfred Nobel
(namesake of the Nobel Prizes) in 1867 when he adsorbed nitroglycerin onto diatomaceous
earth to desensitize it. The resulting material, “pulp dynamite,” was easier and less dangerous
to handle and ship.