Bio Ncert Gist

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52 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books
GIST OF BIOLOGY FROM NCERT BOOKS
CELL functions. To keep their function different from

each other these organelles use membranes bound
Components of Cell? little structure with in them selves. Some of the
In the living organisms there are two types important organells are :
of cellular organizations. If we look at very simple (a) Endoplasmic reticulum : It is a network
organisms like bacteria and blue-green algae, We of tulsular membranes connected at
will discover cells that have no defined nucleus, one end to the nucleus and on the other
these are prokaryotes cells. The cells which have
to the plasma membranes. Endoplasmic
definite nucleus are known as eukaryote. But the
reticular (ER) are two types:-rough
things which both have in common is that there
are compartments surrounded by some type of endoplasmic reticular (RER) and
membranes. These are called cell membranes. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
Cell membranes : It is like a plastic bag with Functions of ER:
some tiny holes that bag holds all of the cell pieces 8 It forms the supporting skeleton
and fluids inside the cell and keeps foreign frame work of the cell.
particles outside the cell. The holes are there to let 8 It provides a pathway for
some things move in and out of the cell. distribution of nuclear material.
Compounds called proteins and phospholipids 8 It provides surface for various
make up most of the cell membrance.the
enzymatic reactions.
phospholipids make the basic bag. The proteins
are found around the holes and help move (b) Ribosomes : it synthesis protein, and
molecules in and out of the cell. Substances like ER sent these protein in various part
Co2 and O2 can move across the cell membranes of the cell. Where as SER helps in the
by a process called diffusion. Diffusion is a manufacture of fats.
process of movements of substance from a region Functions of these proteins and fats:
of high concentration to a region where its 8 Protein and fat (lipid) help in
concentration is low. Water also obeys the law of building the cell membranes. This
diffusion. The movement of water molecules is
process is known as membranes
called osmosis.
Cytoplasm : It is the fluid that fills a cell.
biogenesis.
Scientists used to call the fluid proto 8 Some other protein and fat functions
plasm.cytoplasm contain many specialized cell as enzymes and hormones.
called organ cells. Each of these organ cells 8 SER plays a crucial role in
performs a specific function for the cell. detoxifying many poisons and
Cell organells : Organells are living part of drugs.
the cell have definite shape, structure and (c) Golgi apparatus : it is found in most
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cell. It is another packaging organelle own protein.

like the endoplasmic reticulum. It 8 Mitochondria is absent in bacteria
gathers simple molecules and combines and the red blood cells of mammals
them to make molecules that are more and higher animals.
complex. It then takes those big (f) Centrioles: It is a micro-tubular
molecules, packages them in vesicles structure; centrioles are concerned with
and either stores them for faster use cell division. It initiates cell division.
or sends them out of the cell. (g) Plastids: These are present only in
Other functions: plant cells. There are two types of
8 Its functions include the storage plastids:-chromoplastes (colour
modifications and packaging of plastides) and leucoplast (white or
products in vesicles. colourless plastids).
8 It is also the organ Elle that builds 8 Chromoplast impart colour to
lysosomes (cells digestion flowers and fruits.
machines). 8 Leucoplasts are in which starch, oils
(d) Lysosomes: It is a kind of waste and protein are stored.
disposal system of the cell. 8 Plastids are self replicating. i.e. they
have the power to divide, as they
It helps to keep the cell clean by
contain DNA, RNA and ribosomes.
digesting any foreign material.
8 Plastides contains the pigment
Old organs cell end up in the chlorophyll that is known as
lysosomes. chloroplast. It is the site for photo
When the cell gets damaged, lysosomes synthesis.
may burst and the enzymes digest their The above mentioned cell organalls are the
own cell. Therefore lysosomes are also living part of the cell but there are some non –
known as the “suicide ways” of the living parts with in the cell like vacuoles and
cell. granules.
(e) Mitochondria: It is known as the Vacuoles: it is a fluid filled spaces enclosed
by membranes. It is a storage sacs for solid or
power house of the cell. The energy
liquid contents. It stores excess water, minerals,
required for various chemical activities
food substance, pigments and waste products. Its
headed for life is released by size in animal is small and in plant it is big. Many
mitochondria in the form of ATP substances of importance in the life of the plant
(adenosine-tri-phosphate) molecules. cell are stored in vacuoles. These are amino acids
8 ATP is known as the energy sugars. It also Contain Various organic acid and
currency of the cell. The body uses some proteins.
energy are stored in ATP for making Granules: It is not bounded by any mem-
new chemical compounds and for branes. It store fats, proteins and carbohydrates.
mechanical work. Cell nucleus: The cell nucleus acts like the
8 Mitochondria are strange organells brain of the cell. It helps control eating, movement
and reproduction. Not all cells have a nucleus.
in the sense that they have their
The nucleus contain, the following components :
own DNA and ribosomes, there fore
(a) Nuclear envelope: It surrounds the
mitochondria are able to make their
nucleus and all of its contents nuclear
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envelope is a membrane similar to the activity of the cell. Neurons cell have a
cell membranes around the whole cell. comparatively larger nucleate than
(b) Chromatin : When the cell is in resting those cell have no synthetic activity. The
state there is something called nucleolus stores proteins.
chromatin in the nucleus. Chromatin Cell Division
is made up of DNA, RNA and nucleus Organisms grow and reduce through cell
protein. DNA and RNA are the nucleus division. Plants continue to grow by cell division
acids inside the cell. When the cell is all their lives. But in most animals cells divide
going to divide, the chromatin become more slowly once the body taken shape. There are
very compact. It condenses when the two methods of replication mitosis and meiosis.
chromatin comes together we can see (a) Mitosis: The main theme of this
the chromosomes. replication is that mitosis is the simple
(c) Chromosomes: Chromosomes make duplication of a cell and all of its parts.
organisms what they are. They carry It duplicates its DNA and the two new
all the information used to help a cell cells (daughter cells) have the same
grow, thrive and reproduce. pieces and generic code. Beyond the
8 Chromosomes are made up of DNA. idea that two identical cells are created,
8 Segments of DNA in specific patterns there are five steps in this process. You
are called genes. should remember the term PMATI. It
8 In prolaryotes, DNA floats in the breaks down to :
cytoplasm in an area called the 1. Prophase
nucleoid. 2. Metaphase
8 Chromosomes are not always 3. Anaphase
visible. They usually sit around 4. Telophase
uncoiled and as loose shards called 5. Interphase.
The phases:
chromation.
(i) Prophase: a cell gets the idea that it
8 When it is time for all cells to
is time to divide. First it has to get
reproduce, they condense and wrap
everything ready. Cell need -to
up very tightly. The tightly round
duplicate DNA, get certain pieces in
DNA in the chromosome.
the right position (centrioles) and
8 Chromosomes are usually found in
generally prepare the cell for the
pairs.
process of mitotic division.
8 Human Beings probably have 46
(ii) Metaphase: The DNA lines up along
chromosomes (23 pairs).
a central axis and then DNA
8 Peas only have 12, a dog has 78
condensed into chromosomes.
chromosomes.
(iii) Anaphase: Here the separation
8 The number of chromosomes is not
begins. Half of the chromosomes are
related to the intelligence or
pulled to one side of the cell half to
complexity of the creature.
go the other way.
(d) Nucleolus: It is a dense spherical
(iv) Telophase: Now the division is
granule contained within the nucleus,
finishing up. We have now two
its size is related to the synthetic
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separate cells each with half of the of the cell and then pulled to each side.
original DNA. Meiosis is a bit different because there
(v) Interphase: This is the normal state are some thing called crossing-over
of the cell. happens with the DNA. This crossing
(b) Meiosis: It’s for sexual reproduction. over is an exchange of genes. The genes
The main theme of meiosis is that there are mixed up not resulting in a perfect
are two cell division. Mitosis has one duplicate like mitosis. The cell divides,
division and meiosis has two divisions having two new cells with a pair of
in this process four cells are created chromosomes each. Since this is
where there was originally one. meiosis. There is a very short
Meiosis happens when its time to reproduce interphase and division begins again.
an organisms. The steps of meiosis are very 8 Meiosis II : In this division the DNA
simple. When we break it down its just two that remains in the cell begins to
PMATI’s in a row. The interphase that happens condense and form short chromosomes
between the two proce-sses is very short and the and the centre of the cell and the
DNA is not duplicated. Meiosis is the great process centrioles are in position for the
that shuffles the cell’s gene-sis around. Instead of
duplication. Each one splits into two
creating two new cells with equal number of
chromosomes (like mitosis). pieces. They don’t divide up the DNA
between the cells. They split the DNA
that exits. Each daughter cell will get
Parent cell
one half of the DNA needed to make a
functioning cell. When it’s all over we
left with four haploid cells (means half
the regular number) that are called
DNA replicates gametes. The eventual purpose of the
gametes will be to find other gametes
with which they can combine.
Some important facts regarding cells :
8 Nerve cells in animals are the longest
2 daughter cells
cells.
8 Smallest human cell is red blood cell.
8 Largest human cell is female ovum.
4 daughter cells 8 The single largest cell in the world is
of an ostrich.
8 The smallest cells are those of the
The cell does a second divi-sion soon after mycoplasma.
the first. This second divi-sion divides the number 8 Every minute about 3 millions cells in
of chromo-somes in half. Scien-tists call, this our body die.
process as meiosis I and II, but its just two 8 Sieve tube in plants and the mature
PMATI’s. mammalian red blood cells do not have
8 Meiosis I: This is basically live PMATI a nucleus.
of a regular mitosis. Pairs of 8 The red blood cell carries respiratory
chromosomes are lined up at the centre gases.
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8 Sieve cells in plants transport nutrients Comparisons between

in plants. Plant Cell and Animal Cell
8 The lysosomal enzymes of the sperm
cells digest the limiting membranes of
the ovum (egg). Thus the sperm is able Cell wall of
adjoining cell
to enter the ovum. Vacuole Middle lamella
8 During the transformation of tadpole Primary pit

Cell wall
Rough endoplasmic
into frog. The embryonic tissues like Tonoplast
reticulum
gills and tail are digested by the Cytosol

Nucleolus
lysosome. Nucleus
8 Mitochondria contain DNA, hence Chloroplasts

Nuclear envelope
Smooth
capable of replication. endoplasmic reticulum
Goign apparatus
8 Matrix is a transparent, homogenous
semi-fluid substance. In its active state. Mitochondrion
It remains saturated with water.

Fig. Plant cell structure
Similarities :
Part of cell Plant Animal
Cell membranes present present
Endoplasmic reticulum present Present but absent in RBC and embryonic cell.
Ribosome present Present
Mitochondria present Present but absent in RBC and bacteria
Golgi complex present Present but absent in mature RBC
Nucleus present present
Granules. present present
8 Nucleus is absent in mature mammalian red blood cells and sieve tubes in the phloem
tissue of vascular tube.
Plant Cell Animal Cell
1. Nucleus elliptical in shape. 1. Nucleus rounded in shape
2. Mitochondria fewer. 2. Mitochondria numereous.
3. Plant cells do not burst if placed in 3. Animal cells usually burst if placed in
hypotonic solution. hopotonic solution.
4. Centrioles absent except in lower plants. 4. Centrioles present.
5. Spindle formed during cell division is 5. Spindle formed during cell division is of
anastral type. amphiastral type.
6. Golgi body has distyosomes. 6. Golgi apparatus consists of a single
complex.
7. Lysosomes rare. 7. Lysosomes present in animal cells.
8. Glyoxysomes present. 8. Glyxosomes absent.
9. Crystals of inorganic substances occur 9. Crystals do not occur.
inside.
10. Adjacent cells connected through 10. Adjacent cells connected by a number of
plasmodemata by middle lamella. junctions.
11. Cytokinesis by cell plate. 11. Cytokinesis by cleavage.
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Dissimilarities :
Cell part Plant Animals
Cell wall present absent
Lysosomes absent present
Centrioles absent present
Plastids present absent
vacuoles present absent
TISSUE
Epithetical Tissue
It is a tissue that is made up of tightly packed cells. Without much materials with in these cells.
The reasons for the tightly packed cells are to act as a barrier against mechanical injury, invading micro-
organisms and fluid loss. We can define epithetical tissue by considering two points in mind one is the
number of cells layers and two the shape of the cells.
(i) On the basis of cell layers
(a) When an epithelium has a single layer of cells it is called a simple epithelium.
(b) Where as a multiple tier of cells are known as stratified epithelium.
(ii) On the basis of simple shape of cells:
8 Cuboidal : its occurrence is in kidney tubules, salivery glands, inner lining of the
cheek. Its main function is to give mechanical strength.
8 Columnar : its occurrence is in sweat gland, tear gland, salivary gland its main
function is to gives mechanical strength concerned with secretions.
Epithellal tissue Muscle tissue is

lines surfaces made up the fibres
in the body that contract
Nervous tissue
consists of cells
with projections
that transmit
singals
Protein fibers
Soft
extracellular
matrix
Cells
Connective Losses connective Bone Cartilage Blood is a connective
tissues acts as Bone and cartilage are connective tissues made up tissue made up of
tissues: padding under cells in a hard of stiff extracellular matrix. cells in a liquid matrix.
skin and elsewhere.
8 Squamous : when it forms a living as that of blood vessels, it is called endothelium.

Its main function is to protect the underlying parts from injury, entry of germs, etc.
8 Connective tissue : its main function is to bind and support other tissues. They
have sparse populations of cells scattered through an extra cellular matrix. This
extra cellular matrix is a web of fibers that is woven in a homogeneous ground
substance they can be liquid, solid, or jelly like. There are a few types of connective
tissue.
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Connective Tissue
Arelor Adipose Skeletal Fluidl

(i) Tendon (i) Bone (i) Blood
(ii) Ligament (ii) Cartilage (ii) Lymph
A. Areolar tissue : It fills spaces inside one end of a muscle cell, a wave of excitation is
organs found around muscles, blood conducted through the entire cell so that all parts
vessels and nerves. Its main function is contract in harmony. There were three types of
to joins skin to muscles, support muscle cells: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
internal organs, help in the repair of muscles.
tissues. Where as tendon’s main Muscular tissue:
function is to connect muscles to bones 8 skeletal
and ligament is connects bones to each 8 cardiac
other. 8 Smooth muscle tissue.
A. Skeletal muscle : It attached primarily
B. Adipose tissue : its occurrence is below to bones. Its main function is to provide
skin, between internal organs and in the force for locomotion and all other
the yellow bone Marrow. Its main voluntary movements of the body.
function is to storage of fat and to B. Cardiac muscle : It occurs only in the
conserve heat. heart. The contraction and relaxation
C. Skeletal tissue : Bone & Courtilage of the heart muscles help to pump the
cartilage occurrences is in nose pic, blood and distribute it to the various
epigotis and in intervertebral disc of parts of the body.
mammals. Its main function is to C. Smooth muscles : It can be found in
provide support and flexibility to body stomach, intestines, and blood vessels
part. Where as bone protects internal these muscles cause slow and
delicate organs provides attachments prolonged contractions which are
for muscles, bone marrow makes blood involuntary.
cells. D. Nervous tissue : This tissue is
D. Fluid tissue : Blood & Lymph blood specialized with a capability to
transport O2 nutrients, hormones to conduct electrical impulses and convey
tissues and organs. Where as leucocytes information from one area of the body
fight diseases and platelets help in to another. Most of the nervous tissue
cloting of blood. (98%) is located in the central nervous
Lymph transport nutrients into the heart and system. The brain and spinal cord.
it also forms the defense system of the body. There are two types of nervous tissue
Muscular Tissue neurons and neuroglia.
It is specialized for an ability to contract Nervous Tissue
muscle cells. These are elongated and referred to 8 neurons
as muscle fibers. When a stimulates is received at 8 neuroglia
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Neurons: it actually transmit the impulses, contraction of muscles. The skeleton

receptor nerve ending of neurons react to various helps transmit that movement.
kind of stimuli and can transmit waves of Skeletons are either a fluid-filled body
excitation from the farthest point in the body to cavity, exoskeletons, or internal
the central nervous system. You will read all the skeletons.
details in Chapter Four.
(ii) Hydrostatic skeletons consist of fluid-
Important facts regarding animal tissue:-
filled closed chambers. Internal
8 Muscles contain special protein called pressures generated by muscle
contractile protein. Which contract and contractions cause movement as well
relax to cause movement. as maintain the shape of the animals,
such as the sea anemone and worms.
Structure of a Typical Neuron
Dendrites Axon terminals
The sea anemone has one set of
longitudinal muscles in the outer layer
of the body, and a layer of circular
Cell body
Node of ranvier muscles in the inner layer of the body.
The anemone can elongate or contract
its body by contracting one or the other
set of muscles.
Schwann’s cells
(iii) Exoskeletons are characteristic of the
Axon Myelin sheath
Nucleus Phylum Arthropoda. Exoskeletons are
hard segments that cover the muscles
8 Fat storing adipose tissue is found and visceral organs. Muscles for
below the skin and between internal movement attach to the inner surface of
organs. the exoskeleton
8 Two bones are connected to each other Exoskeletons restrict the growth of the
by a tissue called ligament. This tissue animal, thus it must shed its
is very elastic. exoskeleton (or molt) to form a new one
8 The skin, the living of the mouth, the that has room for growth. The bulk and
living blood vessels, kidney tubules are weight of the exoskeleton and
all made up of epithelial tissue. associated mechanical problems limits
8 Voluntary muscles and cardiac muscles the size a animals can attain.
are richly supplied with water where Note : Spiders use a combination of an
as involuntary muscles are poorly exoskeleton for protection and fluid
supplied with blood. pressure for movement.
8 Muscles tissue is composed of Vertebrates have developed an internal
differtiated cells containing contractile mineralized (in most cases)
protein. endoskeleton composed of bone and/
or cartilage. Muscles are on the outside
MUSCULAR AND of the endoskeleton.
SKELETAL SYSTEM Cartilage and bone are types of
Skeletal Systems of Various Animals connective tissue.
(i) Movement is a major characteristic of 8 Sharks, and rays have skeletons
animals. This movement is a result of composed entirely of cartilage; other
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vertebrates have an embryonic a cartilage disk. These disks allow a

cartilage skeleton progressively certain flexibility to the spinal column,
replaced by bone as they mature and although the disks deteriorate with age,
develop. producing back pain. The sternum is
8 Some areas of the human body, connected to all the ribs except the
however, retain cartilage in the lower pair. Cartilage allows for the
adult: in joints and flexible structures flexibility of the rib cage during
breathing.
such as the ribs, trachea, nose and
ears. 8 The arms and legs are part of the
appendicular skeleton.
The Skeleton and Muscles
8 The upper bones of the limbs are single:
8 The skeleton and muscles function
humerus (arm) and femur (leg).
together as the musculoskeletal
system. This system (often treated as 8 Below a joint (elbow or knee), both limbs
have a pair of bones (radius and ulna
two separate systems, the muscular,
in the arms; tibia and fibula in legs) that
and skeletal) plays an important
connect to another joint (wrist or ankle).
homeostatic role: allowing the animal
to move to more favorable external 8 The carpals makeup the wrist joint; the
conditions. tarsals are in the ankle joint.
8 Certain cells in the bones produce
immune cells as well as important Skull
cellular components of the blood. Mandible
8 Bone also helps regulate blood calcium Cervical vertebrae Clavicle
levels, serving as a calcium sink. Rapid Scapula
muscular contraction is important in Thoracic vertebrae Sternum

Ribs
generating internal heat, another
Humerus
homeostatic function. Lumbar vertebrae
Radius
Types of Skeletons Pelvis
Sacrum Ulna
Coccyx
8 The axial skeleton consists of the skull,
Carpals
vertebral column, and rib cage. Metacarpals
8 The appendicular skeleton contains the Phalanges
bones of the appendages (limbs, wings, Femur

or flippers/fins), and the pectoral and Patella
pelvic girdles.
Tibia
8 The human skull, or cranium, has a Fibula
number of individual bones tightly Calcaneus
fitted together at immovable joints. Tarsals
8 At birth many of these joints are not Metatarsals
Phalanges
completely structured together as bone,
leading to a number of “soft spots” or
fontanels, which do not completely join 8 Each hand or foot ends in 5 digits
until the age of 14-18 months. (fingers or toes) composed of
metacarpals (hands) or metatarsals
8 The vertebral column has 33 individual
(feet).
vertebrae separated from each other by
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8 Limbs are connected to the rest of the bone. The spongy bone of the femur,
skeleton by collections of bones known humerus, and sternum contains red
as girdles. The pectoral girdle consists marrow, in which stem cells reproduce
of the clavicle (collar bone) and scapula and form the cellular components of the
(shoulder blade). blood and immune system. Yellow
8 The humerus is joined to the pectoral marrow, at the center of these bones, is
girdle at a joint and is held in place by used to store fats. The outer layer of the
muscles and ligaments. A dislocated bones is known as the periosteum.
shoulder occurs when the end of the 8 The inner layer of the periosteum forms
humerus slips out of the socket of the new bone or modifies existing bone to
scapula, stretching ligaments and meet new conditions. It is rich in nerve
muscles. The pelvic girdle consists of endings and blood and lymphatic
two hipbones that form a hollow cavity, vessels. When fractures occur, the pain
the pelvis. is carried to the brain by nerves running
8 The vertebral column attaches to the through the periosteum.
top of the pelvis; the femur of each leg Skeletal Muscle Systems
attaches to the bottom. The pelvic girdle
in land animals transfers the weight of Skeleton Muscles
(FRONT)
the body to the legs and feet. Pelvic Skull (FRONT) (BACK)
girdles in fish, which have their weight Sterno-mastoid

supported by water, are primitive; land Clavicle Trapezius
animals have more developed pelvic Sternum Deltoid

Pectoralis
Major
girdles. Humerus Ticeps
Biceps
8 Pelvic girdles in bipeds are recognizable Spine Latissimus
Dorsi
Radius
different from those or quadrupeds. Ulna External
oblique
Bone Pelvis
Sacrum Gluteus
Maximus
8 Although bones vary greatly in size and
shape, they have certain structural Vastus Extremus
similarities. Bones have cells embedded Femur Biceps Femoris
Rectus Femoris
in a mineralized (calcium) matrix and Patella
Gastrocnemius
collagen fibers. Compact bone forms the Fibula
Tibia Tribialis Anterior
shafts of long bones; it also occurs on
the outer side of the bone. Spongy bone
forms the inner layer. Vertebrates move by the actions of muscles
8 Compact bone has a series of Haversian on bones. Tendons attach many skeletal muscles
canals around which concentric layers across joints, allowing muscle contraction to move
of bone cells (osteocytes) and minerals the bones across the joint. Muscles generally work
occur. New bone is formed by the in pairs to produce movement: when one muscle
osteocytes. The Haversian canals form flexes (or contracts) the other relaxes, a process
a network of blood vessels and nerves known as antagonism.
that nourish and monitor the osteocytes. Muscles have both electrical and chemical
activity. There is an electrical gradient across the
8 Spongy bone occurs at the ends of long
muscle cell membrane: the outside is more positive
bones and is less dense than compact
than the inside. Stimulus causes an instantaneous
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reversal of this polarity, causing the muscle to regeneration of ADP into ATP.
contract (the mechanical characteristic) producing 8 Calcium ions are required for each cycle
a twitch or movement. of myosin-actin interaction. Calcium is
Skeletal Muscle Structure released into the sarcomere when a
8 Muscle fibers are multinucleated, with muscle is stimulated to contract. This
the nuclei located just under the plasma calcium uncovers the actin binding
membrane. Most of the cell is occupied sites. When the muscle no longer needs
by striated, thread-like myofibrils. to contract, the calcium ions are
Within each myofibril there are dense Z pumped from the sarcomere and back
lines. A sarcomere (or muscle functional into storage.
unit) extends from Z line to Z line. Each Contraction of Nonmuscular Cells
sarcomere has thick and thin filaments. 8 Actin and myosin, whose interaction
The thick filaments are made of myosin causes muscle contraction, occur in
and occupy the center of each many other cells. Actin is attached to
sarcomere. Thin filaments are made of the inner surface of the plasma
action and anchor to the Z line. membrane. The interaction of
8 Muscles contract by shortening each cytoplasmic myosin and this actin
sarcomere. The sliding filament model causes contraction of the cell, such a the
of muscle contraction has thin filaments coordinated contractions of intestinal
on each side of the sarcomere sliding cells to absorb nutrients.
past each other until they meet in the 8 Some fish have modified muscles that
middle. Myosin filaments have club- discharge electricity. These fish have
shaped heads that project toward the electric organs consisting of modified
actin filaments. muscles known as electroplates. The
8 Myosin heads attach to binding sites South American electric eel has more
on the actin filaments. The myosin than 6000 plates arranged into 70
heads swivel toward the center of the columns. Maximum discharge is 100
sarcomere, detach and then reattach to watts.
the nearest active site of the actin Interaction of the Two Systems
filament. Each cycle of attachment,
swiveling, and detachment shortens the 8 Vertebrates move by application of the
sarcomere 1%. Hundreds of such cycles principles of the lever. Levers amplify
occur each second during muscle or increase the force or velocity of
contraction. motion.
8 Energy for this comes from ATP, the 8 The amount of amplification depends
energy coin of the cell. ATP binds to the on the length of the lever. There are three
cross bridges between myosin heads types of skeletal system, all interact with
and actin filaments. The release of muscles using the lever.
energy powers the swiveling of the THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
myosin head. Muscles store little ATP
and so must recycle the ADP into ATP Divisions of the Nervous System
rapidly. Creatine phosphate is a muscle 8 The nervous system monitors and
storage product involved in the rapid controls almost every organ system
through a series of positive and
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negative feedback loops. head. Although lacking a brain or either nervous

8 The Central Nervous System (CNS) system (CNS or PNS) nerve nets are capable of
includes the brain and spinal cord. some complex behavior. Bilaterally symmetrical
8 The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) animals have a body plan that includes a defined
connects the CNS to other parts of the head and a tail region. Development of bilateral
body, and is composed of nerves symmetry is associated with cephalization, the
(bundles of neurons). development of a head with the accumulation of
8 Not all animals have highly specialized sensory organs at the front end of the organism.
nervous systems. Flatworms have neurons associated into clusters
known as ganglia, which in turn form a small
8 Those with simple systems tend to be
brain. Vertebrates have a spinal cord in addition
either small and very mobile or large
to a more developed brain. Chordates have a
and immobile.
dorsal rather than ventral nervous system. Several
8 Large, mobile animals have highly
evolutionary trends occur in chordates: spinal
developed nervous systems: the cord, continuation of cephalization in the form of
evolution of nervous systems must have larger and more complex brains, and development
been an important adaptation in the of a more elaborate nervous system.
evolution of body size and mobility.
The Neuron
Nervous System in Various Organisms
Nervous tissue is composed of two main cell
Coelenterates, cnidarians, and echinoderms types: neurons and glial cells. Neurons transmit
have their neurons organized into a nerve net. nerve messages. Glial cells are in direct contact
These creatures have radial symmetry and lack a with neurons and often surround them.
The neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system. Humans have about 100 billion neurons
in their brain alone! While variable in size and shape,
a. Parts of Neuron:
All neurons have three parts.
Dendrites receive information from another cell and transmit the message to the cell body.
The cell body contains the nucleus, mitochondria and other organelles typical of eukaryotic cells.
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The axon conducts messages away from the of the membrane, propagating the message along
cell body. the length of the cell membrane. After passage of
b. Types of Neuron: the action potential, there is a brief period, the
Three types of neurons occur. Sensory refractory period, during which the membrane
neurons typically have a long dendrite and short cannot be stimulated. This prevents the message
axon, and carry messages from sensory receptors from being transmitted backward along the
to the central nervous system. membrane.
Motor neurons have a long axon and short STEPS IN AN ACTION POTENTIAL
dendrites and transmit messages from the central
nervous system to the muscles (or to glands). 1. At rest the outside of the membrane is
Interneurons are found only in the central more positive than the inside.
nervous system where they connect neuron to 2. Sodium moves inside the cell causing
neuron. Some axons are wrapped in a myelin an action potential, the influx of
sheath formed from the plasma membranes of positive sodium ions makes the inside
specialized glial cells known as Schwann cells.
of the membrane more positive than the
Schwann cells serve as supportive, nutritive, and
outside.
service facilities for neurons. The gap between
Schwann cells is known as the node of Ranvier, 3. Potassium ions flow out of the cell,
and serves as points along the neuron for restoring the resting potential net
generating a signal. Signals jumping from node charges.
to node travel hundreds of times faster than 4. Sodium ions are pumped out of the cell
signals traveling along the surface of the axon. and potassium ions are pumped into
This allows our brain to communicate with our the cell, restoring the original
toes in a few thousandths of a second. distribution of ions.
THE NERVE MESSAGE SYNAPSES
The plasma membrane of neurons, like all The junction between a nerve cell and
other cells, has an unequal distribution of ions another cell is called a synapse. Messages travel
and electrical charges between the two sides of the within the neuron as an electrical action potential.
membrane. The outside of the membrane has a The space between two cells is known as the
positive charge, inside has a negative charge. synaptic cleft. To cross the synaptic cleft requires
Resting potential results from differences the actions of neurotransmitters.
between sodium and potassium positively Neurotransmitters are stored in small synaptic
charged ions and negatively charged ions in the vessicles clustered at the tip of the axon.
cytoplasm. Neurotransmitters tend to be small molecules,
Sodium ions are more concentrated outside some are even hormones. The neurotransmitters
the membrane, while potassium ions are more cross the cleft, binding to receptor molecules on
concentrated inside the membrane. This the next cell, prompting transmission of the
imbalance is maintained by the active transport message along that cell’s membrane. Diseases that
of ions to reset the membrane known as the affect the function of signal transmission can have
sodium potassium pump. serious consequences. Parkinson’s disease has a
The sodium-potassium pump maintains deficiency of the neurotransmitter dopamine.
this unequal concentration by actively Progressive death of brain cells increases this
transporting ions against their concentration deficit, causing tremors, rigidity and unstable
gradients. . The action potential begins at one spot posture.
on the membrane, but spreads to adjacent areas
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Endocrine System 1. steroids

You will know it in detail Chapter Five. 2. peptides
NERVOUS SYSTEM: THE TELEGRAPHIC SYSTEM 3. amines
OF COMMUNICATION AND CO-ORDINATION 1. STEROIDS
8 The structural of the nervous system is Steroids are lipids derived from cholesterol.
a neuron. It has a nucleus and Testosterone is the male sex hormone. Estradiol,
cytoplasm, forming the cell body. The similar in structure to testosterone, is responsible
cell body has elongated extension of for many female sex characteristics. Steroid
cytoplasm. Those extension which are hormones are secreted by the gonads, adrenal
specialized for transmitting messages cortex, and placenta.
to two neuron are called ‘dendrites’ and 2. PEPTIDES AND
the extension that transmits message 3. AMINES
from the neuron is called an ‘axon’. A
reflex action, or simply a reflex is a Peptides are short chains of amino acids;
fundamental function of the nervous most hormones are peptides. They are secreted by
the pituitary, parathyroid, heart, stomach, liver,
system.
and kidneys. Amines are derived from the amino
8 The chain of neurons that participants acid tyrosine and are secreted from the thyroid and
in a reflex action is called a ‘reflex arc’. the adrenal medulla. Solubility of the various
It consist of at least two neuron —(1) hormone classes varies.
Sensory or afferent neuron which Synthesis, Storage, and Secretion
conveys the information about the
stimulus to the central nervous system. 8 Steroid hormones are derived from
(2) Motor or afferent neuron – which cholesterol by a biochemical reaction
conveys the message from the central series. Defects along this series often
neuron system to the organ (effector lead to hormonal imbalances with
organ) which has to respond to the serious consequences. Once
synthesized, steroid hormones pass
stimulus.
into the bloodstream; they are not stored
8 The function between two neurons is
by cells, and the rate of synthesis
called a ‘ganglion’.
controls them.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 8 Peptide hormones are synthesized as
precursor molecules and processed by
Hormones the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
The endocrine system is a collection of where they are stored in secretory
glands that secrete chemical messages we call granules. When needed, the granules
hormones. These signals are passed through the are dumped into the bloodstream.
blood to arrive at a target organ, which has cells Different hormones can often be made
possessing the appropriate receptor. Exocrine from the same precursor molecule by
glands (not part of the endocrine system) secrete cleaving it with a different enzyme.
products that are passed outside the body. Sweat 8 Amine hormones (notably epinephrine)
glands, salivary glands, and digestive glands are
are stored as granules in the cytoplasm
examples of exocrine glands. Hormones are
until needed.
grouped into three classes based on their
structure:
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Evolution of Endocrine Systems bind only to one type of hormone. More than fifty
Most animals with well-developed nervous human hormones have been identified; all act by
and circulatory systems have an endocrine binding to receptor molecules. The binding
system. Most of the similarities among the hormone changes the shape of the receptor
endocrine systems of crustaceans, arthropods, causing the response to the hormone. There are
and vertebrates are examples of convergent two mechanisms of hormone action on all target
evolution. The vertebrate endocrine system cells.
consists of glands (pituitary, thyroid, adrenal), iii. Nonsteroid Hormones
and diffuse cell groups secreted in epithelial Nonsteroid hormones (water soluble) do not
tissues. More than fifty different hormones are enter the cell but bind to plasma membrane
secreted. Endocrine glands arise during receptors, generating a chemical signal (second
development for all three embryologic tissue layers messenger) inside the target cell. Five different
(endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm). The type of second messenger chemicals, including cyclic
endocrine product is determined by which tissue AMP have been identified. Second messengers
layer a gland originated in. Glands of ectodermal activate other intracellular chemicals to produce
and endodermal origin produce peptide and the target cell response.
amine hormones; mesodermal-origin glands iv. Steroid Hormones
secrete hormones based on lipids. The second mechanism involves steroid
i. Endocrine Systems and Feedback hormones, which pass through the plasma
Cycles membrane and act in a two step process. Steroid
The endocrine system uses cycles and hormones bind, once inside the cell, to the nuclear
negative feedback to regulate physiological membrane receptors, producing an activated
functions. Negative feedback regulates the hormone-receptor complex. The activated
secretion of almost every hormone. Cycles of hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA and
secretion maintain physiological and activates specific genes, increasing production of
homeostatic control. These cycles can range from proteins.
hours to months in duration. The Nervous and Endocrine Systems
The pituitary gland (often called the master
Pineal
gland) is located in a small bony cavity at the base
Pituitary
of the brain. A stalk links the pituitary to the
Thyroid hypothalamus, which controls release of pituitary
Parathyroid hormones. The pituitary gland has two lobes: the
Thymus
anterior and posterior lobes. The anterior pituitary
Adrenal
is glandular. The hypothalamus contains neurons
that control releases from the anterior pituitary.
Pancreas
Seven hypothalamic hormones are released into
Ovary
a portal system connecting the hypothalamus and
Testis pituitary, and cause targets in the pituitary to
release eight hormones.
Male body Female body I. ANTERIOL PITUITOLY
ii. Mechanisms of Hormone Action Growth hormone (GH) is a peptide anterior
The endocrine system acts by releasing pituitary hormone essential for growth. GH-
hormones that in turn trigger actions in specific releasing hormone stimulates release of GH. GH-
target cells. Receptors on target cell membranes inhibiting hormone suppresses the release of GH.
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The hypothalamus maintains homeostatic levels ACTH-cortisol, TSH, and GH show circadian
of GH. Cells under the action of GH increase in rhythms.
size (hypertrophy) and number (hyperplasia). GH Thyroid secretion is usually higher in winter
also causes increase in bone length and thickness than in summer. Childbirth is hormonally
by deposition of cartilage at the ends of bones. controlled, and is highest between 2 and 7 AM.
During adolescence, sex hormones cause Internal cycles of hormone production are
replacement of cartilage by bone, halting further controlled by the hypothalamus, specifically the
bone growth even though GH is still present. Too suprachiasmic nucleus (SCN). According to one
little or two much GH can cause dwarfism or model, the SCN is signaled by messages from the
gigantism, respectively. Hypothalamus receptors light-detecting retina of the eyes. The SCN signals
monitor blood levels of thyroid hormones. Low the pineal gland in the brain to signal the
blood levels of Thyroid-stimulating hormone hypothalamus, etc.
(TSH) cause the release of TSH-releasing hormone Endocrines: The Postal System of
from the hypothalamus, which in turn causes the Communication and Co-Ordination
release of TSH from the anterior pituitary. TSH
travels to the thyroid where it promotes 8 Hormones are chemical substances
production of thyroid hormones, which in turn manufactured by organs called
regulate metabolic rates and body temperatures. endocrine glands or ductless glands.
Gonadotropins and prolactin are also secreted by Ductless glands are also sometimes
the anterior pituitary. Gonadotropins (which called ‘exocrine glands’.
include follicle-stimulating hormone, FSH, and ENDOCRINE GLAND OF THE BODY
luteinizing hormone, LH) affect the gonads by
stimulating gamete formation and production of 8 Thyroid is situated in the neck in front
sex hormones. Prolactin is secreted near the end of the wind pipe. It manufactures two
of pregnancy and prepares the breasts for milk hormones: triodothyro (T 3 ) and
production. tetraiodothysonine (T 4), are called
II. THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY tyrosine. Both these hormones contain
iodine.
The posterior pituitary stores and releases
8 Hypothyroidism (hypo, ‘under’)–
hormones into the blood. Antidiuretic hormone
diminished thyroid activity.
(ADH) and oxytocin are produced in the
Hypothyroi-dism in childhood gives
hypothalamus and transported by axons to the
rise to a conditions called cretinism.
posterior pituitary where they are dumped into the
Goiter– is called enlargement of the thyroid
blood. ADH controls water balance in the body
gland. It manifests itself as a swelling in the neck.
and blood pressure. Oxytocin is a small peptide
A goiter may be associated with increased, normal
hormone that stimulates uterine contractions
or descreased activity of the thyroid gland.
during childbirth.
Biological Cycles 8 Government of India launched the
Universal salt iodisation programme in
Biological cycles ranging from minutes to
1986.
years occur throughout the animal kingdom.
Pancreas— the endocrine department of the
Cycles involve hibernation, mating behavior, body
pancreas is scattered throughout its substance in
temperature and many other physiological
the form of tiny islands. The islands have been
processes.
named as ‘islets of Langerhans’. The islets have
Rhythms or cycles that show cyclic changes
two major type of cells called A and B. The A cells
on a daily (or even a few hours) basis are known
secrete the hormone ‘glucagon’ while the B cells
as circadian rhythms. Many hormones, such as
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secrete insulin. Insulin has discovered by contain an enzyme called ‘anylax’

Frederick Grand banting and Charles Herbert which breaks down the starch in food
Best. Reduction on the quantity of effective insulin into maltose.
gives rise to diabetes mellitus (diabetes, siphon, 8 The food in the stomach is
mellitus of honey) commonly called simply homogenised by the action of the acidic
diabetes. Food and glucose to be blood, while juice. The juice also contains an enzyme
exercise and insulin remove it.
called pepsin, which splits proteins
The six endocrine glands of the body are.
into smallest units called peptides.
1. Thyroid
Small Intestine:– The food, after being
2. Pancreas
digested in the stomach is transferred; but by bit
3. Adrenals from the stomach into the small intestine. The first
4. Gonads portion of the small intestine which the food enters
5. Parathyroids is called the ‘duodenum’. Juices from pancreas
6. Pituitary and gall bladder are discharged into the
Processing of Food duodenum.
8 The process of digestion and absortion 8 Pancreatic juice contains enzymes for
of food takes place in the alimentary digestion of carbohydrates, protein as
canal. well as fat.
8 The alimentary canal is a 9-metre long Bite is an essential supplement to the
tube extending from the hips to the recreations enzyme for digestion of fats.
anus- 8 Discharge of Pancreatic and binary
8 Saliva is secreted by a set of three pairs recentions into the intestine is under the
of glands situated near the month. It control of two hormones: ‘secretin’ and
helps in the process a digestion. It cholecystokinin’.
Large Intestine (colon)– The absorption of water is an important function.
Region Juice Enzyme Enzyme action Enzyme action
produces
Mouth Saliva Amylase Starch Maltose
Stomach Gastric Juice Pepsin Proteins Protein fragments
Duodenum Pancreatic Juice Amylase Starch Maltose
Duodenum Pancreatic Juice Trypsin Product protein Small protein
fragments fragments
Duodenum Pancreatic Juice Chymotrypsin Product protein Small protein
fragments fragments and
amino acids
Duodenum Pancreatic Juice Lipase Fat Fatty acids and
glycerol
Small intestine — Disaccharisases Maltose Glucose and
similar substances
— Amnopeptidose Lactose+ and Very
small protein Sucrose++ fragments and
fragments small poling
amino acids.
— Dipeptidase 2-amino acid Amino acids
fragments
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Kidneys, The Fascinating Filters reaches a certain point.

8 Kidneys are often described as bean LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
shaped. AND IMMUNITY
8 Each kidney is make up a about a
The Lymphatic System
million narrow tube-like structures
called ‘nephrons’. The urine formed by 8 The lymphatic system is composed of
a kidney in a sum total of a the urine lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and
formed by its neprpons. organs. The functions of this system
8 A Nephron consists of a receptacle include the absorbtion of excess fluid
(Bowman’s capsule) enclosing a bunch and its return to the blood stream,
of capillaries (glomerular) like a closed absorption of fat (in the villi of the small
fist. The glomerulus and Bowman’s intestine) and the immune system
capsule filter the blood. function.
Filtration: The glomerular capillaries are fed 8 Lymph vessels are closely associated
blood by a blood vessel called ‘afferent arteriole’ with the circulatory system vessels.
and drained by a marrower blood vessel called Larger lymph vessels are similar to
the ‘efferent arteriole. veins. Lymph capillaries are scatted
8 By secreting acids, the kidneys help in throughout the body. Contraction of
maintaining the acidity of the body skeletal muscle causes movement of the
fluids constant. lymph fluid through valves.
8 Urine excreted is the result of these basic
processes: filtration, reabrorption and
Cervical Nodes
secretion.
8 Excessive eating (polyphagia), Lymph Vessels Thymus
excessive drinking (polydipsia) and too

much of urine (polyusia) are three Axillary Nodes
Lymph Vessels
cardinal symptoms of diabetes. The
‘hypothesis’ produces a chemical Diaphragm Spleen
substance called ‘antidivretic hormone
(ADH). This substance travels in the Inguinal Nodes
bloodstream to the kidneys and

Lymph Vessels
increases the reabsorption of water so
that the blood gets a little thinner.
8 The Adrenal gland maintains the
regulating salt in the body and is
located in an organ lying just over the
kidney. As soon as the salt (sodium)
concentration become just a little less 8 Lymph organs include the bone
than normal, it release into the blood marrow, lymph nodes, spleen, and
stream a substance called ‘aldosterone’. thymus.
8 Renal transplantation or dialysis 8 Bone marrow contains tissue that
(artificial kidney) are the supportive produces lymphocytes. B-lymphocytes
measure when the damage to kidney (B-cells) mature in the bone marrow.
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8 T-lymphocytes (T-cells) mature in the membranes.

thymus gland. 1. The skin is a passive barrier to
8 Other blood cells such as monocytes infectious agents such as bacteria and
and leukocytes are produced in the bone viruses. The organisms living on the
marrow. skin surface are unable to penetrate the
8 Lymph nodes are areas of concentrated layers of dead skin at the surface. Tears
lymphocytes and macrophages along and saliva secrete enzymes that
the lymphatic veins. breakdown bacterial cell walls. Skin
8 The spleen is similar to the lymph node glands secrete chemicals that retard the
except that it is larger and filled with growth of bacteria.
blood. 2. Mucus membranes lining the
8 The spleen serves as a reservoir for respiratory, digestive, urinary, and
blood, and filters or purifies the blood reproductive tracts secrete mucus that
and lymph fluid that flows through it. forms another barrier. Physical barriers
8 If the spleen is damaged or removed, are the first line of defense.
the individual is more susceptible to
3. When microorganisms penetrate skin
infections.
or epithelium lining respiratory,
8 The thymus secretes a hormone,
digestive, or urinary tracts,
thymosin, that causes pre-T-cells to
inflammation results. Damaged cells
mature (in the thymus) into T-cells.
release chemical signals such as
Immunity histamine that increase capillary blood
8 Immunity is the body’s capability to flow into the affected area (causing the
repel foreign substances and cells. areas to become heated and reddened).
8 The nonspecific responses are the first The heat makes the environment
line of defense. unfavorable for microbes, promotes
8 Highly specific responses are the healing, raises mobility of white blood
cells, and increases the metabolic rate
second line of defense and are tailored
of nearby cells. Capillaries pass fluid
to an individual threat.
into intelstinal areas, causing the
8 The immune response includes both
infected/injured area to swell.
specific and nonspecific components.
Nonspecific responses block the entry 4. Clotting factors trigger formation of
and spread of disease-causing agents. many small blood clots. Finally,
8 Antibody-mediated and cell-mediated monocytes (a type of white blood cell)
responses are two types of specific clean up dead microbes, cells, and
response. debris.
8 The immune system is associated with 5. If this is not enough to stop the invaders,
defense against disease-causing agents, the complement system and immune
problems in transplants and blood response act.
transfusions, and diseases resulting 6. Protective proteins that are produced in
from over-reaction (autoimmune, the liver include the complement system
allergies) and under-reaction (AIDS). of proteins. The complement system
(A) GENERAL DEFENSES proteins bind to a bacterium and open
pores in its membrane through which
Barriers to entry are the skin and mucous fluids and salt move, swelling and
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bursting the cell. The complement molecule that causes antibody

system directly kills microbes, production.
supplements inflammatory response, Lymphocytes :
and works with the immune response. White blood cells known as lymphocytes arise
It complements the actions of the from mitosis of stem cells in the bone marrow.
immune system. Complement proteins Some lymphocytes migrate to the thymus and
are made in the liver and become active become T cells that circulate in the blood and are
in a sequence (C1 activates C2, etc.). The associated with the lymph nodes and spleen.
final five proteins form a membrane- B cells remain in the bone marrow develop
attack complex (MAC) that embeds before moving into the circulatory and lymph
itself into the plasma membrane of the systems. B cells produce antibodies.
attacker. 1. Antibody-mediated (humoral)
immunity is regulated by B cells and
7. Salts enter the invader, facilitating water
the antibodies they produce. Cell-
to cross the membrane, swelling and
mediated immunity is controlled by T
bursting the microbe. Complement also
cells.
functions in the immune response by
2. Antibody-mediated reactions defend
tagging the outer surface of invaders for
against invading viruses and bacteria.
attack by phagocytes.
Cell-mediated immunity concerns cells
8. Interferon is a species-specific chemical in the body that have been infected by
produced by cells that are viral attack. viruses and bacteria, protect against
It alerts nearby cells to prepare for a parasites, fungi, and protozoans, and
virus. The cells that have been contacted also kill cancerous body cells.
by interferon resist all viral attacks. Antibody-mediated Immunity :
(B) SPECIFIC DEFENSES Stages in this process are :
(i) antigen detection
8 The immune system also generates (ii) activation of helper T cells
specific responses to specific invaders. (iii) antibody production by B cells
8 The immune system is more effective Each stage is directed by a specific cell type.
than the nonspecific methods, and has 8 Macrophages : Macrophages are white
a memory component that improves blood cells that continually search for
response time when an invader of the foreign (nonself) antigenic molecules,
same type (or species) is again viruses, or microbes. When found, the
encountered. macrophages engulfs and destroys
8 Immunity results from the production them. Small fragments of the antigen are
of antibodies specific to a given antigen displayed on the outer surface of the
(antibody-generators, located on the macrophage plasma membrane.
surface of an invader). 8 Helper T Cells : Helper T cells are
8 Antibodies bind to the antigens on macrophages that become activated
invaders and kill or inactivate them in when they encounter the antigens now
several ways. displayed on the macrophage surface.
8 Most antibodies are themselves proteins Activated T cells identify and activate
or are a mix of protein and B cells.
polysaccharides. Antigens can be any 8 B Cells : B cells divide, forming plasma
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cells and B memory cells. Plasma cells organs, and lymph vessels make up the system.
make and release between 2000 and The immune system is able to distinguish self from
20,000 antibody molecules per second non-self. Antigens are chemicals on the surface of
into the blood for the next four or five a cell. All cells have these. The immune system
days. B memory cells live for months or checks cells and identifies them as “self” or “non-
years, and are part of the immune self”. Antibodies are proteins produced by certain
memory system. lymphocytes in response to a specific antigen. B-
lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes produce the
8 Antibodies : Antibodies bind to specific
antibodies. B-lymphocytes become plasma cells
antigens in a lock-and-key fashion,
which then generate antibodies. T-lymphocytes
forming an antigen-antibody complex. attack cells which bear antigens they recognize.
Antibodies are a type of protein They also mediate the immune response.
molecule known as immunoglobulins.
Blood Types, Rh, and Antibodies
There are five classes of
immunoglobulins: IgG, IgA, IgD, IgE, There are 30 or more known antigens on the
and IgM. surface of blood cells. These form the blood groups
Antibodies are Y-shaped molecules or blood types. In a transfusion, the blood groups
composed of two identical long polypeptide of the recipient and donor should match.
(Heavy or H chains) and two identical short If improperly matched, the recipient’s
polypeptides (Light or L chains). Function of immune system will produce antibodies causing
antibodies includes: clotting of the transfused cells, blocking
circulation through capillaries and producing
(i) Recognition and binding to antigens serious or even fatal results. Individuals with
(ii) Inactivation of the antigen blood type ‘A’ have the A antigen on the surface
A unique antigenic determinant recognizes of their red blood cells, and antibodies to type B
and binds to a site on the antigen, leading to the blood in their plasma. People with blood type ‘B’
destruction of the antigen in several ways. The have the B antigen on their blood cells and
ends of the Y are the antigen-combining site that antibodies against type A in their plasma.
is different for each antigen. Individuals with type ‘AB’ blood produce
Helper T cells activate B cells that produce have antigens for A and B on their cell surfaces
antibodies. Supressor T cells slow down and stop and no antibodies for either blood type A or B in
the immune response of B and T cells, serving as their plasma. Type O individuals have no antigens
an off switch for the immune system. Cytotoxic (or on their red blood cells but antigens of both A and
killer) T cells destroy body cells infected with a B are in their plasma. People with type AB blood
virus or bacteria. Memory T cells remain in the can receive blood of any type, So it is called as
body awaiting the reintroduction of the antigen. Universal Receptar.
A cell infected with a virus will display viral Those with type O blood can donate to
antigens on its plasma membrane. Killer T cells anyone. So it is called as Universal Donor.
recognize the viral antigens and attach to that Hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) results
cell’s plasma membrane. The T cells secrete from Rh incompatibility between an Rh- mother
proteins that punch holes in the infected cell’s and Rh+ fetus. Rh+ blood from the fetus enters the
plasma membrane. The infected cell’s cytoplasm mother’s system during birth, causing her to
leaks out, the cell dies, and is removed by produce Rh antibodies. The first child is usually
phagocytes. Killer T cells may also bind to cells of not affected, however subsequent Rh+ fetuses will
transplanted organs. cause a massive secondary reaction of the
The immune system is the major component maternal immune system.
of this defense. Lymphocytes, monocytes, lymph To prevent HDN, Rh- mothers are given an
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Rh antibody during the first pregnancy with an immunity, and T lymphocytes

Rh+ fetus and all subsequent Rh+ fetuses. concerned with cellular immunity
Organ Transplants and Antibodies 8 Antibody production takes place in
Success of organ transplants and skin grafts Numoral immunity. It is triggered by a
requires a matching of histocompatibility protein called the antigen. It is the
antigens that occur on all cells in the body. plasma cells which manufacture
Chromosome 6 contains a cluster of genes antibodies specific for the antigen
known as the human leukocyte antigen complex presented.
(HLA) that are critical to the outcome of such 8 Theories which sring to explain the
procedures. The array of HLA alleles on either synthesis of specific antibodies—‘in
copy of our chromosome 6 is known as a structure’ and ‘selective’ theories.
haplotype.
Instructive thrones postulate that all
The large number of alleles involved mean
plasma cells are alike, it is the antigen
no two individuals, even in a family, will have the
that directs the plasma cells to
same identical haplotype.
manufacture a specific protein
Identical twins have a 100% HLA match.
The best matches are going to occur within a (antibody)
family. The preference order for transplants is 8 Selective theories originally proposed
identical twin > sibling > parent > unrelated by Busnet, assume that there are as
donor. many types of B cells as the antigens
Chances of an unrelated donor matching Antibodies are proteins belonging to a class
the recipient range between 1 in 100,000-200,000. called ‘gamma globulins’ or immunoglobulins.
Matches across racial or ethnic lines are often more Hepatitis Vaccine— Three doses are
difficult. When HLA types are matched survival required: the interval between the first and second
of transplanted organs dramatically increases. dose being one month, and that between the
Body Defences second and third being six months.
Oral typhoid vaccine is available in the form
The specialised cells which deal with germs
of capsule under the brand name ‘Typhoral’.
and forcing particles by eating them up are called
‘phagocytes’ (phagein ‘to eat’; cyte ‘cell’). They are Blood: The Vital Fluid
present in all tissues but are particularly Blood looks like a homogenous red fluid to
concentrated in liver, spleen and bone marrow. the uncover edge. But when spread into a thin
8 Monocyter in the blood are the layer, it is found to be a suspension of different type
circulating counterparts of these cells. of cells in a liquid called the ‘plasma’. Most of the
cells are faint yellow and without a nucleus. A
8 Specific acquired immunity can be
dense accumulation of these cells is responsible
categorised into two groups: humoral for the red colour of the blood. These cells are
immunity and cellular immunity called ‘erythrocytes’ or red blood cells. These are
8 Lymphoid organs produce also another two types of cells—the ‘leucocytes’
lymphocytes. These organs include or white blood cells and ‘thrombocytes’ or
principally bone marrow, thymus, platelets.
lymph, nodes, spleen and some Plasma— is a straw coloured liquid, about
‘patches’ in the wall of the small 90 percent of which is water. The chief salt
intestine. dissolved in plasma is sodium chloride, or
8 The two types of lymphocytes — B common table salt. The salinity of plasma is one-
lymphocytes concerned with humoral third that of sea water.
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8 Fibrinogen is a protein which is contribute to this process of harmostasis by

essential for clotting of blood, another liberating a chemical called ‘sesolonies’.
protein globulins aid in the defense 8 A, B, AB and O are the four blood
mechanisms of the body. groups. The classification is based on
8 Red Blood Cells:– are the most the type of substance present on the
numerous of the blood cells, they surface of red blood cells.
neither have a nucleus nor Lungs: The Life Linke
mitochondria, RBC are a reddish The bronchial tree consists of larynx,
coloured protein containing iron. trachea, bronchus left lung, right lung.
8 It is hemoglobin which makes it Alveoli – is a cluster of thin walled air sacs
possible to deliver oxygen to tissue which end in tiny air cells. It is covered with a
which need it. tracery of capillaries. A men has about 600 million
The normal quantity of hemoglobin alveoli.
present in blood in 12-15 g in every 100 8 Oxygen move from the alveoli into the
ml of blood. A decrease in this quantity blood and carbondioxide move out of
is called ‘anemia’. the capillaries to entre the alveoli.
8 The nucleus membrane of the roof of the THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
mouth (palate) is the best region to
access the quantity of hemoglobin. Respiration in Single Cell Animals
8 The average life span of a red cell is Single-celled organisms exchange gases
about four months. They are produced directly across their cell membrane. However, the
in the hollow of the bones (bone slow diffusion rate of oxygen relative to carbon
marrow). dioxide limits the size of single-celled organisms.
8 White Blood Cells:– WBC are far less Simple animals that lack specialized exchange
numerous than the RBC, the ratio being surfaces have flattened, tubular, or thin shaped
one white cell to every 600 red cells. body plans, which are the most efficient for gas
exchange. However, these simple animals are
They are slightly larger than the red
rather small in size.
cells, and differ in three aspects—first,
they have nuclei, secondly, they do not Respiration in multicellular animals
contain hemoglobin, and are therefore Large animals cannot maintain gas
nearly colourless, finally, some white exchange by diffusion across their outer surface.
cells can move and engulf particles or They developed a variety of respiratory surfaces
bacteria the process in called that all increase the surface area for exchange, thus
‘phagocytosis’. allowing for larger bodies. A respiratory surface
WBC are further subdivided in five groups. is covered with thin, moist epithelial cells that
(1) Neutroplis allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to exchange.
(2) Eosinophils Those gases can only cross cell membranes when
(3) Basrophils they are dissolved in water or an aqueous solution,
thus respiratory surfaces must be moist.
(4) Lymphocytes
(5) Monocytes Respiratory System Principles
Platelets: are much smaller than red or 1. Movement of an oxygen-containing
white blood cells and are devoid of nuclei. They medium so it contacts a moist
check the bleeding from an injury (harmostasis: membrane overlying blood vessels.
haime ‘blood’; stages ‘standing’ Platelets
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ii. Heart: a muscular pump to move the

blood
Nostrils
Pharynk
iii. Blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and
Epiglottis
larynk
Trachea Glottis
veins that deliver blood to all tissues
Vertebrate Cardiovascular System
C-Shaped
Bronchus Cartilagenous Rngs
Pulmonary
Artery
The vertebrate cardiovascular system
Aleveolus Blood Suply tolungs
Pulmonary Vein
includes a heart, which is a muscular pump that
Bronchioles
Right Lung
Left Lung contracts to propel blood out to the body through
Ribs
Heart
arteries, and a series of blood vessels.
The upper chamber of the heart, the atrium
Diaphragm
(pl. atria), is where the blood enters the heart.
Passing through a valve, blood enters the lower
2. Diffusion of oxygen from the medium
chamber, the ventricle.
into the blood.
Contraction of the ventricle forces blood
3. Transport of oxygen to the tissues and from the heart through an artery.
cells of the body. The heart muscle is composed of cardiac
4. Diffusion of oxygen from the blood into muscle cells.
cells. Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood
5. Carbon dioxide follows a reverse path. away from heart. Arterial walls are able to expand
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM and contract. Arteries have three layers of thick
walls. Smooth muscle fibers contract, another
Circulatory Systems in layer of connective tissue is quite elastic, allowing
Single-celled Organisms the arteries to carry blood under high pressure
Single-celled organisms use their cell The aorta is the main artery leaving the
surface as a point of exchange with the outside heart.
environment. Sponges are the simplest animals, The pulmonary artery is the only artery that
yet even they have a transport system. Seawater carries oxygen-poor blood. The pulmonary artery
is the medium of transport and is propelled in and carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In the
out of the sponge by ciliary action. Simple lungs, gas exchange occurs, carbon dioxide
animals, such as the hydra and planaria lack diffuses out, oxygen diffuses in
specialized organs such as hearts and blood Arterioles are small arteries that connect
vessels, instead using their skin as an exchange larger arteries with capillaries. Small arterioles
point for materials. This, however, limits the size branch into collections of capillaries known as
an animal can attain. To become larger, they need capillary beds.
specialized organs and organ systems. Capillaries, are thin-walled blood vessels in
Circulatory Systems in which gas exchange occurs.
Multicellular Organisms In the capillary, the wall is only one cell layer
thick.
Multicellular animals do not have most of Capillaries are concentrated into capillary
their cells in contact with the external beds. Some capillaries have small pores between
environment and so have developed circulatory the cells of the capillary wall, allowing materials
systems to transport nutrients, oxygen, carbon to flow in and out of capillaries as well as the
dioxide and metabolic wastes. Components of the passage of white blood cells.
circulatory system include Changes in blood pressure also occur in the
i. Blood: a connective tissue of liquid various vessels of the circulatory system.
plasma and cells Nutrients, wastes, and hormones are
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exchanged across the thin walls of capillaries. messages from these sensors communicate
Capillaries are microscopic in size, although conditions to the medulla in the brain. Signals
blushing is one manifestation of blood flow into from the medulla regulate blood pressure.
capillaries. Control of blood flow into capillary Diseases of the
beds is done by nerve-controlled sphincters. Heart and Cardiovascular System
The circulatory system functions in the
Heart Attack
delivery of oxygen, nutrient molecules, and
hormones and the removal of carbon dioxide, Cardiac muscle cells are serviced by a
ammonia and other metabolic wastes. Capillaries system of coronary arteries. During exercise the
are the points of exchange between the blood and flow through these arteries is up to five times
surrounding tissues. Materials cross in and out normal flow. Blocked flow in coronary arteries can
of the capillaries by passing through or between result in death of heart muscle, leading to a heart
the cells that line the capillary. The extensive attack. Blockage of coronary arteries. is usually
network of capillaries in the human body is the result of gradual buildup of lipids and
estimated at between 50,000 and 60,000 miles cholesterol in the inner wall of the coronary artery.
long.Thoroughfare channels allow blood to Occasional chest pain, angina pectoralis, can
bypass a capillary bed. These channels can open result during periods of stress or physical
and close by the action of muscles that control exertion. Angina indicates oxygen demands are
blood flow through the channels. greater than capacity to deliver it and that a heart
Blood leaving the capillary beds flows into attack may occur in the future. Heart muscle cells
a progressively larger series of venules that in turn that die are not replaced since heart muscle cells
join to form veins.Veins carry blood from do not divide. Heart disease and coronary artery
capillaries to the heart.With the exception of the disease are the leading causes of death tody.
pulmonary veins, blood in veins is oxygen-poor. Hypertension, high blood pressure (the
The pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood silent killer), occurs when blood pressure is
from lungs back to the heart.Venules are smaller consistently above 140/90. Causes in most cases
veins that gather blood from capillary beds into are unknown, although stress, obesity, high salt
veins.Pressure in veins is low, so veins depend on intake, and smoking can add to a genetic
nearby muscular contractions to move blood predisposition. Luckily, when diagnosed, the
along. The veins have valves that prevent back- condition is usually treatable with medicines and
flow of blood Blood pressure: diet/exercise.
Ventricular contraction propels blood into The Vascular System
arteries under great pressure. Blood pressure is Two main routes for circulation are the
measured in mm of mercury; healthy young adults pulmonary (to and from the lungs) and the
should have pressure of ventricular systole of systemic (to and from the body). Pulmonary
120mm, and 80 mm at ventricular diastole. arteries carry blood from the heart to the lungs. In
Higher pressures (human 120/80 as the lungs gas exchange occurs. Pulmonary veins
compared to a 12/1 in lobsters) mean the volume carry blood from lungs to heart. The aorta is the
of blood circulates faster (20 seconds in humans, main artery of systemic circuit. The vena cavae are
8 minutes in lobsters). the main veins of the systemic circuit. Coronary
As blood gets farther from the heart, the arteries deliver oxygenated blood, food, etc. to the
pressure likewise decreases. Each contraction of heart.
the ventricles sends pressure through the arteries. Animals often have a portal system, which
Elasticity of lungs helps keep pulmonary begins and ends in capillaries, such as between
pressures low. Systemic pressure is sensed by the digestive tract and the liver. Fish pump blood
receptors in the arteries and atria. Nerve from the heart to their gills, where gas exchange
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occurs, and then on to the rest of the body. concave cells about 7 µm in diameter
Mammals pump blood to the lungs for gas that carry oxygen associated in the cell’s
exchange, then back to the heart for pumping out hemoglobin.
to the systemic circulation. Blood flows in only 8 Mature erythrocytes lack a nucleus.
one direction. They are small, 4 to 6 million cells per
Blood cubic millimeter of blood, and have 200
million hemoglobin molecules per cell.
8 Humans have a total of 25 trillion red
blood cells (about 1/3 of all the cells in
Surface view Side view the body).
A. Red blood cells
W.B.C.
C. Platelets 8 Red blood cells are continuously
manufactured in red marrow of long
Granulocytes Agranulocytes bones, ribs, skull, and vertebrae.
Granules Nucleus 8 Life-span of an erythrocyte is only 120
Nucleus Cytoplasm
days, after which they are destroyed in
Basophil Neurrophil
Lymphocyte Monocyte liver and spleen.
Eosinophil
B. White blood corpuseles
8 Iron from hemoglobin is recovered and
Cellular components of human blood reused by red marrow. The liver
degrades the heme units and secretes
Blood is a bright red viscous fluid which them as pigment in the bile, responsible
flows through all the vessels except the lymph for the color of feces.
vessels. It constitutes 8% of the total body weight.
8 Each second two million red blood cells
Blood is composed of two portions: formed
are produced to replace the dead red
elements(cell and cell like structures) ad plasma
blood cells.
(liquid containing dissolved substances).
(b) White Blood Cells
Plasma:
White blood cells, also known as leukocytes,
8 Plasma is the liquid component of the
are larger than erythrocytes, have a nucleus, and
blood. Mammalian blood consists of a lack hemoglobin. They function in the cellular
liquid (plasma) and a number of immune response. White blood cells (leukocytes)
cellular and cell fragment components. are less than 1% of the blood’s volume. They are
8 Plasma is about 60 % of a volume of made from stem cells in bone marrow.
blood; cells and fragments are 40%. There are five types of leukocytes, which are
Plasma has 90% water and 10% important components of the immune system.
dissolved materials including proteins, (a) Neutrophils enter the tissue fluid by
glucose, ions, hormones, and gases. squeezing through capillary walls and
8 It acts as a buffer, maintaining pH near phagocytozing foreign substances
7.4. Plasma contains nutrients, wastes, (b) Macrophages release white blood cell
salts, proteins, etc. Proteins in the blood growth factors, causing a population
aid in transport of large molecules such increase for white blood cells.
as cholesterol. (c) Lymphocytes fight infection.
8 Formed elements: (d) T-cells attack cells containing viruses.
(a) Red blood cells (e) B-cells produce antibodies. Antigen-
8 Red blood cells, also known as antibody complexes are phagocytized
erythrocytes, are flattened, doubly by a macrophage.
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White blood cells can squeeze through pores finding a mate, and mating.
in the capillaries and fight infectious diseases in 8 Fission, budding, fragmentation, and
intestinal areas the formation of rhizomes and stolons
(c) Platelets are some of the mechanisms that allow
8 Platelets result from cell fragmentation organisms to reproduce asexually.
and are involved with clotting. 8 The hydra produces buds;
8 Platelets are cell fragments that bud off 8 starfish can regenerate an entire body
megakaryocytes in bone marrow. They from a fragment of the original body.
carry chemicals essential to blood
8 The lack of genetic variability in
clotting.
asexually reproducing populations can
8 Platelets survive for 10 days before
be detrimental when environmental
being removed by the liver and spleen.
conditions change quickly.
8 There are 150,000 to 300,000 platelets
Sexual Reproduction
in each milliliter of blood.
8 Platelets stick and adhere to tears in 8 In sexual reproduction new individuals
blood vessels; they also release clotting are produced by the fusion of haploid
factors. A hemophiliac’s blood cannot gametes to form a diploid zygote.
clot. Providing correct proteins (clotting 8 Sperm are male gametes, ova (ovum
factors) has been a common method of singular) are female gametes.
treating hemophiliacs. It has also led to 8 Meiosis produces cells that are
HIV transmission due to the use of genetically distinct from each other.
transfusions and use of contaminated 8 fertilization is the fusion of two such
blood products. distinctive cells.
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 8 Rotifers will reproduce asexually when
conditions are favorable by having
Asexual reproduction females produce eggs by mitosis. When
conditions deteriorate, rotifers will
Developing
Bud
reproduce sexually and encase their
Nucleus Bud
Vacuole zygotes inside a resistant shell. Once
Mother cell
conditions improve, these eggs hatch
into diploid individuals. Rotifers thus
Vacuole
use sexual reproduction as way to
Nucleus
Dividing cell Divided cell survive a deteriorating environment.
Central Sclerotium
8 Sexual reproduction offers the benefit
cavity
of generating genetic variation among
Hyphal offspring, which enhances the chances
core
of the population’s survival.
Loose hyphase
8 Costs of this process include the need
for two individuals to mate, courtship
8 Asexual reproduction allows an rituals, as well as a number of basic
organism to rapidly produce many mechanisms described later.
offspring without the time and Human Reproduction and Development
resources committed to courtship, 8 Human reproduction employs internal
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fertilization, and depends on the 8 FSH acts on cells to help in sperm

integrated action of hormones, the maturation. Negative feedback by
nervous system, and the reproductive testosterone controls the actions of
system GnRH.
8 Gonads are sex organs that produce (b) Sexual Structures
gametes. Male gonads are the testes, 8 Sperm pass through the vas deferens
which produce sperm and male sex and connect to a short ejaculatory duct
hormones. Female gonads are the that connects to the urethra.
ovaries, which produce eggs (ova) and 8 The urethra passes through the penis
female sex hormones. and opens to the outside
The Male Reproductive System 8 Secretions from the seminal vesicles
8 Testes are suspended outside the add fructose and prostaglandins to
abdominal cavity by the scrotum, a sperm as they pass. The prostate gland
pouch of skin that keeps the testes close secretes a milky alkaline fluid.
or far from the body at an optimal 8 The bulbourethral gland secretes a
temperature for sperm development. mucus-like fluid that provides
lubrication for intercourse
8 Seminiferous tubules are inside each
8 Sperm and secretions make up semen.
testis, and are where sperm are
The Female Reproductive System
produced by meiosis. About 250 meters
(850 feet) of tubules are packed into each 8 The female gonads, are ovaries, which
testis. are located within the lower abdominal
8 Spermatocytes inside the tubules divide cavity
by meiosis to produce spermatids that 8 The ovary contains many follicles
in turn develop into mature sperm. composed of a developing egg
surrounded by an outer layer of follicle
8 Sperm production begins at puberty
cells.
and continues throughout life, with
8 At birth each female carries a lifetime
several hundred million sperm being
supply of developing oocytes, each of
produced each day. Once sperm form
which is in ProphaseI.
they move into the epididymis, where
8 A developing egg (secondary oocyte) is
they mature and are stored.
released each month from puberty until
(a) Male Sex Hormones
menopause, a total of 400-500 eggs.
8 The anterior pituitary produces follicle- Ovarian Cycles
stimulating hormone (FSH) and
8 After puberty the ovary cycles between
luteinizing hormone (LH).
a follicular phase (maturing follicles)
8 Action of LH is controlled by the and a luteal phase (presence of the
gonadotropin-releasing hormone corpus luteum).
(GnRH). 8 These cyclic phases are interrupted
8 LH stimulates cells in the seminiferous only by pregnancy and continue until
tubules to secrete testosterone, which menopause, when reproductive
has a role in sperm production and capability ends.
developing male secondary sex 8 The ovarian cycle lasts usually 28 days.
characteristics 8 During the first phase, the oocyte
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matures within a follicle. At midpoint 8 During menstruation the uterine lining

of the cycle, the oocyte is released from is broken down and shed as menstrual
the ovary in a process known as flow.
ovulation. Following ovulation the 8 FSH and LH are secreted on day 0,
follicle forms a corpus luteum which beginning both the menstrual cycle and
synthesizes and prepares hormones to the ovarian cycle.
prepare the uterus for pregnancy. 8 Both FSH and LH stimulate the
8 The secondary oocyte passes into the maturation of a single follicle in one of
oviduct (fallopian tube or uterine tube). the ovaries and the secretion of
The oviduct is connected to the uterus. estrogen. Rising levels of estrogen in
8 The uterus has an inner layer, the the blood trigger secretion of LH, which
endometrium, in which a fertilized egg stimulates follicle maturation and
implants. At the lower end of the uterus ovulation (day 14, or midcycle). LH
the cervix connects the uterus to the stimulates the remaining follicle cells
vagina. The vagina receives the penis to form the corpus luteum, which
during intercourse and serves as the produces both estrogen and
birth canal. progesterone.
External Genitals
8 Estrogen and progesterone stimulate
8 The female external genitals are the development of the endometrium
collectively known as the vulva. and preparation of the uterine inner
8 The labia minora is a thin membrane of lining for implantation of a zygote. If
folded skin just outside the vaginal pregnancy does not occur, the drop in
opening. FSH and LH cause the corpus luteum
8 The labia majora cover and protect the to disintegrate. The drop in hormones
genital area. also causes the sloughing off of the
8 A clitoris, important in arousal, is a inner lining of the uterus by a series of
short shaft with a sensitive tip covered muscle contractions of the uterus.
by a fold of skin. Sexual Responses
Hormones and Female Cycles
8 Humans do not have a mating season ,
8 The ovarian cycle is hormonally females are sexually receptive to the
regulated in two phases. The follicle male at all times of the year. There are
secretes estrogen before ovulation; the four stages in mating: arousal, plateau,
corpus luteum secretes both estrogen orgasm, and resolution.
and progesterone after ovulation. 8 During male arousal, blood flows into
8 Hormones from the hypothalamus and the three shafts of spongy erectile tissue
anterior pituitary control the ovarian inside the penis, causing it to become
cycle. The ovarian cycle covers events elongated and erect. The female arousal
in the ovary; the menstrual cycle occurs has the swelling of the areas around
in the uterus. the vagina, erection of the clitoris and
8 Menstrual cycles vary from between 15 nipples, and secretion of lubricating
and 31 days. The first day of the cycle is fluids in the vagina.
the first day of blood flow (day 0) 8 After insertion of the penis into the
known as menstruation. vagina, pelvic thrusts by both partners
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stimulate sensory receptors in the penis, legal grounds for the uses of such technologies.
vaginal walls, and clitoris. The sperm The separation of intercourse from
leave the epididymis and secretions of pregnancy uses methods blocking one of the three
glands form the semen. Orgasm stages of reproduction”
involves contractions of muscles of the 8 release and transport of gametes
penis (male) or vagina (female) and 8 fertilization
waves of pleasurable sensations. 8 implantation
8 Resolution reverses the previous Effectiveness
phases: muscles relax, breathing slows,
Various contraceptive methods have been
the penis returns to its normal size.
developed; none of which is 100% successful at
Sexually Transmitted Diseases preventing pregnancy or the transmission of
STDs can affect the sex partners, fetus, and STDs. Abstinence is the only completely effective
newborn infants. STDs are grouped into three method.
categories. Methods
Category One Physical prevention (most effective) include
STDs that produce inflammation of the vasectomy and tubal ligation.
urethra, epididymis, cervix, or oviducts. (a) Vasectomy: the vas deferens connecting
Gonorrhea and chlamydia are the most common the testes with the urethra is cut and
STDs in this category. Both diseases can be treated sealed to prevent the transport of sperm.
and cured with antibiotics, once diagnosed.
(b) Tubal ligation: the oviduct is cut and
Category Two
ends tied off to prevent eggs from
STDs that produce sores on the external reaching the uterus.
genitals. Genital herpes is the most common
(c) Oral contraceptives: (birth control pills)
disease in this class. Symptoms of herpes can be
It usually contain a combination of
treated by antiviral drugs, but the infection cannot
hormones that prevent release of FSH
be cured. Syphilis is a bacterially caused infection,
and can, if left untreated, cause serious symptoms and LH, inhibiting development of the
and death. However, the disease is curable with follicle so that no oocytes are released.
antibiotics. Time-release capsules (Norplant) can be
Category Three implanted under the skin and offer
long-term suppression of ovulation.
This class of STDs includes viral diseases
that affect organ systems other than those of the RU-486, the so-called morning after pill,
reproductive system. AIDS and hepatitis B are in interferes with implantation of the
this category. Both can be spread by sexual contact blastula into the uterine wall. Its use as
or blood. Infectious individuals may appear a contraceptive is very controversial.
symptom-free for years after infection. (d) Barrier methods : It employ physical
Reproduction: (condom, diaphragm) or chemical
Various contraceptive methods (spermacides) means to separate the
New techniques have been developed to sperm from the egg. Male condoms are
enhance or reduce the chances of conception. fitted over the erect penis; female
Social conventions and governing laws have condoms are placed inside the vagina.
developed far slower than this new technology, Only latex condoms prevent the spread
leading to controversy about moral, ethical, and of STDs.
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Diaphragms cap the cervix and block filled cavity (the blastocoel). The decreasing size
passage of the sperm into the uterus. of cells increases their surface to volume ratio,
Spermicidal jellies or foams kill sperm allowing for more efficient oxygen exchange
on contact and must be placed in the between cells and their environment. RNA and
vagina prior to intercourse. information carrying molecules are distributed to
Infertility various parts of the blastula, and this molecular
differentiation sets the stage for the layering of the
About 1 in 6 couples is infertile due to body in the next phases of development.
physical or physiological conditions preventing
Gastrulation
gamete production, implantation, or fertilization
Cause of Infertility Gastrulation involves a series of cell
migrations to positions where they will form the
Blocked oviducts (often from untreated three primary cell layers.
STDs) are the leading cause of infertility in
females. Low sperm count, low motility, or blocked 8 Ectoderm forms the outer layer.
ducts are common causes of male infertility. 8 Endoderm forms the inner layer.
Hormone therapy can cause increased egg 8 Mesoderm forms the middle layer.
production. Surgery can open blocked ducts. (a) Mesoderm:Ectoderm forms tissues
About 40 of the cases are due to male problems, associated with outer layers: skin, hair,
40 due to female problems and the remaining 20% sweat glands, epithelium. The brain
are caused by some unknown agent(s). In vitro and nervous system also develop from
fertilization (test-tube babies) is a widely used
the ectoderm.
technique to aid infertile couples.
(b) Mesoder: The mesod erm forms
Fertilization and Cleavage
structures associated with movement
(A) Fertilization has Three Functions and support: body muscles, cartilage,
1. transmission of genes from both parents bone, blood, and all other connective
to offspring tissues. Reproductive system organs
and kidneys from mesoderm.
2. restoration of the diploid number of
chromosomes reduced during meiosis (c) Endoderm:The endod erm forms
tissues and organs associated with the
3. initiation of development in offspring
digestive and respiratory systems.
Steps in Fertilization
Many endocrine structures, such as the
8 Contact between sperm and egg thyroid and parathyroid glands, are
8 Entry of sperm into the egg formed by the endoderm. The liver,
8 Fusion of egg and sperm nuclei pancreas, and gall bladder arise from
endoderm.
8 Activation of development
Invagination
(B) Cleavage
Immediately after gastrulation, the body axis
Cleavage is the first step in development of
of the embryo begins to appear. Chordates have
all multicelled organisms. Cleavage converts a
the cells that will form the nervous system fold
single-celled zygote into a multicelled embryo by
into a neural tube (which will eventually form the
mitosis. Usually, the zygotic cytoplasm is divided
spinal cord). The mesoderm forms the notochord
among the newly formed cells. Frog embryos
(which will eventually form the vertebrae). The
divide to produce 37,000 cells in a little over 40
mesoderm at this time forms somites, which form
hours. The blastula is produced by mitosis of the
segmented body parts, such as the muscles of the
zygote, and is a ball of cells surrounding a fluid-
body wall.
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Pattern Formation and Induction affects the developmental fate of another cell or
Blastulation and gastrulation establish the tissue. As a cell begins to form certain structures,
main body axis. Organ formation occurs in the certain genes are turned on, others are turned off.
next stage of the development of the embryo. Induction affects patterns of gene expression
During organ formation, cell division is through physical contact or chemical signals.
accomplished by migration and aggregation. Formation of the vertebrate eye is a well known
Pattern formation is the result of cells “sensing” example.
their position in the embryo relative to other cells Various Stages of Fertilization
and to form structures appropriate to that Fertilization, the fusion of the sperm and
position. egg, usually occurs in the upper third of the
Gradients of informational molecules oviduct. Thirty minutes after ejaculation, sperm
within the embryo have been suggested to provide are present in the oviduct, having traveled from
the positional information to cells. Homeobox the vagina through the uterus and into the
genes are pattern genes; they coordinate with oviduct. Sperm traverse this distance by the
gradients of information molecules to establish the beating of their flagellum. Of the several hundred
body plan and development of organs. Induction million sperm released in the ejaculation, only a
is the process in which one cell or tissue type few thousand reach the egg.
Tail centriole Vitelline membrane

Sperm Fertilization membrane
Nucleus
Jelly
Acrosome
Nucleus
First polar
body
Ovum
Sperm centriole
Sperm contriole Pronuclei Zygotic nucleus
Pronucleus
Second polar
body Zygote
pronucleus
Only one sperm will fertilize the egg. One sperm fuses with receptors on the surface of the
secondary oocyte, triggering a series of chemical changes in the outer oocyte membrane that prevent
any other sperm from entering the oocyte. The entry of the sperm initiates Meiosis II in the oocyte.
Fusion of the egg and sperm nuclei forms the diploid zygote.
Travels of a Young Zygote Implantation

Cleavage of the zygote begins while it is still The uterine lining becomes enlarged and
in the oviduct, producing a solid ball of cells prepared for implantation of the embryo in the
(morula). The morula enters the uterus, trophoblast layer. Twelve days after fertilization,
continuing to divide and becomes a blastocyst. the trophoblast has formed a two-layered chorion.
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is secreted
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by the chorion, and prolongs the life of the corpus having very short internodes. Sterile parts of
luteum until the placenta begins to secrete flowers are the sepals and petals. When these are
estrogen and progesterone. similar in size and shape, they are termed tepals.
Home pregnancy tests work by detecting Reproductive parts of the flower are the stamen
elevated hCG levels in the woman’s urine. (male, collectively termed the androecium) and
Placenta carpel (often the carpel is referred to as the pistil,
the female parts collectively termed the
Maternal and embryonic structures
gynoecium).
interlock to form the placenta, the nourishing
boundary between the mother’s and embryo’s Pollen
systems. Pollen grains (from the greek palynos for
The umbilical cord extends from the dust or pollen) contain the male gametophyte
placenta to the embryo, and transports food to and (microgametophyte) phase of the plant. Pollen
wastes from the embryo. grains are produced by meiosis of microspore
mother cells that are located along the inner edge
PLANT REPRODUCTION of the anther sacs (microsporangia). The outer part
Flowering plants of the pollen is the exine, which is composed of a
complex polysaccharide, sporopollenin. Inside
Flowering plants, the angiosperms, were the
the pollen are two (or, at most, three) cells that
last of the seed plant groups to evolve, appearing
comprise the male gametophyte. The tube cell (also
over 100 million years ago during the middle of
referred to as the tube nucleus) develops into the
the Age of Dinosaurs (late Jurassic). All flowering
pollen tube. The germ cell divides by mitosis to
plants produce flowers and if they are sexually
produce two sperm cells. Division of the germ cell
reproductive, they produce a diploid zygote and
can occur before or after pollination.
triploid endosperm.
Pollination
Anther The transfer of pollen from the anther to the
Stigma female stigma is termed pollination. This is
accomplished by a variety of methods. Entomo-
Filament phyly is the transfer of pollen by an insect.
Anemophyly is the transfer of pollen by wind.
Style
Other pollinators include birds, bats, water, and
Male cell humans. Some flowers (for example garden peas)
develop in such a way as to pollinate themselves.
Others have mechanisms to ensure pollination
with another flower. Flower color is thought to
Female cell indicate the nature of pollinator: red petals are
thought to attract birds, yellow for bees, and white
Ovary
for moths. Wind pollinated flowers have reduced
Ovule petals, such as oaks and grasses.
Gynoecium
The gynoecium consists of the stigma, style,
Receptacle
and ovary containing one or more ovules. These
three structures are often termed a pistil or carpel.
Flowers In many plants, the pistils will fuse for all or part
of their length.
Flowers are collections of reproductive and
sterile tissue arranged in a tight whorled array
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The Stigma and Style removed from direct contact with the outside
The stigma functions as a receptive surface environment, have developed specialized
on which pollen lands and germinates its pollen structures for obtaining and breaking down their
tube. Corn silk is part stigma, part style. The style food.
serves to move the stigma some distance from the Animals Depend on Two Processes:
ovary. This distance is species specific. Feeding and Digestion
The Ovary 8 Animals are heterotrophs, they must
The ovary contains one or more ovules, absorb nutrients or ingest food sources.
which in turn contain one female gametophyte, 8 Ingestive eaters, majority of animals,
also referred to in angiosperms as the embryo sac. use a mouth to ingest food.
Some plants, such as cherry, have only a single
8 Absorptive feeders, such as tapeworms,
ovary which produces two ovules. Only one ovule
live in a digestive system of another
will develop into a seed.
animal and absorb nutrients from that
Double Fertilization
animal directly through their body
The process of pollination being wall.
accomplished, the pollen tube grows through the 8 Filter feeders, such as oysters and
stigma and style toward the ovules in the ovary.
mussels, collect small organisms and
The germ cell in the pollen grain divides and
particles from the surrounding water
releases two sperm cells which move down the
pollen tube. Once the tip of the tube reaches the 8 Substrate feeders, such as earthworms
micropyle end of the embryo sac, the tube grows and termites, eat the material (dirt or
through into the embryo sac through one of the wood) they burrow through.
synergids which flank the egg. One sperm cell 8 Fluid feeders, such as aphids, pierce the
fuses with the egg, producing the zygote which body of a plant or animal and withdraw
will later develope into the next-generation fluids.
sporophyte. The second sperm fuses with the two Stages in the Digestive Process
polar bodies located in the center of the sac,
Food for the most part consists of various
producing the nutritive triploid endosperm tissue
organic macromolecules such as starch, proteins,
that will provide energy for the embryo’s growth
and fats. These molecules are polymers made of
and development.
individual monomer units Breaking these large
Fruit molecules into smaller components involves:
The ovary wall, after fertilization has 1. movement: propels food through the
occurred, develops into a fruit. Fruits may be digestive system
fleshy, hard, multiple or single.
2. secretion: release of digestive juices in
Note:- View the Seeds of Life site for
illustrations and information about fruits and response to a specific stimulus
seeds. Seeds germinate, and the embryo grows 3. digestion: breakdown of food into
into the next generation sporophyte. molecular components small enough to
cross the plasma membrane
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
4. absorption: passage of the molecules
Digestive System in Various Organism into the body’s interior and their
Single-celled organisms can directly take in passage throughout the body
nutrients from their outside environment. 5. elimination: removal of undigested food
Multicellular animals, with most of their cells and wastes
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Three processes occur during what we loosely refer to as “digestion”.

Digestion proper, which is the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into particles/
molecules small enough to pass into the blood.
Absorption is the passage of food monomers into the blood stream. Assimilation is the passage
of the food molecules into body cells.
The Human Digestive System
The human digestive system, is a coiled, muscular tube (6-9 meters long when fully extended)
stretching from the mouth to the anus. Several specialized compartments occur along this length: mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. Accessory digestive organs
are connected to the main system by a series of ducts: salivary glands, parts of the pancreas, and the
liver and gall bladder (bilary system).
Salivary Glands
Secretion of lubricating fluid
containing enzymes that
break down carbohydrates
Oral cavity, teeth, tongue Pharynx

Mechanical processing, Pharyngeal muscles propel
moistening, mixing with salivary materials into the esophagus
secretions
Esophagus
Transport of materials
to the stomach
Liver
Stomach
Secretion of bile (important
for lipid digestion), storage Chemical breakdown of
of nutrients, many other vital materials via acid and
functions enzymes: mechanical
processing through
Gallbladder muscular contractions
Storage and concentration of Pancreas
bile
Exocrine cells secrete buffers
and digestive enzymes;
endocrine cells secrete
hormones
Large Intestine Small Intestine

Enzymatic digestion and
Dehydration and compaction absorption of water, organic
of indigestible materials in substrates, vitamins, and ions
preparation for elimination
(A) The Mouth and Pharynx Most vertebrates, except birds (who have lost
Mechanical breakdown begins in the mouth their teeth to a hardened bill), have teeth for
by chewing (teeth) and actions of the tongue. tearing, grinding and chewing food. The tongue
Chemical breakdown of starch by production of manipulates food during chewing and
salivary amylase from the salivary glands. This swallowing; mammals have tastebuds clustered
mixture of food and saliva is then pushed into the on their tongues.
pharynx and esophagus. The esophagus is a Salivary glands secrete salivary amylase, an
muscular tube whose muscular contractions enzyme that begins the breakdown of starch into
(peristalsis) propel food to the stomach. glucose.
In the mouth, teeth, jaws and the tongue Mucus moistens food and lubricates the
begin the mechanical breakdown of food into esophagus. Bicarbonate ions in saliva neutralize
smaller particles. the acids in foods.
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Swallowing moves food from the mouth Epithelial cells secrete mucus that forms a
through the pharynx into the esophagus and then protective barrier between the cells and the
to the stomach. stomach acids. Pepsin is inactivated when it
(b) The Stomach comes into contact with the mucus.
Bicarbonate ions reduce acidity near the
During a meal, the stomach gradually fills
cells lining the stomach. Tight junctions link the
to a capacity of 1 liter, from an empty capacity of
epithelial stomach-lining cells together, further
50-100 milliliters. At a price of discomfort, the
reducing or preventing stomach acids from
stomach can distend to hold 2 liters or more. passing.
Epithelial cells line inner surface of the Ulcers
stomach, and secrete about 2 liters of gastric juices Peptic ulcers result when these protective
per day. mechanisms fail. Bleeding ulcers result when
Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid, tissue damage is so severe that bleeding occurs
pepsinogen, and mucus; ingredients important in into the stomach.
digestion. Perforated ulcers are life-threatening
Secretions are controlled by nervous (smells, situations where a hole has formed in the stomach
thoughts, and caffeine) and endocrine signals. wall.
The stomach secretes hydrochloric acid and At least 90% of all peptic ulcers are caused
pepsin. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) lowers pH of the by Helicobacter pylori. Other factors, including
stomach so pepsin is activated. Pepsin is an stress and aspirin, can also produce ulcers.
enzyme that controls the hydrolysis of proteins (C) The Small Intestine
into peptides.
The small intestine, is where final digestion
The stomach also mechanically churns the
and absorption occur.
food. Chyme, the mix of acid and food in the
The small intestine is a coiled tube over 3
stomach, leaves the stomach and enters the small
meters long. Coils and folding plus villi give this
intestine.
3m tube the surface area of a 500-600m long tube.
Hydrochloric acid does not directly function
Final digestion of proteins and
in digestion: it kills microorganisms, lowers the
carbohydrates must occur, and fats have not yet
stomach pH to between 1.5 and 2.5; and activates
been digested.
pepsinogen.
Villi have cells that produce intestinal
Pepsinogen is an enzyme that starts protein
enzymes which complete the digestion of
digestion. Pepsinogen is produced in cells that
peptides and sugars.
line the gastric pits. It is activated by cleaving off
The absorption process also occurs in the
a portion of the molecule, producing the enzyme
small intestine. Food has been broken down into
pepsin that splits off fragments of peptides from
particles small enough to pass into the small
a protein molecule during digestion in the
intestine.
stomach.
Sugars and amino acids go into the
Carbohydrate digestion, begun by salivary
bloodstream via capillaries in each villus.
amylase in the mouth, continues in the bolus as it
Glycerol and fatty acids go into the lymphatic
passes to the stomach. The bolus is broken down
system.
into acid chyme in the lower third of the stomach,
Absorption is an active transport, requiring
allowing the stomach’s acidity to inhibit further
cellular energy.
carbohydrate breakdown. Protein digestion by
Food is mixed in the lower part of the
pepsin begins.
stomach by peristaltic waves that also propel the
Note:
acid-chyme mixture against the pyloric sphincter.
(Alcohol and aspirin are absorbed through
Increased contractions of the stomach push
the stomach lining into the blood.)
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the food through the sphincter and into the small known as a brush border.
intestine as the stomach eempties over a 1 to 2 Each villus has a capillary network supplied
hour period. by a small arteriole. Absorbed substances pass
High fat diets significantly increase this time through the brush border into the capillary,
period. usually by passive transport.
The small intestine is the major site for Maltose, sucrose, and lactose are the main
digestion and absorption of nutrients. The small carbohydrates present in the small intestine; they
intestine is up to 6 meters long and is 2-3 are absorbed by the microvilli. Starch is broken
centimeters wide. down into two-glucose units (maltose) elsewhere.
The upper part, the duodenum, is the most Enzymes in the cells convert these disaccharides
active in digestion. Secretions from the liver and into monosaccharides that then leave the cell and
pancreas are used for digestion in the duodenum. enter the capillary. Lactose intolerance results
Epithelial cells of the duodenum secrete a watery from the genetic lack of the enzyme lactase
mucus. produced by the intestinal cells.
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes Peptide fragments and amino acids cross the
and stomach acid-neutralizing bicarbonate. epithelial cell membranes by active transport.
The liver produces bile, which is stored in Inside the cell they are broken into amino acids
the gall bladder before entering the bile duct into that then enter the capillary. Gluten enteropathy
the duodenum. is the inability to absorb gluten, a protein found
Digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and in wheat.
fats continues in the small intestine. Starch and Digested fats are not very soluble. Bile salts
glycogen are broken down into maltose by small surround fats to form micelles, that can pass into
intestine enzymes. the epithelial cells. The bile salts return to the
Proteases are enzymes secreted by the lumen to repeat the process. Fat digestion is
pancreas that continue the breakdown of protein usually completed by the time the food reaches the
into small peptide fragments and amino acids. ileum (lower third) of the small intestine. Bile salts
Bile emulsifies fats, facilitating their are in turn absorbed in the ileum and are recycled
breakdown into progressively smaller fat by the liver and gall bladder. Fats pass from the
globules until they can be acted upon by lipases. epithelial cells to the small lymph vessel that also
Bile contains cholesterol, phospholipids, runs through the villus.
bilirubin, and a mix of salts. 8 The Liver:
Fats are completely digested in the small
intestine, unlike carbohydrates and proteins. Liver
Most absorption occurs in the duodenum
and jejeunum (second third of the small intestine).
The inner surface of the intestine has circular folds
that more than triple the surface area for
absorption. Hepatic ducts
Villi covered with epithelial cells increase Cystic duct
the surface area by another factor of 10. The
epithelial cells are lined with microvilli that Gallbladder
further increase the surface area; a 6 meter long Pancreas
tube has a surface area of 300 square meters. Duodenum Common bile duct
Each villus has a surface that is adjacent to Pancreatic duct
the inside of the small intestinal opening covered
in microvilli that form on top of an epithelial cell
The liver produces and sends bile to the
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small intestine via the hepatic duct. Bile contains functioning. Jaundice may occur when liver
bile salts, which emulsify fats, making them function has been impaired by obstruction of the
susceptible to enzymatic breakdown. bile duct and by damage caused by hepatitis.
In addition to digestive functions, the liver (B) Hepatitis A, B, and C are all viral
plays several other roles: diseases that can cause liver damage.
(1) detoxification of blood; Like any viral disease, the major
(2) synthesis of blood proteins; treatment efforts focus on treatment of
(3) destruction of old erythrocytes and symptoms, not removal of the viral
conversion of hemoglobin into a cause.
component of bile; 8 Hepatitis A is usually mild malady
(4) production of bile; indicated by a sudden fever, malaise,
nausea, anorexia, and abdominal
(5) storage of glucose as glycogen, and its
release when blood sugar levels drop; discomfort.
and 8 The virus causing Hepatitis A is
primarilly transmitted by fecal
(6) production of urea from amino groups
and ammonia.
contamination, although
contaminated food and water also
8 Gall Bladder
can promote transmission.
The gall bladder stores excess bile for release
at a later time. We can live without our gall 8 Hepatitis B may be transmitted by
bladders, in fact many people have had theirs blood and blood products as well as
removed. The drawback, however, is a need to be sexual contact. The risk of HBV
aware of the amount of fats in the food they eat infection is high among promiscuous
since the stored bile of the gall bladder is no longer homosexual men although it is also
available. transmitted hetereosexually. Correct
Glycogen is a polysaccharide made of use of condoms is thought to reduce
chains of glucose molecules. In plants starch is the or eliminate the risk of transmission.
storage form of glucose, while animals use
8 Individuals with chronic hepatitis B
glycogen for the same purpose. Low glucose levels
are at an increased risk of
in the blood cause the release of hormones, such
as glucagon, that travel to the liver and stimulate developing primary liver cancer.
the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which is 8 Hepatitis C affects approximately
then released into the blood(raising blood glucose 170 million people worldwide. The
levels). When no glucose or glycogen is available, virus is transmitted primarily by
amino acids are converted into glucose in the liver. blood and blood products.
The process of deamination removes the amino Sexual transmission can occur between
groups from amino acids. Urea is formed and monogamous couples (rare) but infection is far
passed through the blood to the kidney for export more common in those who are promiscuous.
from the body. Conversely, the hormone insulin In rare cases, Hepatitis C causes acute
promotes the take-up of glusose into liver cells disease and even liver failure. with cirrhosis from
and its formation into glycogen. Hepatitis C also bear increased chances of
(A) Liver Diseases Jaundice occurs when developing primary liver cancer.
the characteristic yellow tint to the skin is caused (C) Cirrhosis: Cirrhosis of the liver
by excess hemoglobin breakdown products in the commonly occurs in alcoholics, who place the liver
blood, a sign that the liver is not properly in a stress situation due to the amount of alcohol
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to be broken down. Cirrhosis can cause the liver The large intestine performs three basic
to become unable to perform its biochemical functions in vertebrates:
functions. Chemicals responsible for blood (1) recovery of water and electrolytes from
clotting are synthesized in the liver, as is albumin, digested food;
the major protein in blood. The liver also makes
(2) formation and storage of feces; and
or modifies bile components.
Blood from the circulatory system passes (3) microbial fermentation:
through the liver, so many of the body’s metabolic The large intestine supports an amazing
functions occur primarily there including the flora of microbes. Those microbes produce
metabolism of cholesterol and the conversion of enzymes that can digest many of molecules
proteins and fats into glucose. Cirrhosis is a indigestible by vertebrates. Secretions in the large
disease resulting from damage to liver cells due intestine are an alkaline mucus that protects
to toxins, inflammation, and other causes. epithelial tissues and neutralizes acids produced
Liver cells regenerate in an abnormal pattern by bacterial metabolism.
primarily forming nodules that are surrounded by Water, salts, and vitamins are absorbed, the
fibrous tissue. Changes in the structure of the liver remaining contents in the lumen form feces
can decrease blood flow, leading to secondary (mostly cellulose, bacteria, bilirubin). Bacteria in
complications. the large intestine, such as E. coli, produce
Cirrhosis has many cuses, including alcoholic vitamins (including vitamin K) that are absorbed.
liver disease, severe forms of some viral hepatitis, Nutrition
congestive heart failure, parasitic infections (for Nutrition deals with the composition of
example schistosomiasis), and long term food, its energy content, and slowly (or not at all)
exposure to toxins or drugs. synthesized organic molecules. Chemotrophs are
8 The Pancreas the organisms (mostly bacteria) that derive their
The pancreas sends pancreatic juice, which energy from inorganic chemical reactions.
neutralizes the chyme, to the small intestive Phototrophs convert sunlight energy into sugar
through the pancreatic duct. In addition to this or other organic molecules. Heterotrophs eat to
digestive function, the pancrease is the site of obtain energy from the breakdown of organic
production of several hormones, such as glucagon molecules in their food. Macronutrients are foods
and insulin. An recently recognized condition required on a large scale each day. These include
which is known as prediabetes, in which the body carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids. Water is
gradually loses its sensitivity to insulin, leading essential, correct water balance is a must for proper
eventually to Type II diabetes medications, diet functioning of the body.
and behavior (in other words EXERCISE!!!) Carbohydrate : The diet should contain at
changes are thought to delay if not outright least 100 grams of carbohydrate every day.
postpone the onset of diabetes if corrected soon Recently, however, new recommendations have
enough. been developed that suggest a lowering of the
(D) The Large Intestine amount of carbohydrate.
Protein: Proteins are polymers composed of
The large intestine is made up by the colon,
amino acids. Proteins are found in meat, milk,
cecum, appendix, and rectum. Material in the large
poultry, fish, cereal grains and beans. They are
intestine is mostly indigestible residue and liquid.
needed for cellular growth and repair. Twenty
Movements are due to involuntary
amino acids are found in proteins, of which
contractions that shuffle contents back and forth
humans can make eleven. The remaining nine are
and propulsive contractions that move material
the essential amino acids which must be supplied
through the large intestine.
in the diet.
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Normally proteins are not used for energy, carbohydrates get broken down into
however during starvation (or a low-carb diet) simple sugars such as glucose. Fats into
muscle proteins are broken down for energy. fatty acid and glycerol. Proteins into
Excess protein can be used for energy or converted amino acid.
to fats. 8 Grass eating animals chewing
Lipids and fats: Lipids and fats generate the continuously even when they are not
greatest energy yield, so a large number of plants eating because they quickly swallow the
and animals store excess food energy as fats.
grass and store it in a separate part of
Lipids and fats are present in oils, meats,
the stomach called rumen. Here the food
butter, and plants (such as avocado and peanuts).
get partially digested and is called cud,
Some fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, are essential
and must be included in the diet. When present later the cud returns to the mouth in
in the intestine, lipids promote the uptake of small lumps and the animal chews it.
vitamins A, D, E, and K. This process is called rumination and
Vitamins:Vitamins are organic molecules these animals are called ruminants.
required for metabolic reactions. They usually 8 The grass is rich in cellulose a type of
cannot be made by the body and are needed in carbohydrates human cannot digest
trace amounts. Vitamins may act as enzyme cellulose.
cofactors or coenzymes. Some vitamins are 8 Amoeba is a microscopic single celled
soluble in fats, some in water.
organism found in pond water. When
Minerals: Minerals are trace elements
it sense food, it pushes out one or more
required for normal metabolism, as components
of cells and tissues, and for nerve conduction and finger like projection (pseudopodia)
muscle contraction. around the food particles and engulf it
They can only be obtained from the diet. Iron and then the food becomes trapped in a
(for hemoglobin), iodine (for thyroxin), calcium (for food vacuole.
bones), and sodium (nerve message transmission)
are examples of minerals. There is a quantitative
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
relationship between nutrients and health. Excretory Systems in Various Animals
Imbalances can cause disease. Many studies have
Excretory systems regulate the chemical
concluded nutrition is a major factor in
composition of body fluids by removing metabolic
cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and cancer.
wastes and retaining the proper amounts of water,
Digestion in Animals Facts from NCERT salts, and nutrients. Components of this system
8 Starfish feeds on animals covered by in vertebrates include the kidneys, liver, lungs,
half shells of calcium carbonate. After and skin.
opening the shell, the starfish pops out Not all animals use the same routes or
its stomach through its mouth to eat the excrete their wastes the same way as humans do.
soft animals inside the shell. The Excretion applies to metabolic waste products that
stomach the goes back into the body and cross a plasma membrane. Elimination is the
the food is slowly digested. removal of feces.
A. Nitrogen Wastes
8 The saliva breakdown the starch into
sugar. Nitrogen wastes are by product of protein
8 Liver situated in the upper part of the metabolism. Amino groups are removed from
abdomen on the right side. It is the amino acids prior to energy conversion. The NH2
largest gland in the body. (amino group) combines with a hydrogen ion
(proton) to form ammonia (NH3).
8 In the process of digestion
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Ammonia is very toxic and usually is Water loss can be considerable: a person in a 100
excreted directly by marine animals. Terrestrial degree F temperature loses 1 liter of water per hour.
animals usually need to conserve water. Excretory System Functions
Ammonia is converted to urea, a compound the
1. Collect water and filter body fluids.
body can tolerate at higher concentrations than
2. Remove and concentrate waste
ammonia. Birds and insects secrete uric acid that
products from body fluids and return
they make through large energy expenditure but
little water loss. other substances to body fluids as
Amphibians and mammals secrete urea that necessary for homeostasis.
they form in their liver. Amino groups are turned 3. Eliminate excretory products from the
into ammonia, which in turn is converted to urea, body.
dumped into the blood and concentrated by the Invertebrate Excretory Organs
kidneys. Many invertebrates such as flatworms use
(B) Water and Salt Balance a nephridium as their excretory organ. At the end
The excretory system is responsible for of each blind tubule of the nephridium is a ciliated
regulating water balance in various body fluids. flame cell. As fluid passes down the tubule,
Osmoregulation refers to the state aquatic solutes are reabsorbed and returned to the body
animals are in: they are surrounded by freshwater fluids.
and must constantly deal with the influx of water. Body fluids are drawn into the Malphigian
Animals, such as crabs, have an internal salt tubules by osmosis due to large concentrations of
concentration very similar to that of the potassium inside the tubule. Body fluids pass
surrounding ocean. Such animals are known as back into the body, nitrogenous wastes empty into
osmocon-formers, as there is little water transport the insect’s gut. Water is reabsorbed and waste is
between the inside of the animal and the isotonic expelled from the insect.
outside environment. Marincompositione The Human Excretory System
vertebrates, however, have internal concentrations The urinary system is made-up of the
of salt that are about one-third of the surrounding kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The
seawater. They are said to be osmoregulators. nephron, an evolutionary modification of the
Osmoregu-lators face two problems: prevention of nephridium, is the kidney’s functional unit. Waste
water loss from the body and prevention of salts is filtered from the blood and collected as urine in
diffusing into the body. Fish deal with this by each kidney. Urine leaves the kidneys by ureters,
passing water out of their tissues through their and collects in the bladder. The bladder can
gills by osmosis and salt through their gills by distend to store urine that eventually leaves
active transport. through the urethra.
Cartilaginous fish have a greater salt (a) The Nephron
concentration than seawater, causing water to
The nephron consists of a cup-shaped
move into the shark by osmosis; this water is used
capsule containing capillaries and the
for excretion. Freshwater fish must prevent water
glomerulus, and a long renal tube. Blood flows
gain and salt loss. They do not drink water, and
into the kidney through the renal artery, which
have their skin covered by a thin mucus. Water
branches into capillaries associated with the
enters and leaves through the gills and the fish
glomerulus. Arterial pressure causes water and
excretory system produces large amounts of
solutes from the blood to filter into the capsule.
dilute urine. Terrestrial animals use a variety of
Fluid flows through the proximal tubule, which
methods to reduce water loss: living in moist
include the loop of Henle, and then into the distal
environments, developing impermeable body
tubule. The distal tubule empties into a collecting
coverings, production of more concentrated urine.
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duct. Fluids and solutes are returned to the exchange, which maintains the
capillaries that surround the nephron tubule. concentration gradient
The nephron has three functions: 8 Distal Convoluted Tubule: Tubular
1. Glomerular filtration of water and secretion of H ions, potassium, and
solutes from the blood. certain drugs.
2. Tubular reabsorption of water and (D) Kidney Stones
conserved molecules back into the
blood. In some cases, excess wastes crystallize as
kidney stones. They grow and can become a
3. Tubular secretion of ions and other
painful irritant that may require surgery or
waste products from surrounding
ultrasound treatments. Some stones are small
capillaries into the distal tubule.
enough to be forced into the urethra, others are the
Nephrons filter 125 ml of body fluid per
size of huge, massive boulders.
minute; filtering the entire body fluid component
(E) Kidney Functions
16 times each day. In a 24 hour period nephrons
produce 180 liters of filtrate, of which 178.5 liters Kidneys perform a number of homeostatic
are reabsorbed. The remaining 1.5 liters forms functions:
urine. 1. Maintain volume of extracellular fluid
(B) Urine Production 2. Maintain ionic balance in extracellular
1. Filtration in the glomerulus and fluid
nephron capsule. 3. Maintain pH and osmotic
2. Reabsorption in the proximal tubule. concentration of the extracellular fluid.
3. Tubular secretion in the Loop of Henle. 4. Excrete toxic metabolic by-products
such as urea, ammonia, and uric acid.
Medulla (pyramids) Hormone Control of Water and Salt
Cortex
Water reabsorption is controlled by the
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in negative feedback.
Minor calyce
ADH is released from the pituitary gland in
Papilla of medulla Renal artery
the brain. Dropping levels of fluid in the blood
signal the hypothalamus to cause the pituitary to
Major calyx
Renal vein
release ADH into the blood. ADH acts to increase
water absorption in the kidneys. This puts more
Pelvis water back in the blood, increasing the
Capsule
concentration of the urine. When too much fluid
Ureter is present in the blood, sensors in the heart signal
the hypothalamus to cause a reduction of the
amounts of ADH in the blood. This increases the
(C) COMPONENTS OF THE NEPHRON amount of water absorbed by the kidneys,
producing large quantities of a more dilute urine.
8 Glomerulus: mechanically filters blood Aldosterone, a hormone secreted by the kidneys,
8 Bowman’s Capsule: mechanically filters regulates the transfer of sodium from the nephron
blood to the blood. When sodium levels in the blood fall,
aldosterone is released into the blood, causing
8 Proximal Convoluted Tubule:
more sodium to pass from the nephron to the
Reabsorbs 75% of the water, salts,
blood. This causes water to flow into the blood by
glucose, and amino acids osmosis. Renin is released into the blood to control
8 Loop of Henle: Countercurrent aldosterone.
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS 8 Likewise, oxygen produced during

photosynthesis can only pass out of the
Structure of leaf
leaf through the opened stomata.
8 Plants are the only photosynthetic 8 Unfortunately for the plant, while these
organisms to have leaves (and not all gases are moving between the inside
plants have leaves). A leaf may be and outside of the leaf, a great deal
viewed as a solar collector crammed full water is also lost.
of photosynthetic cells. 8 Cottonwood trees, for example, will lose
8 The raw materials of photosynthesis, 100 gallons of water per hour during
water and carbon dioxide, enter the hot desert days. Carbon dioxide enters
cells of the leaf, and the products of single-celled and aquatic autotrophs
photosynthesis, sugar and oxygen, through no specialized structures.
leave the leaf. Chlorophyll and Accessory Pigments
8 A pigment is any substance that
absorbs light. The color of the pigment
comes from the wavelengths of light
Leaf lamina
reflected (in other words, those not
absorbed).
8 Chlorophyll, the green pigment
common to all photosynthetic cells,
absorbs all wavelengths of visible light
except green, which it reflects to be
Stipule detected by our eyes.
Petiole
8 Black pigments absorb all of the
Node wavelengths that strike them.
Axil
Internode 8 White pigments/lighter colors reflect
all or almost all of the energy striking
Axillary bud
them. Pigments have their own
Stem
characteristic absorption spectra, the
absorption pattern of a given pigment.
8 Water enters the root and is transported
up to the leaves through specialized 8 Chlorophyll is a complex molecule.
plant cells known as xylem. Several modifications of chlorophyll
occur among plants and other
8 Land plants must guard against drying
photosynthetic organisms. All
out (desiccation) and so have evolved
photosynthetic organisms (plants,
specialized structures known as
certain protistans, prochlorobacteria,
stomata to allow gas to enter and leave
and cyanobacteria) have chlorophyll a.
the leaf. Carbon dioxide cannot pass
Accessory pigments absorb energy that
through the protective waxy layer
chlorophyll a does not absorb.
covering the leaf (cuticle), but it can enter
Accessory pigments include
the leaf through an opening (the stoma;
chlorophyll b (also c, d, and e in algae
plural = stomata; Greek for hole)
and protistans), xanthophylls, and
flanked by two guard cells.
carotenoids (such as beta-carotene).
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Chlorophyll absorbs its energy from the 8 The plants in this group are commonly
Violet-Blue and Reddish orange-Red called algae. These plants are
wavelengths, and little from the predominantly aquatic.
intermediate (Green-Yellow-Orange) E.g. : Spirogyra, cladophora and chara.
wavelengths. (ii) Bryophyte
The Carbon Cycle
8 These are called the amphibians of the
8 Plants may be viewed as carbon sinks, plant kingdom. There is no specialized
removing carbon dioxide from the tissue for the
atmosphere and oceans by fixing it into conduction of water and other
organic chemicals. Plants also produce substances from one past of the plant
some carbon dioxide by their body to another.
respiration, but this is quickly used by E.g. : moss (fumaria) and marchantia
photosynthesis. Plants also convert (iii) Pteridopheysta
energy from light into chemical energy 8 In this group plant body is
of C-C covalent bonds. Animals are differentiated into roots, stem and
carbon dioxide producers that derive leaves and has specialized tissue for the
their energy from carbohydrates and conduction of water and other
other chemicals produced by plants by substances from one plant of the plant
the process of photosynthesis. body to another. Eg- marsilea, ferns, and
8 The balance between the plant carbon horse tails.
dioxide removal and animal carbon (iv) Gymnosperms
dioxide generation is equalized also by
the formation of carbonates in the 8 The plant of this group bear naked
oceans. This removes excess carbon seeds and one usually perennial and
dioxide from the air and water (both of evergreen and woody.
which are in equilibrium with regard Eg- pines such as deodar.
to carbon dioxide). Fossil fuels, such as (v) Angiosperms
petroleum and coal, as well as more 8 The seeds develop inside an organ
recent fuels such as peat and wood which is modified to become a fruit.
generate carbon dioxide when burned. These are also called flowering plants.
Fossil fuels are formed ultimately by 8 Plant embryos in seeds have structures
organic processes, and represent also a called cotyledons. Cotyledons are
tremendous carbon sink. Human called seed leaves because in many
activity has greatly increased the instances they emerge and become
concentration of carbon dioxide in air. green the seed germinates.
8 The angiosperms are divided into two
DIVERSITY IN groups on the basis of the number of
LIVING ORGANISMS cotyledons present in the seed.
Differentiation in Plants 8 Plants with seeds having a single
cotyledon are called monocotyledons or
(i) Thallophyta monocots. Eg- paphiopedilum.
8 Plants that do not have well 8 Plants with seeds having two
differentiated body design fall in this cotyledons are called dicots. Eg-
group. ipomoce.
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Differentation of Animals (vi) Arthropods

(i) Porifera 8 There is an open circulatory system and
These are non mobile animals attached to so the blood does not flow in well
some solid support. There are holes or pores all defined blood vessels. They have joint
over the body. These lead to a canal system that legs.
helps in circulating water throughout the body to Eg- prawns, butterflies, houseflies,
bring in food and O2. They are commonly called spiders, scorpions and crabs.
sponges mainly found in marine habitats. (vii) Mollusca
(ii) Coelenterata 8 They have an open circulatory system
8 These are animals living in water. The and kidney like organs for excretion.
body is made up of two layers of cells. There is a little segmentation. There is a
One makes up cells on the outside of foot that is used for moving around. Eg-
the body and the other makes the inner snails, and mussels, octopus.
living of the body. (viii) Echinodermate
8 Some of these species live in colonies 8 There are spiny skinned organisms.
while others have a solitary life e.g. span These are exclusively free living marine
(Hydra) jellyfish are common example. animals. They have peculiar water
(iii) Platyhelminthes driven tube system that they use for
8 There are three layers of cells from moving around. They have hard
which different tissues can be made. calcium carbonate structure that they
This allow outside and inside body use as skeleton.
linings as well as some organs to be Eg- starfish, sea cucumber.
made. (ix) Protochordats
8 Thus there is some degree of tissues 8 They are marine animals.
formation. Eg- balanoglossus, hardemania and
8 They are either free living or parasitic. amphioxus.
e.g. Planarians, liver flukes. (x) Vertebratia
(iv) Nematode
8 These animals have a true vertebral
8 These are very familiar as parasitic column & internal skeleton. These are
worms causing diseases such as the grouped into five classes.
worms causing elephantiasis (filaria Pisces
worms) or the worms in the intestine 8 These are fish. They are cold blooded
(round or pin worms) and their hearts have only two
(v) Annelida chambers unlike the four that human
8 They have true body cavity. This allows have.
true organs to be packaged in the body 8 Some with skeletons made entirely of
structure. There is thus an extensive cartilage, such as shark.
organ different ion. This differentiation 8 Some with skeleton made of both bones
occurs in a segmental fashion with the and cartilages such as tuna or rohu.
segment lined up one after the other (xi) Amphibian
from head to tail. Eg- Earthworms, 8 They have mucus glands in the skin
leeches. and a three chambered heart.
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Respiration is through either gills or 8 Viruses : They reproduce only inside

lungs. the cells of the host organisms which
Eg- frogs, toades, and salamanders. may be bacterium, plants or animal.
(xii) Reptilia 8 Common cold, influnenza and most
8 These animals are cold blooded have coughs are caused by viruses.
scales and breathe through lungs. While 8 Serious diseases like polio and chicken
most of them have a three chamber heart pox are also caused by viruses.
while crocodile have four heart 8 Micro organisms may be single celled
chambers. like bacteria, Some algae and protozoa.
Eg- snakes, turtles, lizards and Multicellular such as algae and fungi.
crocodiles.
8 Micro organisms like amoeba can live
(xiii) Aves
alone, while fungi and bacteria may live
8 These are warm blooded animals and in colonies.
have a four chambered heart. They lay Friendly Micro Organisms
eggs. They breathe through lungs. All
birds fall in this category. 8 Making of curd and breed:-milk is
(xiv) Mamalia turned into curd by bacteria. The
bacterium lacto bacillus promotes the
8 They are warm blooded animals with
formation of curd.
four chambered hearts.
8 They have mammary glands for the 8 Yeast reproduces rapidly and produces
production of milk to nourish their CO2 during respiration. Bubbles of the
young. They produce live young ones. gas fill the dough and increase its
8 However a few of them like platypus volume; this is the basis of the use of
and the echidna lay eggs. yeast in the booking industry for
making breads, pastries and cakes.
MICRO ORGANISMS: FRIEND AND FOE
8 Yeast is used for commercial production
of alcohol and wine. For this purpose
yeast is grown as natural sugars present
in grains like barley, wheat, rice,
crushed fruit juice etc.
8 This process of conversion of sugar into
alcohol is known as fermentation Luwis
Pasteur discovered fermentation.
Medicinal Use of Micro Organisms
8 The medicine which kills or stops the
growth of diseases causing microorga-
nism is called antibiotics.
FACTS FROM NCERT 8 Streptomycin, tetracycline and
erythromycin are some of the commonly
Micro organisms are classified into four
major groups. These groups are bacteria, fungi, known antibiotics. Which are made
protozoa and algae. from fungi and bacteria.
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8 Alexander Fleming discovered which act as carrier of disease causing

penicillin. microbes like house fly. Another is
8 Antibiotics are not effective against cold female anopheles mosquito which
and flu as these are coused by virus. caries the parasite of malaria.
Vaccine 8 Female aedes mosquito acts as carrier
of dengu virus.
8 When a disease carrying microbe enters
8 Robert Koch discovered the bacteria
our body, the body produces antibodies
(bacillus anthracis) which causes
to fight the invader. anthrax disease.
8 The antibodies remain in the body and 8 It is a dangerous human & cattle
we are protected from the disease disease.
causing microbes. This is how a vaccine Common Methods of
work. Preserving Food in our Homes
8 Several diseases including cholera, TB,
8 Chemical method : salt and edible oils
small pox and hepatitis can be
are the common chemical generally
prevented by vaccination.
used.
8 Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine 8 Sodium benzoate and sodium
for small pox. metabisulphite are common
Increasing Soil Fertility preservatives. These are also used in the
8 Some bacteria and blue green algae are James and squashes to check their
able to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere spoilage.
to enrich the soil with nitrogen and Preservation by sugar :
increase its fertility. 8 Sugar reduces the moisture context
8 These microbes are commonly called which inhibits the growth of bacteria
biological nitrogen fixer. which spoil food.
Harmful Microorganisms 8 Use of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage
of pickles become bacteria cannot live
8 Microbial diseases that can spread from in such an environment.
an infected person to a healthy person
8 Pasteurized milk : the milk is heated to
through air water, food, or physical
about 70oc for 15 to 30 seconds and then
contact are called communicable
suddenly chilled and stored.
diseases. i.e.- cholera, common cold,
chicken pox and TB. 8 This process was discovered by lowise
Pasteur. It is called pasteurisation.
8 There are some insects and animals
Some Common Plant Disease Caused by Microorganisms

Plant disease Microorganisms Mode of transmission
Citrus canker Bacteria Air

Rust of wheat Fungi Air, seeds
Yellow vein mosaic of bhindi Virus insect
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Some Common Human Disease Caused by Micro Organisms

Human disease Causative Mode of transmission Preventive measure
microorganisms
Tuberculosis Bacteria Air Keep the patient in
complete isolation.
Measles Virus Air Keep the person
Chicken pox Virus Air/contact belonging of the patient
Polio Virus Air/Water away from those of
others Vaccination at
suitable age.
Cholera Bacteria water/food Maintain personal
Typhoid Bacteria water hygiene and good sanitary
habits. consumed properly
cooked food and boiled
drinking water vaccination
Hepatitis B Virus Water Drink boiled drinking
water vaccination.
Malaria Protozoa Mosquito Spray insecticides and
control breeding of mosquito.
FACTS FROM HUMAN MACHINE allows them to breathe in air when they
swim near the surface of water. They
8 Camels have long legs which help to can stay inside the water for a long time
keep their bodies away from the heat of without breathing. They come out to the
the Sand. They excrete small amount of surface from time to time, to breathe in
urine, their dung is dry and they do not air.
sweat. Since Camels lose very little 8 When we breathe out, the air moves from
water from their bodies, they can live inside out body to outside. Breathing is
for many days without water. part of a process called respiration. In
8 Fish have slippery scales on their respiration, some of the oxygen of the
bodies. These scales protect the fish and air we breathe, in used by the living
also help in easy movements through body. We breathe out the Carbon dioxide
water. The presence of specific features produced in this process.
of certain habits, which enable a plant
THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
or an animal to live in its Surroundings,
is called adaptation. Invertebrates
8 There are some sea animals like squids Of the million or more animal species in the
and octopus, which do not have this world, more than 98% are invertebrates.
streamlined shape. These animals have Invertebrates don’t have an internal skeleton
gills to help them use oxygen dissolved made of bone. Many invertebrates have a fluid-
in water. filled, hydrostatic skeleton, like the jelly fish or
8 There are some sea animals like worm. Others have a hard outer shell, like insects
and crustaceans. There are many types of
dolphins and whales that do not have
invertebrates. The most common invertebrates
gills. They breathe in air through
include the protozoa, annelids, echinoderms,
nostrils or blowholes that are located
mollusks and arthropods. Arthropods include
on the upper parts of their heads. This
insects, crustaceans and arachnids.
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(I) PROTOZOA (III) MOLLUSKS

Protozoa are simple, single-celled animals. Mollusks were among the first inhabitants
They are the smallest of all animals. Most protozoa of the Earth. Fossils of mollusks have been found
are microscopic in size, and can only be seen in rocks and date back over 500 million years.
under a microscope. However, they do breathe, Mollusk fossils are usually well preserved
move and reproduce like multicelled animals. because of their hard shell. Most mollusks have a
There are several types of protozoa. The soft, skin-like organ covered with a hard outside
amoebas are clear, shapeless cells. Flagellates shell. Some mollusks live on land, such as the
have a body shape looking like a hair. Although snail and slug. Other mollusks live in water, such
we can’t see them, protozoa do a lot for us. as the oyster, mussel, clam, squid and octopus.
Protozoa play a useful role in the food chain as a Land living mollusks, like the snail, move
source of food for fish and other animals. Some slowly on a flat sole called a foot.Ocean living
protozoa are helpful to humans by eating mollusks move or swim by jet propulsion. They
dangerous bacteria. Unfortunately, other propel themselves by ejecting water from their
protozoa are parasites and can be harmful to body. For example, the squid ejects water from a
humans by transmitting disease. cavity within its body, and the scallop ejects water
Protozoa eat tiny algae and bacteria. Some to move by clamping its shell closed.Other ocean
protozoa absorb food through their cell living mollusks, like the oyster, attach themselves
membrane. Others surround and engulf their to rocks or other surfaces, and can’t move. They
food or have openings to collect food. They digest feed by filtering small food particles from water
their food in stomach-like compartments called that flows through them.Snail and SlugThe snail
vacuoles. Protozoa take in oxygen and give off family consists of marine snails and land snails
carbon dioxide through the cell membrane. all over the world. Land snails live in many
Protozoa reproduces by splitting in half. habitats from gardens and woodlands, to deserts
and mountains. Marine snails are native to all the
(II) WORMS AND LEECHES worlds oceans and seas, and many freshwater
There are about 9,000 species of Annelids rivers and lakes. Along with slug, snails make up
known today, including worms and leeches. They the gastropod class of the mollusk phylum. Snails
can be found almost anywhere in the world. have an external shell, large enough to withdraw
Annelids have existed on Earth for over 120 their body into it. Gastropods without a shell are
million years. known as slugs.
Annelids have bodies that are divided into Octopus
segments. They have very well-developed internal There are about 300 different species of
organs. One common characteristic of annelids is octopus native to many of the world’s oceans,
that they don’t have any limbs. especially coral reefs. The octopus doesn’t have
Some annelids may have long bristles. an internal or external skeleton, allowing it to
Others have shorter bristles and seem smooth, like squeeze into very small places. The octopus has
the earthworm. eight arms or tentacles, that it uses for crawling,
There are many types of worms.Commonly exploring things and catching prey. The octopus’
known worms include earthworms, roundworms arms have suckers capable of grasping and
and flatworms. Most worms are small, measuring holding objects, such as their prey. The octopus
fractions of an inch to several inches long. Other has a hard beak in the center of its arms that it uses
worms, such as the ribbon worm, can grow up to to tear apart its prey for eating. Like the squid, the
100 feet in length. Some worms are considered octopus can suck water into its mantle and expel
parasites, in that they live inside the human body. it out in a fast, strong jet. This jet propulsion
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provides fast, forward movement. Also like the forward. The nautilus has as many as 90 small
squid, the octopus can eject a thick cloud of ink to tentacles that it uses to catch food, such as shrimp,
help it escape from predators. fish or small crustaceans. It then uses its powerful
beak to crush the food. The nautilus is considered
(IV) SQUID a living fossil because its form has remained
There are about 300 species of squid. They unchanged for over 400 million years.
are native to most of the world’s oceans. The squid
(VII) ECHINODERMS: STARFISH, SEA URCHIN
has a distinct head, eight arms and two tentacles.
AND FAMILY
The mouth of the squid has a sharp horny beak
used to kill and tear its prey into small pieces. The Echinoderms are marine animals that live
main body of the squid is enclosed in the mantle, in the ocean. Common echinoderms include the
which has a swimming fin along each side. sea star, sea urchin, sand dollar and sea cucumber.
However, the swimming fin is not the squid’s Most echinoderms have arms or spines that
main way of moving through the water. The squid radiate from the center of their body. The central
can suck water into the mantle and expel it out in body contains their organs, and their mouth for
a fast, strong jet. This jet propulsion provides fast, feeding.
forward movement. Although most squid are less Sea stars, commonly known as the starfish,
than 2 feet in length, the giant squid can grow up have 5 or more arms attached to their body.
to 43 feet in length. On the bottom of the Starfish are small tube
feet to help with movement and feeding. The
(V) CUTTLEFISH
starfish’s mouth is underneath, and is capable of
Despite their name, the cuttlefish is not a eating other sea life such as clams and
fish, but a mollusk. The cuttlefish is native to all mussels. Another type of echinoderm is the sea
of the oceans of the world, but are more common urchin. Sea urchins have many spines connected
in shallow coastal temperate and tropical waters. to their body. These spines help to protect them
The cuttlefish has an internal shell or bone, called from predators.
the cuttlebone, that helps them to be buoyant. (a) Starfish
Attached to this body structure is the head with
The starfish or sea star is native to all of the
eight arms and two feeding tentacles. The
world’s oceans. There are about 1,800 different
cuttlefish can easily camouflage itself by changing
species of starfish with the greatest variety living
its skin color and pattern to blend in with its
in the tropical Indo-Pacific region. Most starfish
background. This helps the cuttlefish to hide from
have five arms, although some have fewer or more
predators, and the sneak up on its prey. Like the
arms. Like other enchinoderms, starfish have
squid and octopus, the cuttlefish can eject ink in
small tube feet on their underneath body to help
an effort to escape from predators. This ink, called
with movement and feeding. The starfish’s mouth
sepia, was once used as a dye to create ink used
is underneath, and it has two stomachs in the
by artists.
mouth. The stomach sack can come out through
(VI) NAUTILUS the mouth to engulf and digest food, such as clams
and mussels.
The nautilus is native to deep ocean waters.
(b) Crustaceans
It has a multi-chambered shell. Each chamber is
sealed and contains gas which provides the Crustaceans are a type of Arthropod. The
nautilus with buoyancy to float. Like the octopus, name may not sound familiar, but you probably
squid and cuttlefish, the nautilus uses jet know them. You may even have eaten one.
propulsion to move forward. It sucks in water, then Crustaceans live mostly in the ocean or
expels it in a fast, strong stream to propel itself other waters. Most commonly known crustaceans
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are the crab, lobster and barnacle. Crustaceans pairs of antennae use for taste and smell to find
have a hard, external shell which protects their food. As a crustacean, the shrimp has a thin,
body. Crustaceans have a head and abdomen. The almost transparent, exoskeleton. The shrimp is a
head has antennae which are part of their sensory popular food. In addition to commercial fishing
system. The abdomen includes the heart, digestive for shrimp, shrimp are also grown in shrimp
system and reproductive system. farms. Shrimp are also commonly found in
The abdomen also has appendages, such as aquariums.
legs, for crawling and swimming. Many
crustaceans also have claws that help with
(IX) ARACHNIDS: SPIDERS, TICKS AND
crawling and eating. SCORPIONS
(VIII) CRAB Arachnids are a type of arthropod. You

know many of them as spiders. Common
There are about 10,000 different species of arachnids are spiders, scorpions, ticks and mites.
crab. The crab is native to all of the world’s oceans. Like other arthropods, the arachnids have
There are also freshwater crabs, and even some a hard exoskeleton and jointed appendages for
crabs that live on land. Crabs have a large, hard walking. Most arachnids have 4 pairs of legs. In
shell. Extending from the front of its shell are the some, the first pair of legs may be used for holding
eyes, mouth and two pairs of antennae. The crab their prey and feeding. Unlike other arthropods,
has 5 pairs of legs extending from the side of its arachnids do not have antennae.
shell. The first pair of legs have claws or pincers Spiders are easily recognized with their 8
used to catch and hold food. The other pairs of legs legs. All legs are used for walking. The first pair
are used for walking. Most crabs don’t swim, they of legs is also used for holding prey and feeding.
use their legs to walk. However, some crabs such The second pair of legs may also be used for
as the Blue Crab can use their legs as paddles to holding and killing their prey. Most spiders have
swim. 8 eyes. Spiders have fangs that are used to inject
poison to paralyze or kill their prey. Many spiders
(A) LOBSTER
can produce silk threads to spin webs for catching
Lobsters are native to most oceans of the prey, and for building an egg sack to hold and
world. The lobster habitat is rocky, sandy or protect their eggs.
muddy ocean bottom and they are generally found Scorpions are large arachnids, some
hiding in crevices or in burrows under rocks. reaching over 8 inches in length. They have 4 pairs
Lobsters have five pairs of legs, the first pair of legs of legs, and a pair of pincers for catching and
are claws used to catch and hold food. Lobsters holding their prey. Scorpions also have a sharp
have a large exoskeleton. As lobsters grow, the stinger at the end of their tail that is used to
must molt to shed their old exoskeleton as they paralyze or kill insects and small animals.Mites
grow a larger new shell. and ticks are small arachnids that are parasites
(b) Shrimp living on the blood and tissue fluid of other
Shrimp are native to many of the world’s animals. They can occasionally transmit disease.
oceans and lakes. They are generally found in The abdomen also has appendages, such as legs,
shallow water. Their habitat includes both fresh for crawling and swimming. Many crustaceans
and salt water. Although most shrimp are small, also have claws that help with crawling and
some can grow up to 9 inches in length. The eating.
shrimp has a very simple body consisting of the (a) Scorpion
head and thorax, and a muscular abdomin for Scorpions are native to many parts of the
swimming. They have 8 pairs of legs, 5 for world. There are about 1,400 different species of
swimming and 3 for feeding. They also have 2 scorpion. They prefer warm or hot climates, but
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can even be found in cold, snowy areas. Their (c) Tarantula

habitat includes deserts, grasslands and The tarantula is a large, hairy spider found
savannahs, forests, intertidal zones, mountains in tropical to temperate regions of the
and caves. Scorpions are best known for their long, southwestern United States, Mexico, Central
segmented tail with its venom-injecting barb. The America, South America, southern Europe, Asia,
scorpion will use its venomous stinger to capture Africa and Australia. Tarantulas can go up to 4
prey and defend against predators. Scorpions inches in body size, and have a leg span of up to
have four pairs of legs and a pair of pincer-like 12 inches.
pedipalps. These pincers can also be used to catch Like other arachnids, the tarantula has eight
prey and defend against predators. Scorpions are legs, arranged in four pairs. It also has another
nocturnal animals. They prefer to find shelter pair of appendages used for feeling and gripping
during the day in underground holes or under prey. The tarantula has two fangs used to inject
rocks where it is cool. They come out at night to venom into its prey, or in defense against
hunt and feed. Most scorpions prey on insects, predators. Tarantulas prefer to hunt at night. They
spiders, centipedes, and other scorpions. Large will lay a web, but not to catch their prey. They
scorpions may also prey on small lizards, snakes lay strands of web on the ground to act as a trip
and mice. wire. When an insect, frog, toad or mouse steps
(b) Spider on the strand, alerting the tarantula, it will pounce
Spiders are found world-wide on every on the unsuspecting victim.
continent except for Antarctica. There are Although many people find the tarantula
approximately 40,000 different species of spiders. scary, it is generally harmless to humans. They
Spiders vary in size from quite small to relatively will not bite unless provoked, and if bitten the pain
large. The Goliath Birdeater can grow up to 10 is usually similar to that of a bee sting. Some
inches measuring its leg span. Most people can tarantulas have even become a popular pet.
easily recognize a spider by its eight legs. One (d) Spider Web
spider, the Daddy Long Legs, is even named after Spiders can produce silken thread using
its eight long legs. spinneret glands on their abdomen. This thread
Another recognizable feature related to the is very strong. It is stronger than a similar size
spider is its web. Spiders have spinneret glands thread of steel. Spiders use this silken thread for
they use to build webs. These webs provide shelter many things. A spider will spin a web to protect
and help catch food. Spiders also have fangs. the entrance of their home from birds or wasps. A
Many spiders can inject a venomous liquid web is also used to catch insects or other food. The
through their fangs. This venom is capable of thread is sticky, and once an insect touches the
paralyzing or killing predators or prey. Some web, it gets caught. Vibration of the web tells the
venom, such as from the Brown Recluse or Black spider an insect has flown or crawled into the
Widow, can even be dangerous or deadly to web.
humans. Although some people are scared of The spider will then wrap its prey in silken
spiders, most spiders will only bite humans in thread so it can’t escape. The thread is also be
self-defense. Fear of spiders is called usedto attach an egg sack to the web. This protects
arachnophobia. Most spiders have four pairs of the eggs until the young are born. Sometimes a web
eyes. This provides them with very good vision. is used as a path between places where it is
Some spiders, such as the Tarantula, can be very difficult to crawl. There are many different shaped
hairy. While many people are scared of the spider webs. Some spiders spin a circular web, or
tarantula, this spider is generally quite harmless. orb web. Other webs look like funnels or tubes.
Some people even keep a tarantula as a pet. Some webs look like a sheet.
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(X) INSECTS fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals,

primates, rodents and marsupials.
Insects are the largest group of arthropods. Although vertebrates represent only a very
There are over 800,000 different types of insects. small percentage of all animals, their size and
Insects are very adaptable, living almost mobility often allow them to dominate their
everywhere in the world. Common insects include environment.
the fly, beetle, butterfly, moth, dragonfly, bee, wasp
(i) Fish
and praying mantis.
Insects have an exoskeleton that covers their Almost three-forths of the world’s surface is
entire body. An insect’s body consists of 3 parts: covered in water. This water is home to over 20,000
the head, thorax and abdomen. different species of fish. The earliest fossils of fish
The insect’s head has a pair of antennae, date back over 400 million years. There are a wide
and a pair of compound eyes. Compound eyes are variety of fish — from the goby which is less than
different from human eyes which have a single one half an inch long, to the whale shark which
lens for each eye. Compound eyes have many can be over 60 feet long. Most fish breathe through
lenses for each eye. For example, the fly has about gills. Gills perform the gas exchange between the
4,000 lenses in a single eye. This provides them water and the fish’s blood. They allow the fish to
with very good eyesight. breathe oxygen in the water.
The thorax contains the legs for walking, Fishes are vertebrates that have a skeleton
swimming, jumping or digging. The thorax may made of either bone or cartilage. About 95% of
also have wings for flying. The abdomen contains fishes have skeletons made of bone. These bony
many body organs, such as the heart, respiratory fishes have a swim bladder, a gas-filled sac, that
system, digestive system and reproductive they can inflate or deflate allowing them to float
system.The insect’s hard, exoskeleton makes it in the water even when not swimming. Fishes
difficult for the insect to grow and get larger. This with a cartilage skeleton tend to be heavier than
is because the exoskeleton can’t grow and get water and sink. They must swim to keep afloat.
larger. Many insects must molt in order to grow. Cartilaginous (cartilage) fish include the ray and
Molting is the process where an insect sheds it the shark.
outer skeleton. It wriggles out of this old skin, and Most fish swim using a tail fin. Muscles in
a new, larger exoskeleton develops. Invertebrates the tail fin move it from side to side, forcing water
were the first animals to evolve.The first backward, and propeling the fish forward. Other
invertebrates evolved from single-celled, food- fins help the fish change direction and stop.
eating microorganisms.Invertebrates are often Pectoral fins on their side help them swim up and
most noted for what they lack: a backbone and a down. Dorsal and anal fins on the top and bottom
bony skeleton.Invertebrates account for 97 percent keep the fish upright. Pelvic fins on the underside
of all known species.The simplest invertebrates, help steer left and right.Many fish eat plants, while
in fact the simplest animals, are sponges.Most others such as the shark, eat other fish.Flying
invertebrates change form as they grow, going FishThere are about 50 species of flying fish. They
through a process known as are found in all major oceans of the world,
metamorphosis.Some species of invertebrates particularly in the warm tropical and subtropical
form large colonies.Invertebrates will eat almost waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans.
anything that was or is alive.Many of the world’s As their name implies, these fish can fly. They can’t
parasites are invertebrates. fly as well as a bird, but they can take short flights
Vertebrates through the air. Most flying fish use their large
pectoral fins as wings. The fish can take short
Animals with an internal skeleton made of gliding flights above the surface of the water in
bone are called vertebrates. Vertebrates include order to escape from predators
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(a) Paddlefish moving on land. Most amphibians can both walk

There are two different species of and swim in water.
paddlefish: the Chinese paddlefish and the Depending on the species of amphibian,
American paddlefish. The Chinese paddlefish breathing can take place in gills, lungs, the lining
lives in the Yangtze River in China. The American of the mouth, the skin, or some combination of
paddlefish lives in the Mississippi, Missouri, Des these.
Moines, Yellowstone, Ohio and Oklahoma Rivers Amphibians body temperature changes
in the United States. The most recognizable feature with its environment. In cold climates,
of the paddlefish is its large mouth and long snout amphibians hibernate during the winter.There are
or bill. The spatula-like snout can be half the over 6,400 species of amphibians found
length of its body. This is why the paddlefish is worldwide, except in Antarctica and Greenland.
sometimes called the spoonfish Amphibians are vertebrates and include animals
such as frogs, toads, salamanders, newts and
FACTS ABOUT FISH worm-like caecilians. They can be found on land,
Fish are divided into three basic groups and in fresh water. They live in a variety of
which include cartilaginous fish, bony fish, and habitats from deserts to rain forests, permanent
lobe-finned fish. Fish were the first animals to ponds or high mountain meadows. Most
evolve backbones. amphibians have four limbs, but some
The ray-finned fish are the largest group of amphibians don’t have any limbs. Amphibians
fish. are cold-blooded meaning they use the
Fish move by creating a wave motion that environment to regulate their body temperature.
moves the length of its body. Amphibians spend part of their life in water, and
Fish are cold-blooded (ectothermic) animals. part of their life on land.
Many species of cichlids brood their eggs (III) REPTILES: AFRICAN CLAWED FROG
in their mouth.
After the eggs hatch the parent continues to The African Clawed Frog is native to South
use their mouth to provide shelter for their young. Africa, the sub-Saharan in east and southern
Cartilaginous fish include the sea’s largest Africa, and Namibia and Angola in western
and most skilled marine predators. Africa. Their habitat includes warm stagnant
These include sharks, skates, rays, and pools and quiet streams. Their name comes from
chimeras. These fish have skeletons made from the three short claws on each of its hind feet. It
cartilage, not bone. The cartilaginous skeletons are spends most of its time underwater, only coming
more flexible than bone. to the surface to breathe. African clawed frogs
The lateral line system on some fish don’t have tongues. The frog’s uses its front limbs
detects variations in water pressure. and unwebbed fingers to push food into its
This helps fish detect prey and avoid mouth.
predators. (a) Poison Dart Frog
(II) AMPHIBIANS The poison dart frog is a family of frogs
native to Central and South America. Their habitat
Amphibians lay their eggs in water, and is humid, tropical areas such as tropical
young amphibians tend to resemble small fish. rainforests. They may live on the ground as well
The tadpole, or newborn frog, is born and as in trees. Most poison dart frogs are brightly
lives in water. It has a tail that allows it to swim colored, which makes them easily recognizable
like a fish. It also has gills so that it can breathe and warns potential predators to stay away. Why
under water. As the tadpole grow into a frog, it do the predators stay away? As their name
loses its gills and tail, and develops legs for implies, this frog is highly poisonous. They secrete
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a toxin through their skin that is capable of killing Snakes don’t have limbs. They move by
a predator. Many species are critically endangered slithering along the ground. Some snakes are
(b) Frog poisonous, or venomous, such as the rattle snake,
cobra, and eastern green mamba. They have fangs
There are over 5,000 species of frogs. They
which bite into their prey and inject poison into
are native to most of the world, except Antarctica.
the victim. Other snakes, such as the boa
Generally, we think of frogs as having a short,
constrictor and the python kill their prey by
stout body with long hind legs ideal for jumping.
crushing it.
Most of us can recognize a frog’s call as the familiar
Most snakes can dislocate their jaw,
croaking or ribbit sound. Another common
allowing them to swallow prey much larger than
characteristics is that frogs don’t have tails. The
themselves.
various species also have a wide range of different
characteristics. Some frogs are small, such as the (d) Alligator
Coqui. Other frogs can be quite large. Some frogs The alligator is native to the United States
are even poisonous, such as the Poison Dart Frog. and China. Alligators are covered with scales,
(c) Reptiles: Lizards, Snakes, and Others head to toe. They can grow up to fifteen feet long
and weigh over one thousand pounds. Based on
Reptiles have been around for 300 million
fossils, the alligator has been on earth for 200
years, even during the dinosaur age. The most
million years. They have a very strong jaw, capable
common reptiles include alligators, crocodiles,
of crushing their prey. Alligators are cold-blooded.
lizards, snakes, tortoises and turtles. Reptiles are
They lay eggs to produce their young.
air-breathing animals, although many live not
only on land but in water. The most noticeable (e) Anaconda Snake
feature of reptiles are the scales that cover their The anaconda is a large, non-venomous
body. The majority of reptiles lay eggs to give birth snake native to tropical South America and
to their young. Although reptiles breathe through Northern Africa. They mostly live in swampy or
lungs, some reptiles can also absorb oxygen in watery areas. The green anaconda is the biggest
water through membranes in their mouth. snake in the world, with the largest measuring up
Reptiles are often called cold-blooded to 37.5 feet in length. The anaconda is related to
because they can’t regulate their own body the boa constrictor snake. They kill their prey by
temperature. Their body temperature depends on constriction or squeezing. They wrap themselves
the external temperature. They will lay in the sun around their prey and squeeze to prevent the prey
to heat their body, or hide in the ground, under a from breathing. They then swallow the animal
rock or in water to cool their body. whole.
Crocodiles and alligators are large reptiles (f) Chameleon
that spend much of their time on land and in water. The chameleon is a member of the lizard
They can walk on land using their webbed feet. family native to Africa, Madagascar, southern
They can also use their long tail to swim in water.
Europe, and Asia. There are about 135 different
Crocodiles feed on large animals they catch on
species of chameleon. Their habitat includes rain
land or in water. They have powerful jaws and
forest, savanna, semi-desert, and steppe land.
teeth to tear apart their prey.Lizards and snakes
Chameleons are best known for their ability to
are the largest group of reptiles. Lizards are four
change color. However, they don’t really change
legged animals with a long tail. Many lizards can
color to match their surroundings, but based on
shed their tail to escape from predators. They can
mood, such as fear or anger, and based on
then grow a new tail.Some lizards, such as the
temperature and humidity. They are also known
chameleon, can change colors to blend into their
for their ability to move each eye separately, and
environment. This camouflage helps to protect
for their long, sticky tongue. Their eye can rotate
them from predators.
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360 degrees to view its prey, they its fast, sticky in the dry, hot desert. Like other reptiles, the
tongue can catch its prey. iguana is cold blooded meaning they do not
(g) Cobra Snake produce their own body heat. If an iguana is cold,
it will lie on warm rocks to soak up the sun’s heat.
The cobra is a venomous snake native to
Green iguanas are omnivorous meaning they eat
Africa and Asia. There are about 30 different
both plants and meat, but they mostly eat plants.
species of cobra, with the King Cobra being the
world’s largest venomous snake. The cobra’s (j) Komodo Dragon
habitat ranges from tropical rain forests and The komodo dragon is a lizard native to
swamps to savannas and deserts. The name cobra islands in Indonesia. They are a member of the
is Portuguese for “snake with hood.” Cobra’s are monitor lizard family. They are the largest of the
most famous for this hood, which is created by lizards, growing up to 10 feet in length and weight
elongated ribs that extend the loose skin of the over 200 pounds. It is carnivorous, eating animals
neck behind the snake’s head. Cobras will raise such as pig and deer. It is also cannibalistic, eating
the front part of their bodies and display their other komodo dragons. The komodo dragon has
hood when threatened or disturbed. They will even been known to attack and kill humans. They
also make a hissing sound. are now an endangered species.
(h) Crocodile (k) Lizard
The crocodile is native to tropical areas in There are over 5,000 different types of
Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. The lizards in the world. They are native to every
crocodile is an ancient, prehistoric creature, continent, except Antarctica. Most lizards are
believed to have inhabited earth for over 200 small and harmless to humans. But, the large
million years. The name crocodile comes from an Komodo Dragon has been known to attack and
Ancient Greek word meaning “lizard of the river.” kill humans. Lizards have some of the strangest
Crocodiles prefer freshwater habitats like rivers, characteristics. Some lizards can walk on water.
lakes and wetlands. Crocodiles are similar to Others can lose their tail to escape a predator.
alligators and caiman. They are very fast over Others can squirt blood from their eyes. The
short distances, even out of water. They catch their Chameleon can change colors to match its
prey by waiting for fish or land animals to come surroundings. The Chinese Water Dragon can not
close, then rushing out to attack. only swim to escape predators, but it can remain
(i) Coral Snake under water for up to 25 minutes. Some lizards
are small, but others such as the Monitor Lizard
The coral snake is a venomous snake native
to southern United States including Arizona and can grow up to 6 feet in length. Lizards such as
from Louisiana to North Carolina, including all the Gila Monster are venomous. And, some
of Florida. Coral snakes are small in size, lizards such as the Gecko and the Iguana are
averaging 3 feet in length. They are a very common pets.
beautiful snake with their red, yellow/white, and (l) Mamba Snake
black colored banding. They are the second most The black mamba is native to Africa. Their
venomous snake in the United States, behind the habitat is open grasslands, savannahs and
rattlesnake. woodlands. It is the largest venomous snake in
Iguan Africa and the second largest venomous snake in
the world. They are considered the deadliest snake
The iguana is a family of lizards native to
in Africa. They are also considered fastest land
tropical areas of Central and South America and
snake in the world, able to reach speeds of 12 miles
the Caribbean. The green iguana, which is a
per hour. Although they are called the black
popular pet, lives in tropical rainforest areas near
mamba, they are generally gray, gray brown, or
water, such as rivers or streams. Other iguanas live
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olive green in color. The name black mamba comes (q) Sea Snake
from the black color inside their mouth. Sea snakes are found in warm, tropical,
(m) Viper Snake coastal waters of the Indian Ocean and Pacific
The viper is a family of venomous snakes Ocean. A few species are also found in Oceania.
found all over the world, except in Australia and Sea snakes are venomous snakes, and have fangs.
Madagascar. Vipers range in size from the small Sea snakes are highly adapted to living in the
dwarf viper which is 10 inches in length, to the water. For example, they have a paddle-like tail
large bushmaster at 10 feet in length. Vipers have for swimming. Althought these snakes spend
a pair of fangs that are used to inject venom from most of their time in the water, they must come to
glands in the rear of the upper jaws. These fangs the surface to breathe air
are hinged, and when not in use fold back against (r) Pitviper Snake
the roof of the mouth. The pitviper is a family of venomous snakes
(n) Turtle found in Eastern Europe, Asia and the Americas.
Turtles are a reptile found in most parts of Their habitat ranges from desert to rainforests.
the world. Some turtles live on land, while others Pitvipers have a deep pit between the eye and the
live in the sea. They are easily recognized by their nostril on either side of the head. This is an organ
shell. The turtle’s shell is covered with scales that detects heat from warm-blooded prey.
made keratin, the same material as human Common pitvipers include the bushmaster,
fingernails. Many turtles can retract their head copperhead and rattlesnake
and limbs into their shell for protection. The (s) Python Snake
largest turtle, the leatherback sea turtle, can have The python snake is native to Africa, Asia
a shell length of 80 inches. A small turtle may be and Australia. Burmese pythons were introduce
only 3 inches long. Turtles have a beak, not teeth. to the Florida Everglades National Park in the
Female turtles lay eggs to reproduce their young. 1990s. The python is one of the largest snakes in
(o) Tortoise the world. The reticulated python may grow to
The tortoise is a reptile, closely related to the over 30 feet long and weight over 300 pounds. The
turtle. The tortoise is often described as a land python generally feeds on small reptiles and
turtle. Turtles usually live in water and have large mammals, but has been know to eat deer and
blade-shaped flippers for swimming. Therefore, other large animals. The python kills its prey by
turtles find it hard to walk on land. Whereas, the constriction. It wraps itself, or coils around its prey
tortoise has legs rather than flippers and can walk suffocating the animal by preventing it from
quiet well on land. Like the turtle, the tortoise has breathing.
a large protective shell. Tortoises can have longer (t) Rattlesnake
life span that humans, sometimes living to be over Rattlesnakes are venomous snakes native to
150 years old. North America and a few other parts of the
(p) Sea Turtle Northern Hemisphere. They get their name from
Sea turtles are native to all the world’s the rattle located at the tip of their tails that is used
ocean, except the Arctic Ocean. The largest sea as a warning device when threatened. The rattle
turtles are seven feet in length and five feet in is a set of rings on the tip of their tail. When
width, weighing up to 1300 pounds. Some sea vibrated, the rattle creates a hissing sound that
turtles are believed to live to be 80 to 100 years old. warns off predators. Rattlesnakes use their
Sea turtles spend much of their time under water, venomous bite to catch and kill prey such as mice,
but must return to the surface to breathe air. All rats, small birds and other small animals.
species of sea turtles are listed as threatened or
endangered.
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FACTS ABOUT REPTILES Asia, Africa and Australia. Swans are the largest
of the waterfowl compared to ducks and geese.
There are about 8,000 species of known The largest swan in the world is the trumpeter
reptiles alive today. swan of North America whose wingspan can
The first reptiles appeared reach 10 feet. The habitat of the swan is ponds,
approximately 340 million years ago lakes, coastal bays and rivers. They are easily
during the Carboniferous Period. recognized by their very long necks which are
Reptiles are cold-blooded. often held in a graceful curve. Their long necks
Reptiles have scales. allow them to feed underwater without diving
The Mesozoic Era is the ‘Age of (c) Vulture
Reptiles’.
Vultures are native to the Americas, Africa,
In many reptiles, the sex of the young is Asia, and Europe. They are scavenging birds
determined by the temperature the feeding mostly on carrion, that is carcasses of dead
embryos are exposed to during animals. Vultures have a good sense of smell, and
incubation. can smell a dead animal from great heights. One
Some of the largest reptiles alive today recognizable characteristic of many vultures is
include the leatherback turtle, the their bald head with no feathers
Komodo dragon, and the saltwater (d) Ruby-Throated Hummingbird
crocodile.
The ruby-throated hummingbird is native
(IV) BIRDS to: the Canadian prairies; eastern Canada, United
States and Mexico; Central America; and, parts of
There are over 8,000 species of birds. Birds
South America. Its habitat is deciduous and pine
have 3 major differentiating characteristics: wings
forests and forest edges, orchards, and gardens.
for flight, feathers, and a beak rather than teeth.
The hummingbird has strong flight muscles and
Birds have adapted their vertebrate skeleton for
blade-like wingsallowing it to fly not only forward,
flight. Their bones and skull are very thin, making
but also straight up and down, sideways, and
their bodies extremely light. To support flight also
backwards, and to hover in front of flowers as it
required other changes to their skeleton. Obvious
feeds on nectar and insects.
changes are the addition of wings. Other changes
are less obvious. The claws and muscles of a bird’s (e)Parrot
foot are designed to lock and hold onto a perch Parrots are native to most warm and tropical
even while the bird is sleeping.A bird’s respiratory parts of the world including Australia and the
system is also adapted to make it easier to breathe islands of the Pacific Ocean, India, southeast Asia,
at high elevations, where air is thinner. southern regions of North America, South
More information on birds America and Africa. There are about 372 different
(a) Albatross species of parrot. Parrots are one of the smartest
birds. Not only can they mimic human speech,
The Albatross is a large sea bird found near
studies have shown they can associate words
the Southern Ocean and North Pacific. The
with their meanings and form simple sentences
albatross is among the largest flying birds, and has
the largest wing span. Its large wings are excellent (f) Ostrich
for flying, but can make taking off and landing The ostrich is a large flightless bird native
quite difficult. to Africa. It is easily recognized by its long neck
(b) Swan and legs. The ostrich is a fast runner, capable of
reaching speeds up to 45 miles per hour. A large
Swans are a family of birds native to many
male ostrich can weight up to 350 pounds.
parts of the world including the Americas, Europe,
Matching its size, ostrich eggs are the largest of
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all eggs. Penguins are a group of aquatic, flightless (j) Great Blue Heron
birds mostly living in the Southern Hemisphere, The great blue heron is a large wading bird
particularly the Antarctica. However, the common over most of North and Central America,
Galápagos Penguin prefers a more temperate as well as the West Indies and the Galápagos
climate living near the equator. Penguins are Islands. They live near bodies of water such as
easily recognizable by their black and white fresh and saltwater marshes, mangrove swamps,
coloring, and their unusually upright, waddling flooded meadows, lake edges, or shorelines. They
gait. The penguin looks like it is formally dressed build their nest in trees or bushes near the water.
in a man’s tuxedo. These birds have adapted for They are often seen standing in shallow water or
life in the water. Their wings have become flippers at the water’s edge. They use their long legs to
allowing them to swim fast in the water. wade through the water, and they spear fish or
(g) Peacock frogs with their long, sharp bill.
Peacocks are large colorful pheasants. (k) Golden Eagle
Although most people know this bird by the name The Golden Eagle is a large bird of prey
peacock, this name specifically refers to the male living in North American and other parts of the
bird. The female is called a peahen. Collectively northern hemisphere. It is one of the best known
they are referred to as peafowl. There are three birds of prey in the Northern Hemisphere. It is
species of peafowl. The blue peacock lives in India powerful and strong with a wingspan of over 7
and Sri Lanka, the green peacock lives in Java and feet.
Myanmar, and the Congo peacock lives in African The golden eagle’s eyesight is about 8 times
rain forests. The peacock is best known for its more powerful than a human, and can spot prey
known and valued for its brilliant tail feathers. from a long distance. Their talons are well
This iridescent blue-green or green colored tail designed for killing and carrying their prey. They
plumage, also called the train, has bright spots on also have a powerful beak for tearing into its food.
it called “eyes”
(l) Flamingo
(h) Kiwi
The flamingo can be found in many parts of
The kiwi is a flightless birds native to New the world including Africa, Asia, North America,
Zealand. It is an endangered species. They are an Central America, South America, and Europe.
interesting looking bird with a plump body and a They live near large, shallow lakes or lagoons.
long bill. Kiwi are shy and usually nocturnal. The They are best know for their pink color. They also
kiwi is a national symbol of New Zealand. They have distinctive long legs and neck, and a curved,
are so well known to the world, and representative pink bill colored black on the end.
of New Zealand, that all New Zealanders are (m) Falcon
called “Kiwis”.
(i) Hornbill The falcon is a species of raptor found on
every continent, except Antarctica. They live in a
Hornbills are a family of birds native to wide variety of habitats from tropics, deserts, and
tropical and sub-tropical Africa and Asia. They maritime to the tundra. They have excellent vision
can be found in open country as well as forested allowing them to see prey from high in the sky.
areas. The most distinctive feature of the hornbill Once spotting its prey, the falcon dives down after
is their heavy bill. It is long and down-curved, and it. Falcons have thin tapered wings enabling them
often brightly-colored. Hornbills are omnivorous to fly at high speed and to change direction
birds meaning they will eat fruit, insects and small rapidly. Peregrine Falcons can dive at speeds over
animals. They cannot swallow food from the tip 200 miles per hour (322 km/hr), making them the
of the beak because their tongue is too short. They fastest-moving animal on Earth.
must toss it to the back of their throat.
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birth very early and the baby animal climbs from
FACTS ABOUT BIRDS
the mother’s birth canal to her pouch. Here the
The earliest known bird, Archaeopteryx baby marsupial continues to develop for weeks,
lithographica, lived about 150 million or even months, depending on the species.
years ago during the Jurassic Period. At birth, marsupial babies are not fully
Birds are not the only animals that are developed. The baby’s hind legs are just nubs. The
capable of flight. baby lives and continues to develop in the
Flight is not a characteristic restricted mother’s pouch. The pouch, or marsupium, also
to birds. Bats, which are mammals, fly has themother’s mammary glands for feeding the
with great agility and insects, which baby. A baby kangaroo may live in its
mother’spouch for 6 months. Koalas and
are arthropods, were fluttering through
wombats are a little different from Kangaroos. The
the air several million years before
kangaroo’s pouch is on the front, while the koala
birds
and wombat pouches are on the back.
Birds do not have teeth.
(b) Kangaroo
The largest of all birds is the ostrich.
The kangaroo is native to Australia. It is the
(V) MAMMALS largest of the marsupials, and a national symbol
Mammals have several unique of Australia. As a marsupial, the kangaroo differs
characteristics that differentiate them from other from other mammals in having a pouch on its
animals. Most mammals have hair, or fur, covering stomach for carrying its young. Early European
their body. They are also capable of regulating explorers in Australia said the kangaroo had a
their body temperature. The mammals metabolism head like a deer (without antlers), stood upright
controls heat production, and the sweat glands like a man, and hopped like a frog. Kangaroos
help cool the body. These allow the mammal to have large, powerful hind legs, and large feet, well
maintain a constant body temperature, regardless adapted for jumping. They can hop along at 25
of the environmental temperature. One other miles per hour, and are capable of reaching
difference is that mammals give birth to fully speeds up to 45 miles per hour for short distances.
formed babies, and the female mammals produce (c) Primates
milk to feed their young. Most mammals walk on Humans are part of the primate family. Other
4 legs, with only the humans walking upright on common primates include the monkey, baboon,
2 legs. Aquatic mammals have flippers, or fins, for orangutan, chimpanzee and gorilla. While
swimming rather than legs. Common mammals humans inhabit much of the world, most other
include: primates, such humans and monkeys; primates live in tropical or subtropical regions of
marsupials; rodents; whales; dolphins; and, seals. the Americas, Africa and Asia.
(a) Marsupials Primates have several distinctive features
Marsupials are best known for the that separate them from other mammals. Primates
Australian members of the family, the kangaroo, have well developed hands and feet, with fingers
wallaby and the koala. The only marsupial native and toes. Their opposable thumb makes it easy for
to North America is the Virginia opossum. There them to grab things.
are also some marsupials native to Central Primate eyes are forward in the head giving
America and South America. them stereoscopic vision. This allows them to judge
Marsupials are members of the mammal distance. Primates also have large, highly
family. However, they are different from other developed brains. Their intelligence allows them
mammals because they have an abdominal pouch to control and manipulate their environment. The
to carry their young. The marsupial female gives highly developed visual center of the brain helps
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primates distinguish colors. Their large brain also garbage.Porcupines differ from other mammals
allows them to develop complex language and because they have long, sharp quills on their
communication skills.Monkeys and apes walk on backs for protection.
all four limbs, but they may run upright using only (e) Whales and Dolphins
their hind legs. Although they live in the water — whales,
Although primates are born fully formed, dolphins and porpoises are mammals. Since
they tend to have a long gestation period in their whales and dolphins are mammals, they cannot
mother’s womb. Parents also care for and educate breathe under water. They must come to the
their young much longer than other animals. This surface to breathe air. They breathe through a
results in a strong bond between a baby and the blowhole, or nostrils, on the top of their head.
mother.Primates are very social animals, and tend Babies are born under water and must be pushed
to form strong bonds with family and friends. to the surface, by the mother, so that they can take
While humans are similar to monkeys in a breath. Whales and dolphins also look different
many ways, there are also several significant from many other mammals because they don’t
differences. The human brain is more than twice have fur. Although, they do have a sparse covering
the size of other primates. This makes humans the of hair. The circulatory and respiratory systems
most intelligent primate, with the most developed have adapted to living in water. Whales and
communication, language and reasoning skills. dolphins can dive deep in the water on a single
Humans are able to make and use complex tools breath.Whales and dolphins also have a highly
to help control their environment. Humans also developed brain. They are consider to be very
walk upright on two legs. Although primates are intelligent.Dolphins, and some whales, can use
born fully formed, they tend to have a long echolocation to find food and identify objects
gestation period in their mother’s womb. around them. They make loud clicking and
(d) Rodents: Squirrels, Mice, Porcupines squeaking sounds that bounce off objects and
and Others echo back to the dolphin. This echo tells the
The largest family of mammals are the dolphin about the nearby object.
rodents. These mammals are named rodent, (f) Whale
which means “gnawing animal,” because of their The whale is a marine mammal found many
large incisor teeth and the way they eat. The two ocean areas from arctic and sub-arctic to warmer
long pairs of incisors are used like chisels to gnaw waters. Whales are best known for their size,
on hard foods like nuts and wood. These incisors which can be up to 110 feet long. The Blue Whale
must grow continuously since they are worn is the largest known mammal to ever live, up to
down by gnawing. There are 3 major types of 110 feet long and weighing 150 tons. The whale
rodents, represented by squirrels, mice and breathes air into its lungs through a blowhole on
porcupines. the top if its head.
Squirrel-like rodents such as the squirrel
(g) Orca
and gopher, have bushy long tails and large eyes.
They can live in trees or underground in tunnels. The Orca, also known as the Killer Whale,
They may hibernate during the winter.Mouse-like is the largest of the dolphin family. It can be found
rodents include the mouse, rat and hamster. Some in most of the world’s oceans. Orca’s have very
have a long, thin tail with short legs. Others have distinction coloring with a black back, white chest
a short tail. They mostly live above ground, and sides, and a white patch above and behind
although some burrow under ground. They may the eye. The orca is considered very intelligent and
also hibernate during the winter. Rats and mice trainable. The orca’s playfulness and sheer size
often live near humans, sometimes in their make them a popular exhibit at aquariums and
buildings, so they can live off human food and aquatic theme parks.
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(h) Dolphin amphibians, and fish. The defining characteristic

Although dophins live in the water, they are of vertebrates is their backbone, an anatomical
a mammal. They are related to the whale and feature that first appeared in the fossil record
porpoise. They breathe air through a blow hole on about 500 million years ago, during the
the top of their head. They must routinely return Ordovician period.
to the surface for air. Dolphins are very friendly to Jawless Fish (Class Agnatha)
humans, and are considered to be very intelligent. The first vertebrates were the jawless fish
(i) Seals, Seal Lions and Walrus (Class Agnatha). These fish-like animals had hard
The seals are marine mammals. The seal bony plates that covered their bodies and as their
family includes the seal, sea lion and the walrus. name implies, they did not have jaws.
A seal’s respiratory system is adapted for Additionally, these early fish did not have paired
water. A seal can go for 40 minutes without a fins. The jawless fish are thought to have relied
breath. This allows them to dive to a depth of over on filter feeding to capture their food, and most
2,000 feet. Seals are well designed to swim in likely would have sucked water and debris from
water. Their bodies are very streamlined and their the seafloor into their mouth, releasing water and
flippers propel them quickly through the water. waste out of their gills.
Seals also spend considerable time lying around The jawless fish that lived during the
on rocky islands and beaches. But they are clumsy Ordovician period all went extinct by the end of
and move slowly on land using their flippers. the Devonian period. Yet today there are some
Baby seals are born on land after a long, 12 month species of fish that lack jaws (such as lampreys,
gestation period. The pups develop rapidly, with and hagfish). These modern day jawless fish are
some able to swim within a few hours of not direct survivors of the Class Agnatha but are
birth.Walruses differ from seals in that they are instead distant cousins of the cartilaginous fish.
larger and have large tusks. They can be over 10 Armored Fish (Class Placodermi)
feet long and over 3,000 pounds. The armored fish evolved during the
Facts About Mammals Silurian period. Like their predecessors, they too
The first Mammals are tetrapods.Mammals lacked jaw bones but possessed paired fins. The
have four limbs, a characteristic that places them armored fish diversified during the Devonian
among the group of animals known as tetrapods. period but declined and fell into extinction by the
It should be noted that although some mammals end of the Permian period.
such as whales, dugongs, and manatees have lost Cartilaginous Fish (Class Chondrichthyes)
their hind limbs during the course of evolution, Cartilaginous fish, better known as sharks,
they are tetrapods by descent.mammals appeared skates, and rays evolved during the Silurian
approximately 200 million years ago during the period. Cartilaginous fish have skeletons
Jurassic Period.Mammals are warm-blooded.All composed of cartilage, not bone. They also differ
mammals have hair.The Cenezoic Era is the ‘Age from other fish in that they lack swim bladders and
of Mammals’.The largest mammal is the blue lungs.
whale.The smallest mammal is the bumblebee bat. Bony Fish (Class Osteichthyes)
Th Basics of Vertebrate Evolution
Members of the Class Osteichthyes first
FROM JAWLESS FISH TO MAMMALS arose during the late Silurian. The majority of
modern fish belong to this group. Bony fish
8 Evolution diverged into two groups, one that evolved into
8 Vertebrates modern fish, the other that evolved into lungfish,
Vertebrates are a well-known group of lobe-finned fish, and fleshy-finned fish. The fleshy
animals that includes mammals, birds, reptiles, finned fish gave rise to the amphibians.
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Amphibians (Class Amphibia) placement of the reptilian legs beneath the body
Amphibians were the first vertebrates to (instead of at the side as in amphibians) enabled
venture out into land. Early amphibians retained them greater mobility.
many fish-like characteristics but during the Birds (Class Aves)
Carboniferous period amphibians diversified. Sometime during the early Jurassic, two
They retained close ties to water though, groups of reptiles gained the ability to fly and one
producing fish-like eggs that lacked a hard of these groups later gave rise to the birds. Birds
protective coating and requiring moist developed a range of adaptations that enabled
environments to keep their skin damp. flight such as feathers, hollow bones, and warm-
Additionally, amphibians underwent larval bloodedness.
phases that were entirely aquatic and only the Mammals (Class Mammalia)
adult animals were able to tackle land habitats.
Mammals, like birds, evolved from a
Reptiles (Class Reptilia)
reptilian ancestor. Mammals developed a four-
Reptiles arose during the Carboniferous chambered heart, hair covering, and most do not
period and quickly took over as the dominant lay eggs and instead give birth to live young (the
vertebrate of the land. Reptiles freed themselves exception is the monotremes).
from aquatic habitats where amphibians had not. Progression of Vertebrate Evolution
Reptiles developed hard-shelled eggs that could
The following table shows the progression
be laid on dry land. They had dry skin made of
of vertebrate evolution (organisms listed at the top
scales that served as protection and helped retain
of the table evolved earlier than those lower in the
moisture. Reptiles developed larger and more
table).
powerful legs than those of amphibians. The
Animal Group Key Features

Jawless Fish - no jaws- no paired fins- gave rise to placoderms,
cartilaginous and bony fish
Placoderms - no jaws- armored fish
Cartilaginous fish - cartilage skeletons- no swim bladder- no lungs- internal
fertilization
Bony fish - gills- lungs- swim bladder- some developed fleshy fins
(gave rise to amphibians)
Amphibians - first vertebrates to venture out onto land- remained quite
tied to aquatic habitats- external fertilization- eggs had
no amnion or shell- moist skin
Reptiles - scales- hard-shelled eggs- stronger legs positioned
directly beneath body
Birds - feathers- hollow bones
Mammals - fur- mammary glands- warmblooded
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GIST OF WHAT, WHY & HOW
RADARS WORK FIRE EXTINGUISHERS WORK

Fire extinguishing agents work basically in
Teaching & Research
two ways – either by cooling the burning materials
or by blanketing them with an inert coating that
Bio
Marriage of bio Info, systems,
cuts off the supply of oxygen. One of the most
Computer
& artificial Engineering Science &

& networks
Engineering
Applied
Doctrinal
common ones uses water which has a high heat
Chemistry &
Chemical
Engineering
Engineering
capacity.
Foam type fire extinguishers use foaming
Environmental
Science &
Engineering
Applied Physics
agents that have a smothering and cooling effect
Smart energy & on the wire. A dry chemical extinguisher sprays a
Mechanical Science and Materials & devices
environmental system Engineering Engineering very fine power of sodium bicarbonate or
potassium bicarbonate or monoammonium
The word radar stands for radio detecting phosphorus. These solids coat the fuel and
and ranging. It makes use of very short radio smother the fire. A safe and effective extinguisher
waves called microwaves. Radars work to find for all confined fires uses carbon dioxide (co2)
out how far away an Object is and in case of a which acts as an inert blanket.
moving object in what direction it is moving and LIE DETECTORS WORK
at what speed.
A lie detectors work on the principal that a
COLOR TV PICTURE PRODUCED person who tells a lie is nervous and under stress
The picture on a television screen is under these conditions his body undergoes some
nothing but a pattern of glowing dots, or physiological changes.
pixels. The pixels are made up of fluorescent These includes increases in the blood
chemicals called phosphors that are coated pressure, heart beat rate and perspiration on
on the back on the screen. These glow on hands and soles. These changes are monitored
being hit by a beam of a single phosphorus and detected by a lie – detector.
and are lit up by a single electron beam that STORAGE BATTERIES WORK
rapidly sweeps across the screen. In a color
television how-ever, each pixel contains three Storage batteries are devices which act as a
phosphorus each producing a different col- store house of electrical energy. The electrical
our-green, red and yellow. Three electron energy is stored in the form of a chemical charge
beams produced by three electron guns are which is reversible. The most common storage
used to light up the different phosphorus. battery is the lead acid- accumulator which uses
lead as electrode and sulphuric acid as an
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116 Gist of What, Why & How
electrolyte. Initially both the cell electrodes of the helicopter to descend. Similarly , if the pilot holds
battery made of lead are coated with a layer of the rotor pitch in such a way the blades produce
lead dioxide. When the battery is charged for just enough lift to counteract gravity, the
the first time, chemical charges take place. During helicopter remains station ary in mid – air.
discharging when the battery is in use, chemical
changes take place again but in the reverse way. NIGHT VISION GLASSES WORK
Each cell in a lead – acid battery produces two Night vision glasses, used for seeing in the
volts and a typical car battery with six cells gives pitch dark night, use the little light available to
12 volts. Nickel – iron and nickel – cadmium form an image of sufficient brightness to be screen.
batteries are other kind of storage batteries which The image is first focused, as in a camera,
are nickel, and iron or cadmium as electrodes and on to a window which is coated with special
potassium hydroxide as electrolyte. chemicals containing sodium, potassium,
cadmium and oxygen compounds which emit
AEROPLANES FLY
electrons when illuminated.
Aeroplanes fly by a combination of power The electrons so emitted are then accelerated
from the engines and lift provided by the wings. by a series of powerful electric fields and made to
These are shaped in such a way that air flowing fall into another screen coated with a fluorescing
along the upper surface takes a longer path than chemical which glows recreating a much brighter
the air flowing along the lower surface. As a result image of the original scene. Some night vision
when an aircraft moves forward, the air flowing glasses make use of infrared radiation emitted by
above the wings moves faster than the air flowing all objects even in the dark. These radiations are
below the wings, creating a low pressure above amplified in a similar way to make night vision
the wing according to Bernoulli’s law. This possible.
difference in pressure above and below the wings
causes lift. As the speed of the aircraft on the AIR POLLUTION
runway increases, the lift also increases, DETECTORS WORK
eventually overcoming the download force of
Air pollution is coused by substance that is
gravity. The aircraft also uses the thrust created
not normally part of the atmosphere’s
by its engine to climb and after reaching certain
composition. Important air pollutants are sulpher
height cruises along in a horizontal direction.
dioxide, nitrogen oxides and carbon mono oxide
HELICOPTERS REMAIN usually emitted in automobile exhausts and
STATIONARY IN MID AIR power smoke. Pollution detectors work by making
use of the chemical or physical properties of the
Unlike an aeroplane, helicopters have pollutants. For example, the detection of nitrogen
moving wings in the shape of spinning rotor oxides is based on the emission of light as a result
blades. Air currents passing over the upper and of a chemical reaction. This phenomenon is called
lower surface of the spinning blades crates low chemilumine-scences.
pressure above it and generate lift. The lift can be If nitrogen are present, light is emitted which
controlled by varying the pitch (angle) of the rotor can be detected by a photo detected. Sulphur
blades, by increasing the pitch of the main rotor dioxide is detected by introducing it into a flame
blades lift is increased and the craft climbs. and then analyzing the colour produced by an
Lowering the pitch of the blades lift is increased instrument called flame photometer. Carbon
and the craft climbs. Lowering the pitch of the monoxide is detected by emission of infrared
blades reduces lift and gravity causes the radiation of a particular frequency when excited
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by an arc or a spark. An infrared spectrometer is CRUDE OIL REFINED

used to detect the presence of this gas in air.
Crude oil that comes out of an oil well is a
ATM WORK thick, dark liquid containing a mixture of many
organic compounds. It cannot be put to use
An automatic teller machine (ATM)
without refining. The different constituents of
performs simple banking functions such as
crude oil boil at different temperature. Refining
deposits withdrawal, cash dispensing, and
processes may be classified as fractional
transfers between accounts.An ATM is a terminal
distillation separates crude oil into some of its
connected via telephone or dedicated
fractions depending on their boiling points. Some
telecommunication lines to larger computer
components are separated by solvent extraction
system that identify the user’s account on the basis
in which an organic solvent is used to extract the
of data stored in a magnetic strip on the back of a
substances especially solids which are then
plastic ATM card commonly known as the credit
recovered by crystallization or evaporation of the
card. The user operates the system using an
solvent. Cracking is also a process used in refiners
exclusive personal identification number (PIN),
to produce useful petrochemicals. Here heat and
assigned to him or her.
catalyst are used to break down some of the
ARTIFICIAL DIAMONDS MADE heavier hydrocarbons to lighter, more useful
fractions.
Diamond is formed in nature from graphite
beneath the earth crust by the action of extreme COOKING OIL REFINED
heat and pressure. Artificial diamonds are made
Vegetable oils are mixtures of chemicals
by mimicking the natural process by applying
called glycerides or esters of glycerides and long
intense heat and pressure on graphite in the
chain fatty acids. Oil is obtained by crushing oil
presence of iron as catalyst.
bearing seeds such as ground nut, sunflower
A pressure of up to 1, 00,000 kg per sq. Cm. seeds or rapeseed, and then pressing the oil
is applied and an electric furnace is used for through expellers.
heating the compressed mixture up to 2500 C.
These mechanically extracted oils contain
On cooling, the molten mass contains, tiny
impurities like gums and free fatty acids (FFA),
artificial diamonds firmly surrounded by iron.
which have to be removed to make the oils suitable
PEARLS CULTURED cooking media. Refining of oils is done by first
treating it with alkali which forms soap with the
A pearl is a biological product produced FFAs. The soaps settle out carrying with them
naturally by certain oysters as a defense some colouring matter. The colour and odour are
mechanism. They are formed when a foreign body removed by treating the oil with some absorbing
such as a sand particle enters the body of the materials like fuller’s earth. Refining can also be
oyster. the oysters in order to get rid of the foreign done by extracting the pure oil with a suitable
body coasts it with a material called nacre which organic solvent like hexane and then removing
is basically the chemical calcium carbonate. Over the solvent by distillation.
a period of time these layers make the pearl grow
in size until they are taken out. Pearls are cultured PHOTOCOPIES MADE
by inserting an artificial irritant into the oyster.
Photocopying makes use of materials which
The oysters are then carefully tended in special
can be electrostatically charged and which loses
beds.Cultured pearls usually take three to six
the charge when exposed to light. In a
years to grow to a good size.
photocopying machine a drum made up of
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selenium is first charged electrically in the dark. MEHANDI COLOUR SKIN

An image of the illuminated document to be
Mehandi or henna leaves contain a
copied is then projected on to the charged drum.
colouring matter called Lawsone. This is a dye
The illuminated areas in the image fall- which can bind with the protein in hair and nails.
ing on the drum destroy the electric charge This protein is called keratin. The skin of the
while the dark areas retain the charge. The palms and soles also contain keratin.
drum is then dusted with a fine black resin-
ous powder called toner image of the origi- BLOOD PRESERVED
nal document. The image is transferred to Outside the body, blood coagulates in five
paper which is given the opposite charge. The to ten minutes. Coagulation involves alteration
toner image is finally fixed on the paper by in one of the plasma protein called fibrinogen into
applying heat which melts the toner and sets an insoluble protein called fibrin with the help of
it into the fibers producing a permanent dry calcium icons. Coagulation can, therefore, be
copy of the original document. The entire prevented by removing the calcium icons from
process is automated. blood. For preservation of blood meant for
transfusion, sodium citrate is added which
COLOR PAINTING DONE
removes calcium form blood by forming a soluble
A printed colour picture is made up of tiny complex with it.
dots of three primary colours-cyan, magenta,
yellow, and black. For printing, there fore, the BODY TEMPERATURE
colour original is first separated by scanning into MAINTAINED
negatives for cyan, yellow, magenta and black.
The body has an in built temperature
During scanning, a screen of dots is also used so
regulating mechanism in the shape of the
that the images on the four negatives are in the hypothalamus in the brain. The heat of the blood
form of fine dots which is necessary for printing.
passing through it and the messages sent from
The most popular colour printings process the temperature sensitive nerve endings on the
used these days is offsets printings. Offset skin feed information to the hypothalamus. Once
printings employs specially treated aluminum region of the hypothalamus so sensitive to
plates on which the printings ink sticks only to temperature above normal while another region
selected areas. When the plate, made sensitive to is sensitive to a fall in body heat.
light by chemical coating, is exposed to light
When the body gains too much heat it loses
through the film negative and washed, coated
the extra heat by sweating. When the environment
areas that repel water but accept oil based ink is cold, the body generates extra heat by stepping
remain. The plate is mounted on a cylinder in
up metabolism and muscle activity such as
printing machine and wetted so that only the
shivering. These changes are brought by path
printed areas are linked. The impression from the
ways controlled by the nerves that are concerned
printing plate is first transferred to a cylinder
with reflex control of bodily functions.
covered with a rubber blanket which finally
transfers the impression onto paper. AIDS DETECTED
WE FALL ASLEEP AIDS is caused by a virus called human
immunodeficiency virus or HIV. The presence of
In humans the sleep wakefulness cycle is this virus is detected by screening the blood of a
controlled by the hypothalamus located in the
person for special kinds of proteins called
lower portion of the brain.
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antibodies which are produced in the body in FIREFLIES GLOW

response to viral infection A characteristic feature
A firefly emits yellow-green light from
of antibody molecules is that they are highly
special organs located in the lower portion of its
specific. They bind only to certain regions of the
abdomen. These organs contain in enzyme called
antigen. This is similar to a key fitting only a
luciferase which acts as a catalyst. When luciferin
specific lock. AIDS detection tests are actually
comes in contact with oxygen from air in presence
based on detecting the binding of the antibodies
of lucifrease, it gets oxidized emitting flashes of
present in the blood with an artificially
light. The light produced is, cool.
synthesized antigen attached to a solid surface.
LIZARDS WALK ON WALLS
ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES
INTOXICATE The feet of lizards are adapted for walking
on rough as well as smoth surface. The lizards
Alcoholic beverages contain ethyl alcohol have slits on their toes and these functions like
which on reaching the brain and slows down the suction disks helping them to cling to smooth
activity of the central nervous system especially areas such as a glass pane. The claws present on
those parts of the brain that control a person’s toes help the lizard to hold on to and walk on a
behavior. rough surface. in this way a lizard can even walk
BATS FLY IN THE SKY upside down across a plastered ceiling or on a
glass roof without trouble.
Bats navigate by making use of sounds that
they emit. The way these sounds bounce off from ANIMALS SEE AT NIGHT
nearby objects and obstacles and return to the Members of the cat family, like the tiger and
bat’s ears enables it to gauge distance and avoid cat or other nocturnal animals can see in near
obstacles. Being in the range of 100,000 hertz, darkness because of the presence of large number
these sounds are inaudible to human ears which of cells called rod cells in the retina. These cells
can hear only unto 20,000 hertz. are sensitive to dim light and help the animal to
Bats can discriminate between faint echoes see in near darkness. Other nocturnal animals
of their own sound in the presence of other like owl and Loris have very large pupils which
sounds. Interestingly. Large bats such as the flying allow more light to enter the eyes. In addition, the
fox do not use sound for navigating but rely on retina of these animals has a layer called ‘tapetum
vision instead. They fly and feed by day and lucidum’. This reflects inwards the light falling
become disoriented if forced to fly in the dark. on retina and thus help in gathering all the light
available in dark surrounding.
CAMELS SURVIVE IN DESERTS
Camels can survive for days in desert with FRUITS RIPEN
little food and no water due to their unique Unripe fruits are typically hard, green, and
physiology. Contrary to the common belief, a have a sour on astringent taste due to the presence
camel does not store water serves as a reverse for of organic acids such as malic, citric, and tartaric.
energy and a source of water when in need. When They have high amounts of large molecule
the fat is utilized by the camels body, hydrogen is carbohydrates called polysaccharides and low
released which combines with oxygen to form amount of protein. Ethylene gas which triggers
water. the ripening process emanates from fruits and
causes rapid and dramatic changes. The green
color of the fruits disappears and red, or yellow
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coloured pigments such as anthocyanins and ANNULAR RINGS IN

carotenoids appear giving the fruits distinct PLANTS FORMED
colour.
The annular rings or the altering dark light
The polysaccharides are broken down to
circles seen in a cross section of a tree are
smaller sugars which give the fruits the sweet
produced because of differences in the rate of
taste. The fruits also begin to soften. Volatile
growth in different seasons. As it happens , the
substances are produced during ripening which
entire tissue in the trunk of a tree does not divide
gives many fruits their distinct aroma.
or grow to increase the girth of the tree. There is a
PLANTS CAPTURE INSECTS layers of dividing tissue called the cambium
sandwiched between the fibrous xylem (the water
Certain plants which grow in soil poor in
carrying tissue).
nutrients depend on insects for their nutritional
However, the cambium divides at different
requirement. These carnivores’ plants use a
rates in different seasons. In winter, its growth is
combination of deception and a trapping device
slower than in other season, say in spring, when
to get their meals.
conditions for growth are fairly favorable. Thus,
Some insects – eating plants like the venus
the relatively small numbers of cells produced in
fl trap (dionaea musipula) have leaves moulded
winter remain compacted together producing a
into twin blade traps with teeth like projections
dark band while the cells produced during the
on their margins which interlock to trap any
spring season spread out into a boarder light
insect sitting on the leaf. Leaves of another plant
band. These growth patterns are repeated at
names drosera have glandes all over them which
annual intervals and hence the annular rings thus
secrete a sticky substance to trap insects. The
indicate the age of a tree as well as the changes in
pitcher plant has fluid filled pitches – shaped
climate that might have occurred in the tree’s life
structure into which unwary insects fall and
time.
drown. All insects eating plants secrete digestive
juices to digest their prey. LIGHTING OCCURS
WATER RISE IN TALL TREES Lightening is coused by an electric
discharge in thunder clouds. These are clouds
Cells in the root hairs of plant contain
that rise to great heights and have strong air
dissolved sugars and salts. Water surrounding
currents in them. The ice crystals, water droplets
the root moves into them to equalize the pressure.
and other particles present in these collide with
This is called osmosis.
each other and get electrically charged.
The increased water pressure in root hairs
Air usually works as an insulator to prevent
forces water up-word, cell by cell through the roots
these electric charges from escaping. But when
and trunk to reach the leaves. In addition to this,
the charge build up in the thundercloud crosses
during the growing season, a tree passes tones of
a certain level, the insulation effect of air breaks
water into the atmosphere from its leaves through
down and causes a massive discharge which we
transpiration.
see as flashes of lighting. As the discharges takes
This creates a partial vacuum that is quickly place, the surroundings are suddenly expands to
filled by the water being pushed up from the roots. produce the sound which we hear as thunder.
Water molecules stick together, and as water is Lighting can pass from one cloud to another or
lost during transpiration, this cohesion causes a from a cloud to the ground.
chain reaction that is transmitted all the way
down.
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ARTIFICIAL RAIN PRODUCED tralized, these protein molecules no longer

repel one another but coagulate. The opti-
Rain occurs when the water vapour in the
mum temperature at which lactobacillus acts
clouds forms water drops or ice crystals large and
is around 40 c. so milk is usually warmed to
heavy enough to fall to the ground. This process
this temperature before setting it to curdle.
is hastened if the cloud has tiny particles of matter
for the water vopour to condense on. Artificial Stars Born
rain produced by introducing these particles into Stars take birth out of clouds of hydrogen,
the clouds by a process called cloud seeding. helium and dust particles present in galaxies. Due
Clouds can be seeded in different ways. The to the turbulent motion in these gas clouds, the
seeding agent can be sprayed into a cloud from dust particles undergo random collisions and
an air plane or sent up in a rocket. If the wind is condense under the influence of strong
strong enough, it can be dispersed in the form of gravitational pull.
smoke from the ground. At cloud temperature As the gases and dust particles begin
above 0oC solid carbon dioxide or crystals of silver condensing, the temperature inside rises due to
dioxide is used. Water vapour in the clouds increasing pressure. As the condensing mass
condenses around the seeding agent to form rain grows bigger the gravitational pressure at the
drops. If the temperature is below 0oC ice crystals centre increases further till the intense heat raises
are formed. When the ice crystals pass through the temperature to around 10 millions degree
air warmer than 0oC, they melt and fall as rain. Celsius. At this temperature the hydrogen atoms
Artificial rain is best produced from moisture- start colliding so vigorously that they fuse with
laden clouds. It cannot be produced from a each other to form helium atoms. In the process
cloudless sky. some mass is lost. For every 1000 kg of hydrogen
used up, 993 kg of helium is formed. The rest is
WOOLLENS KEEP US WARM converted into tremendous amount of energy
Wool fibres are made of a particular protein according to the relation ship E=mc2, where E is
(keratin) which is a bad conductor of heat and as the energy, m the mass and c the velocity of light.
a result does not allow heat to escape. This helps This energy is liberated in the form of light and
us in keeping warm during winter. These fibers heat and a star is born.
are wavy in structure, the property commonly
known as crimp. Crimp imparts resilience to the TEMPERATURE OF
fibres due to which fibres quickly recover from SUN MEASURED
wrinkling and crushing. Because of this wavy There are many ways of measuring
structures the fibres do not come perfectly close temperature. The most common is the mercury
and a result a large number of air pockets are thermometer in which an expanding Column of
formed. The air entrapped within these pockets mercury in a glass capillary indicates the
acts as an insulator and traps body heat inside. temperature. But a mercury thermometer cannot
be used to measure temperature above 357oC. for
CURD FORMED
measuring higher temperature such as that in a
This bacteria produces produces lactic furnace, instruments called pyrometers are used.
acid by the fermentation of the milk sugar But for measuring the sun’s temperature a
lactose. The lactic acid so formed by the bac- different technique is used. It makes use of the
teria action contains positive hydrogen ions fact that the colour at which a hot object gives off
which are attracted to the negative particles the maximum energy is directly related to the
of the protein casein. As the latter are neu- temperature of the hot body.
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This is governed by a law known as Wien’s gave rise to the sun, some five billion years ago.
law. The sun gives off light which is a mixture of As random Collisions and gravitational forces
several colours. When the spectrum of sunlight is compacted the gas and dust particles into the
analyzed by using special instruments called various planets the heat generated brought the
bolometer it is found that the maximum intensity masses into a molten state. Since surface tension
falls in the green part of the sun’s spectrum. From of a liquid tends to make the surface area minimum
this and by using Wien’s law, we obtains a value and the sphere has the minimum surface area for
of 5800 k for the sun’s surface temperature. a given volume, all the plants in the molten state
become spherical and have retained that shape
SPACESUITS PROTECT as they cooled.
A spacesuit is protective gear that protects
an astronaut from the hostile environment of
SEA WATER SALTY
extremely low pressure, low temperature and Sea water is salty because it containts many
radiation in space. It is made up of several layers dissolved salts, mostly sodium chloride with
of strong synthetic materials including Teflon and small proportions of potassium, magnesium,
nylon which shield the astronauts from tiny calcium and carbonates. The salt comes mainly
particles called micrometeoroids. The intense with river water that flows through rocks eroded
solar radiations are reflected by a white plastic by frost and rain. The gradual wearing away of
layer which has a metallic coating. The interior of mountains releases rnemicals which are carried
the suit is pressurized but for which the down by rivers to the ocean comes mainly with
astronaut’s blood would boil off in the vacuum of river water that flows through rocks eroded by
space. A backpack carries water both for drinking frost and rain. The gradual wearing away of
as a well as to keep the astronaut cool. Water flows mountains releases rnemicals which are carried
through piper in the astronaut’s suit and carries down by rivers to the ocean as dissolved salts.
away body heat. Some salt also enters sea water from the
rocks beneath the sea bed; the river water carrying
FIREWORKS DISPLAY COLOURS salts to the sea does not taste salty because the
Fireworks are produced by metals or metal salts are present in extremely small concentration.
salts present in the fireworks. Metals have the Whereas in the case of the oceans, water is
property of emitting light of a particular colour continuously evaporating even as more and more
while they burn. For instance, when sodium or salt continues to be added with river water. This,
its salts burn, yellow light is given out. Similarly, over millions of years has led to the high
on burning, finally divided aluminum gives out concentration of dissolved salts in sea water.
bright white light. Strontium salts gives out red
colour while copper and barium salts produce LIGHTNING
instance blue and green colours respectively. ACCOMPANIED BY THUNDER
Fireworks manufactures make use of this property Lightning occurs when a massive electrical
of metals and their salts and use them in various discharge takes place between two oppositely
combinations in crackers to produce spectacular charged clouds or between a charged cloud and
fireworks display. the ground. The charges Develop in thunder
clouds due to the friction of water droplets with
PLANTEST SPHERE SHAPED
air as the droplets move up and down with the
All the planets of our solar system were rising and descending air currents within the
formed out of the same cloud of gas and dust that cloud. During a bolt of lightening, thousands of
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amperes of electricity flow through the air in a fluorescent.

fraction of a second. This rapidly heats up the air Coating producing visible light. Since very
along its path which expands very fast producing little heating is involved in the process and most
shock waves which we hear as thunder. Although of the electrical energy is used in producing light,
the lightning and thunder are produced at the fluorescent tubes consume less power than
same instant, we hear the thunder later because filament lamps.
light travels faster than sound.
ICE MELTS WHEN
SYNTHETIC FABRICS SUBJECTED TO PRESSURE
DRY TO QUICKLY
One of the laws of fusion is that the melting
Synthetic fibers are made artifically. They point of substances which expand on freezing is
are solid, smooth and straight in structure unlike lowered by the increase of pressure, while it is
a natural fiber like cotton which is hollow. So raised in the case of those which contract on
when synthetic fabrics are soaked in water, only solidification. Ice belongs to the first category of
surface of the fibers gets wet as water does not substances, that is, it expands on freezing. Ice has
enter the body of the fiber. That is why these fabrics an open structure which collapses when
absorb very little amount of water and dry quickly subjected to pressure, producing water which
as the water drips away. Such fabrics are also occupies lesser volume. That is why ice when
known as, ‘dripdry’. subjected to pressure.
SOAP FORM THERE A DISTURBANCE
LATHER IN HARD WATER ON TV WHEN WE OPERATE
Soaps are salts of fatty acids. Common AN ELECTRICAL SWITCH
soaps are water soluble and potassium salts When an electrical switch is operated it
of fatty acids. Soap cannot form lather un- produces a spark at the contact point. This spark
less it dissolves in water. Hard water does emits electromagnetic radiation. Since radio and
not dissolve soap because the calcium and TV signals are also electromagnetic in nature, the
magnesium salts present in it produce insolu- bursts of electromagnetic radiation produced by
ble substances by reacting with soap. These a spark is also received by the radio or TV set.
insoluble substances separate out as scum and This lead to the disturbance which is heard as
reduce the effectiveness of the soap as a cracking sounds on the radio and snowy lines on
Cleansing agent. the TV picture.
FLUORESCENT TUBES COLOURED SOAPS
CONSUME LESS POWER PRODUCE WHITE BUBBLES
In filament lamps a good part of the electrical Foam or lather is nothing but a large
energy is used up in heating the filament which collection of small soap bubbles. A sop bubble is,
in turn glows throwing light around. While in in turn, a very thin film of soap solution enclosing
fluorescent tubes light is produced by electrical some air. Because of the low surface tension of
discharge in a glass tube, the inside of which is soap solution, the film can stretch and spread and
coated with a fluorescent material. The filaments form innumerable bubbles with a very large total
at the two ends are used only to start the discharge. surface area. Because of this, whatever slight tint
The discharge passing through vapors of present in the thin film of the coloured soap
mercury produce UV radiations which exites the solution gets subdued. Although a soap film is
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more or less transperent, the lather or foam looks WATER AND OIL MIX
white because the light striking this large
A phenomenon called polarity prevents oil
collection of bubbles gets scattered. That is why
and water from mixing. All molecules carry
all kinds of foam look white.
electrical charge which is distributed uniformly
THINGS BURN or non-uniformly over the length of the molecule.
In polar compounds, the positive and
Burning is a chemical process in which the
negative charges are concentrated at the two ends
material burns combines with oxygen with the
of the molecule. When such substances are mixed
generation of large amounts of heat. As a result
together, the positive and negative regions of their
the temperature of the burning material rises to
molecules attract each other and as a result a clear
serveral hundred degrees Celsius and it may
solution is obtained. Water is a polar substance
burst into flames. Therefore, any substance that
and mixes freely with other polar substances. Oil
readily combines with oxygen at a few hundred
molecules, on the other hand, are non-polar. When
degrees and produces a lot of heat will burn if
polar and non-polar substances are mixed
ignited. Such substances such as paper, wood,
together, the mutual attraction of polar molecules
cloth, plastics, rubber etc. are usually rich in
separates out the non-plar molecules and the two
carbon and hydrogen. Some volatile liquids such
substances do not mix.
as alcohol, petrol, etc. catch fire easily because
they produce highly combustible vapors. ACID RAIN
A DRIED PIECE OF COTTON Natural rain always contain small amount
APPEAR DARKER WHEN WET of dissolved carbondioxide which makes it
slightly acidic. But large-scale burning of coal or
Cotton is a natural fibre. When woven or oil in industries, power plants and vehicles
knitted into cloth, the fibres are loosely packed
produce large amounts of gases such as sulphur
and contain lot of air spaces. When light falls on dioxide, nitrogen oxides, etc., which are released
these fibres it is scattered from the boundaries of into the atmosphere. Under favourable conditions
the fibres and the colour of the clot appears lighter. they react with water vapour and oxygen in the
But when the fabric is soaked in water, the air atmosphere to produce sulphuric and nitric acids
pockets of the fibres get filled with water. This which is eventually come down with rain, snow
reduces the amount of Light Scattered from the or fog. The countries wrost affected by acid rains
fibric. Therefore, more light reflected from the are southern Sweden, Northway, parts of central
coloured fabric reaches to the eye and the coloured Europe and Eastern Region of North America.
appear deeper. However, synthetic and silk fibres
are smooth in structuture and leave no air space AIDS
when woven or knitted. So the colour or silk or
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
synthetic fabric is not altered when the fabric is
(AIDS) is the most devastatign and fatal diseases
soaked in water.
of the 21st Century it is a viral disease caused by
the Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV).
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MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS
1. An artificial satellite stays in the orbit collision but not in inelastic collision.
around the earth because (c) Total kinetic energy is not conserved but
(a) the earth’s gravity does not act on the momentum is conserved in inelastic
satellite due to great distance between collision.
them. (d) Kinetic energy is conserved in elastic
(b) the earth’s attraction produces the collision but not in inelastic collision.
necessary centripetal acceleration. 5. What is heat ?
(c) the earth’s attraction is balanced by the (a) Heat is a substance called caloric which
attraction of other planets. flows from heavy body to a light body.
(d) there is an engine in the satellite which (b) Heat is a energy that flows from a high
constantly applies an upward force to temperature body to a low temperature
balance its weight. body.
2. Identify the correct statement about the (c) Heat is a motion that passes from a
definition of work : moving body to a stationary body.
(a) A force always does work on the body (d) Heat is a field passing from high
on which it is acting. potential body to a low potential body.
(b) A force does work only when the body 6. One of the following thermometers, which
is moving. can be used for increasing a rapidly
(c) A force does work only when the body changing temperature is a
moves under the action of force. (a) thermo-couple thermometer
(d) none of these. (b) gas thermometer
3. Choose the correct statement related to the (c) platinum resistance thermometer
mechanical energy (E). (d) vapour pressure thermometer
(a) It is the total energy of a system 7. The thermometer suitable to measure
including all forms of energy. 2000°C is
(b) It is that part of total energy which (a) gas thermometer
always remain conserved. (b) mercury thermometer
(c) It is the sum of microscopic kinetic and (c) vapour pressure thermometer
potential energies. (d) total radiation pyrometer
(d) It is the total sum of all the kinetic and
potential energies. 8. A ring-shaped piece of metal is heated. If
the material expands, the hole will :
4. Which of the following statement is true ? (a) expand
(a) Kinetic energy and momentum both are (b) contract
conserved in all types of motion. (c) expand or contract depending on the
(b) Momentum is conserved in elastic width of the ring
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126 Miscellaneous Questions
(d) expand or contract depending on the 13. Big suitcases are provided thicker handles
value of the coefficient of expansion to
9. Which of the following statement(s) is/are (a) decrease the pressure on the hand.
correct? (b) increase the pressure on the hand.
1. The boiling point of a liquid is affected (c) decrease the force on the hand.
by addition of soluble solid. (d) increase the force on the hand.
2. The boiling point of a liquid is affected 14. A piece of metal feels hotter than a piece of
by external vapour pressure. wood in summer because
3. The boiling point is a fixed (a) metal expands more than wood
characteristic of a liquid and does not (b) our body is cooler than metal but
vary. warmer than wood
(a) only (3) is correct (c) metal is a better conductor of heat than
(b) only (1) is correct wood
(c) and (2) are correct (d) metal gets hotter than wood
(d) only (2) is correct
15. Four identical kettles with the same
10. A large ice-berg melts at the base but not at amount of water have bases made of
the top because : different metals of the same thickness. If
(a) the base of the ice-berg remains in these kettles are placed on identical flames
warmer surroundings in an identical manner, water will boil first
(b) ice at base contains impurities in the kettle the base of which is made of:
(c) high pressure ice at the base lowers its (a) brass (b) copper
melting point (c) stainless steel (d) aluminium
(d) ice at the top is of different kind.
16. Why is platinum wire used inside very
11. Two blocks of ice when pressed together narrow glass rods ?
join to form one block because (a) Platinum expands very little compared
(a) of heat produced during pressing to glass
(b) of cold produced during pressing (b) Platinum and glass have the same
(c) melting point of ice decreases with the linear coefficients of expansion
increase of pressure (c) Glass is a bad conductor of heat
(d) melting point of ice increases with (d) Platinum does not melt at low
increase in pressure temperature
12. Two persons ordered tea in a road-side 17. Identify the conceptual difference between
restaurant and waited for a friend to arrive. a particle and a wave :
One of them poured tea in his cup and (a) A wave requires material medium while
mixed cold milk and the other poured his a particle does not require medium for
tea and mixed the milk after the friend its propagation.
arrived. (b) A particle transports matter but a wave
Now the temperature of the tea: does not.
(a) of the first person is greater (c) A particle is visible but a wave is not
(b) of the second person is greater visible.
(c) of the two persons is the same (d) All the above.
(d) of the first person is half of the 18. An astronaut can’t hear his companion at
temperature of the tea of the second the surface of the moon because:
person. (a) produced frequencies are above the
audio frequency
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(b) there is no medium for sound (a) the reflected ray and the incident ray
propagation lie in the same plane
(c) temperature is too low during night and (b) the incident ray, reflected ray and the
too high during day. normal are concurrent
(d) there are too many craters on the (c) the angle of incidence is equal to the
surface of the moon. angle of reflection
19. Velocity of sound will be (d) none of these
(a) smaller in moist air than in dry air 25. Choose the correct statement related to the
(b) greater in moist air than in dry air image formed by a plane mirror
(c) same in moist and dry air (a) a plane mirror always forms a virtual
(d) independent of in density image
20. To a stationary man the frequency of a (b) the image formed by a plane mirror may
sound source moving towards the man be magnified or diminished
appears to be (c) the image formed by a plane mirror is
(a) lower than the original frequency always unmagnified and inverted
(b) same as the original frequency (d) the image formed by a plane mirror is
(c) higher than the original frequency always unmagnified and erect
(d) lower as well higher than the original
26. Total internal reflection of light can occur
frequency depending upon the speed
only when light passes
of the source
(a) from denser to a rarer medium
21. The electromagnetic radiations are in (b) from rarer to a denser medium
descending order of wavelength in the (c) from one medium to another of equal
following sequence : refractive index
(a) infrared waves, radio waves, x-rays, (d) from one medium to another of equal
visible light rays absorption coefficient
(b) radio-waves, infrared, visible light, x-
27. Consider the following statements :
rays
(c) radio waves, visible light, infrared Assertion A : The velocity of sound in the
waves, x-rays air increases due to presence of moisture
(d) x-rays, visible light, infrared wave, in it
radio waves Reason R : The presence of moisture in air
22. The inosphere does not allow to pass the lowers the density of air.
waves which are termed as : Of these statements.
(a) microwaves (a) both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the
(b) visible light waves correct explanation of (A)
(c) (a) and (b) both (b) both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not
(d) amplitude modulated waves the correct explanation of (A)
23. The ionosphere bends the electro-magnetic (c) (A) is true but (R) is false
waves having the frequencies: (d) (A) is false but (R) is true
(a) less than 40 MHZ 28. In stationary waves :
(b) beyond 40 MHZ (a) energy is uniformly distributed
(c) nothing is certain (b) energy is maximum at nodes and
(d) depends on the moisture present minimum at antinodes
24. Choose the incorrect statement related to (c) energy is minimum at nodes and
the laws of reflection : maximum at antinodes
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(d) alternating maxima and minima of 12 ¥ 3

energy are produced at nodes and (a) (b) 12 ¥ 3 ¥ 7
7
antinodes
12 ¥ 3
29. The refractive index of glass with respect (c) (d) 12 ¥ 3 ¥ 5
5
to water is 9/8 . It implies that
(a) the speed of light is 9 times and 8 times 33. Rising or setting sun appears to be reddish
faster in glass and water, respectively because
(a) the sun is colder at sunrise or at sunset
with respect to vacuum
(b) diffraction sends red rays to the earth
(b) the speed of light in glass is 9/8 times-
at these times
faster than water
(c) refraction is responsible for this effect
(c) the speed of light is 9 times and 8 times (d) scattering due to dust particles and air
slower in glass and water, respectively molecules is responsible for this effect
with respect to vacuum
(d) none of these 34. Match the following :
List I List II
30. A diver in a swimming pool wants to signal A. Astronomical 1. consists of
his distress to a person lying on the edge Telescope one convex
of the pool by flashing his water proof lens
flash-light : B. Galileo Telescope 2. consists of one
(a) he must direct the beam vertically concave lens
upwards C. Simple 3. consists of
(b) he has to direct the beam horizontally Microscope an objective of
(c) he has to direct the beam to an angle to convex lens of
the vertical which is slightly less than large focal
the critical angle of incidence for total length and
internal reflection and an eye
(d) he has to direct the beam at an angle to piece of
the vertical which is slightly less than convex lens of
the critical angle small focal
31. A mirror forms an erect image of half the length
size of an object. Then : D. Compound 4. consists of
(a) the mirror can be concave with object Microscope an objective
lying within focus of convex lens
(b) the mirror can be concave with object of small focal
lying at 3f length and an
(c) the mirror can be convex with object eye piece of
lying at its focus convex lens of
(d) the mirror can be convex with object large focal
lying at a distance equal to twice its focal length
length. 5. consists of an
32. A fish, looking up through the water sees objective of
the outside world contained in a circular convex lens of
horizon. If the refractive index of water is large focal
4/3 and the fish is 12 cm below the surface length and an
of water, the radius of the circle in eye piece of
centimetres is : concave lens
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of small focal (c) Field lines are continuous in a medium

length (d) A field line cannot intersect itself
Code: 40. When the temperature of a metallic
A B C D conductor is increased its resistance :
(a) 3 2 4 1 (a) always decreases
(b) 2 5 3 4 (b) always increases
(c) 3 5 1 4 (c) may increase or decrease
(d) 2 3 1 5 (d) remains the same
35. The disease of astigmatism in human eye 41. Which of the following statement is true?
is because of: (a) insulators do not have electrons.
(a) unequal and uneven curvature of eye (b) some of the electrons in a conductor are
lens free to move through the material.
(b) eye lens being of organic matter (c) conductors always contain more
(c) eye lens being thick electrons than insulators.
(d) opacity development in eye lens (d) the atoms in a conductor move about
36. Choose the correct statement about the but those in an insulator cannot move.
magnetic field: 42. Choose the correct statement(s) from the
(a) it is produced by moving positive following
charges only (a) a low voltage supply of say 6 V must
(b) it is produced by moving negative have a very low internal resistance.
charges only (b) A high voltage supply of say 6000 V
(c) it is produced by moving charges must have a very high internal
(d) it is produced by steady currents only resistance.
37. Declination is the angle between (c) A wire carrying current stays
(a) geographical and magnetic equators elecrtrically neutral.
(b) geographical and magnetic meridians (d) (a), (b), (c) all are correct.
(c) suspended magnet and magnetic 43. Which of the given four statement(s) is/
meridians are correct?
(d) total magnetic intensity and its (i) The product of a volt and a coulomb
magnetic meridian is a joule.
38. If a diamagnetic substance is brought near (ii) The product of a volt and an ampere
north or south pole of a bar magnet, it is is a joule.
(a) attracted by the poles (iii) The product of volt and watt is horse
(b) repelled by the poles power.
(c) repelled by the north pole and attracted (iv) Watt hour can be measured in terms
by the south pole of electron volt.
(d) attracted by the north and repelled by
Code:
the south pole
(a) all the four are correct
39. Identify the incorrect statement about the (b) (i), (ii) and (iv) are correct
electric lines of force (c) (i) and (iii) are correct
(a) Two field lines cannot intersect each (d) (iii) and (iv) are correct
other
44. The temperature of a metal wire rises when
(b) The path traced by a positive charge is
an electric current is passed through it
a field line
because :
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(a) collision of conduction electrons with 50. In a b-decay

the atoms of metal gives them energy (a) the parent and the daughter nuclei have
which appears as heat same number of protons
(b) when electrons fall from higher energy (b) the daughter nucleus has one proton
level to lower energy level, heat energy less than the parent nucleus
is released (c) the daughter nucleus has one proton
(c) collisions of metal atoms with each more than the parent nucleus
other releases heat energy. (d) the daughter nucleus has one neutron
(d) collisions of conduction electrons with more than the parent nucleus.
each other releases heat energy. 51. In the statements given below the only one
45. Of the two bulbs in a house, one glows correct statement is
brighter than the other. Which of the two (a) b-radioactivity is a process in which an
has a larger resistance ? electron is emitted from an unstable
(a) the bright bulb atom where atomic number Z remains
(b) the dim bulb unchanged.
(c) both have the same resistance (b) g-radioactivity is the process in which
(d) the brightness does not depend upon the daughter nucleus has atomic
the resistance. number and an unit more than that of
46. In electrolysis, the mass of the substance parent nucleus
liberated at cathode is proportional to (c) a-radioactivity is the process in which
(a) quantity of electricity passed an unstable atom emits the nucleus of a
(b) strength of the current passed helium atom.
(c) time of the passage of current (d) a-radioactivity is the process in which
(d) none of the above a heavy atom emits electromagnetic
radiations of very high frequency.
47. If a current carrying conductor passes
vertically through a horizontally placed 52. Neutron induced fission was discovered
card-board, then the lines of force over the and explained respectively by
card-board due to this conductor are in the (a) Hahn and Strassman, Meitnem and
forms of Frisch
(a) eccentric circles (b) Bohr, Fermi
(b) ellipses (b) concentric circles (c) Fermi, Bohr
(d) spirals (d) Oppenheimer, Hahn and Strassman
48. The direction of magnetic field produced 53. Thermal neutrons are those which
by a linear current is given by : (a) are at very high temperatures
(a) Right hand thumb rule (b) move with high velocities
(b) Fleming’s left hand rule (c) have kinetic energies similar to those of
(c) Joule’s law (d) Ampere’s law the surrounding molecules
49. g-rays are deflected by: (d) are at rest
(a) an electric field but not by a magnetic 54. Conductors, insulators and semi-
field conductors differ from each other due to
(b) a magnetic field but not by an electric the property of
field (a) ability of current they carry
(c) both electric and magnetic field (b) formation of crystal lattice
(d) neither an electric field nor a magnetic (c) binding energy of their electrons
field (d) mutual width of their energy gaps
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55. Match the following : (a) They arc cheap

Invention Inventor (b) Evaporation through pores makes the
I. Jet aircraft (A) Elias Howe water cooler
II. Radar (B) Frank Whittle (c) Earthen pots do not need as much
III. Airship (C) Robert Watson rinsing and cleaning as metal vessels
Watt do
(D) Ferdinand (d) More water can be stored in them
Zepplin 60. Lightning flash and thunder bolt occur at
(a) I-A, II-C, III-D one and the same time. In this context,
(b) I-B, II-C. III-D which of the following is correct ?
(c) I-B, II-A, III-C (a) The light is seen after the sound is
(d) I-A, II-B, III-D heard
56. Sun spots are: (b) The sound is heard at the same time as
(a) the mountains found on the surface of the light is seen
the sun (c) The light is seen first and the sound is
(b) the dark patches having less heard afterwards
temperature than the normal surface (d) Sometimes light is seen first and
(c) ionized eases found near the solar sometimes sound is heard first
surface 61. A solid piece of iron sinks in water but
(d) the magnetic storms on the surface of floats in mercury. This is because the
the sun (a) Average density of water and mercury
57. A glass chimney stops an oil lamp from is less than that of iron
smoking because: (b) Density of iron is less than that of water
(a) it increases the supply of oxygen to the as well as mercury
flame by convection (c) Density of iron is more than that of
(b) the heat produced ensures complete water as well as mercury
combustion of carbon particles (d) Density of iron is more than that of
(c) both of these water but less than that of mercury
(d) none of these 62. An ordinary clock loses time during
58. How does it happen that Pluto is not the summer because the length of the
farthest planet of the solar system at times pendulum
? (a) increases and therefore the time-period
(a) Each planet becomes the farthest planet increases
in its turn, sometimes it is the turn of (b) increases and therefore the time-period
Pluto. decreases
(b) Pluto is always the farthest planet of (c) decreases and therefore the time-period
the solar system. increases
(c) The sun is sometimes in the zodiac in (d) decreases and therefore the time-period
which it is nearest to the outer planets. decreases
(d) the eccentricity of Pluto’s orbit being 63. In a barometer, mercury is preferred over
substantial this orbit cuts the orbit of water because
Neptune. (a) Mercury is a good conductor of heat
59. In summer, water is stored in unglazed (b) Mercury is shining and therefore its
earthen pots because : level can be read easily
(c) Mercury is available in pure form
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(d) Mercury has high density and low (c) Short-waves are more energetic than
vapour pressure long-waves
64. One should not connect a number of (d) By convention, short-waves are meant
electrical appliances to the same power for long distances whereas long-waves
sockets because are reserved for short distances
(a) this can damage the appliances 68. On a clean glass plate, a drop of water
(b) this can damage the domestic wiring spreads to form thin layer whereas a drop
due to overheating of mercury remains almost spherical
(c) the appliances will not get full voltage because
(d) the appliances will not get proper (a) mercury is a metal
current (b) density of mercury is greater than that
65. Why does radio reception improve slightly of water
during the night ? (c) cohesion of mercury is greater than its
(a) The outside noise is reduced very much adhesion with glass
at night. (d) cohesion of water is greater than its
(b) Unlike the daytime, only a few radio adhesion with glass
stations broadcast during the night.
69. A train goes past a railway station at a high
(c) Sunlight affects radio broadcasts to
speed. A young boy standing on the edge
some extent during the day.
of the platform is likely to:
(d) The magnetic field of the earth acts with
(a) remain unaffected
reduced intensity during the night,
(b) fall away from the train
thereby reducing its impact on
(c) fall towards the train
broadcasts.
(d) fall away from or towards the train
66. When a bar magnet is immersed in a heap depending on its speed
of iron filings and is then taken out, it is 70. The wire in electric fittings are ‘earthed’ so
observed that iron filings stick to the that
surface of the bar magnet. Then the iron (a) electricity may not leak
filings would be observed to (b) there may be a smooth flow of electricity
(a) stick uniformly throughout the surface (c) current may pass to the earth in the
of the bar- magnet case of a short circuit, without doing
(b) stick randomly on the surface of the bar- any harm
magnet (d) to prevent a short-circuit
(c) have maximum concentration at the
71. The filament of an electric lamp becomes
two ends of the bar-magnet
white hot but the lead-in wires holding the
(d) have maximum concentration slightly
filament are only slightly heated because
away from the two ends of the bar- they
magnet (a) have smaller current passing through
67. Why are we able to hear short-wave them
broadcasts better than lone-wave (b) have very low resistance
broadcasts ? (c) have higher melting points
(a) Short-wave broadcasts are made by (d) are made of black iron
nearby radio stations 72. Pick out the correct statement
(b) Short-waves are unaffected by (a) A freely suspended bar-magnet points
atmospheric disturbances north
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(b) A freely suspended bar-magnet is difference between the ice-point and the
constantly oscillating steam-point
(c) A freely suspended bar-magnet always (c) the fraction 1/273.16 of the
points south thermodynamic temperature of the
(d) A freely suspended bar-magnet will set triple-point of water
itself at an angle to the horizontal (d) the fraction 1/373.15 of the
73. Lithening is formed when : thermodynamic temperature of the
(a) similar charges of electricity rush steam-point
towards each other and then get 77. Fish can survive inside a frozen lake
repelled because:
(b) clouds strike against impurities in air (a) Fish are cold-blooded animals
and the friction burns up these (b) Fish can breathe when embedded in ice
impurities (c) Fish move to the bottom of the lake
(c) strong opposite charges in different where the water is at 4°C and hence
clouds break down the resistance cannot freeze
offered by the intervening air (d) Fish move to the top of the take where
(d) water vapour produces electricity in the the water is at 4°C and hence cannot
clouds freeze
74. Even when an electric heater is allowed to 78. What happens if water is cooled from 8°C
run for a long time, its temperature does to 0°C?
not increase infinitely. This is because: (a) its volume decreases uniformly,
(a) the resistance of the heating wire becoming minimum at 0°C
increases to such an extent that it takes (b) its volume increases uniformly,
negligible amount of current. becoming maximum at 0°C
(b) the heat generated is dissipited to the (c) its volume decreases upto 4°C and then
surrounding medium. increases
(c) the current ultimately stops flowing (d) its volume increases upto 4°C and then
through the heating wire. decreases
(d) a back e.m.f. is produced minimi-sing
79. When a ship floats on water
the current to a large extent.
(a) it displaces no water
75. While passing over a suspension bridge (b) the mass of water displaced is more
soldiers are not allowed to march in steps than the mass of the ship
(a) to prevent any formation of sharp echo (c) the mass of the water displaced is equal
(b) because there cannot be orderly to the mass of the ship
marching (d) the mass of water displaced is less than
(c) to prevent any occurrence of resonance the ship
with bridge
(d) to prevent the bridge from executing 80. The passengers in a boat are not allowed
forced vibrations to stand because :
(a) this will raise the centre of gravity and
76. The Kelvin, the S.I. unit of thermod-ynamic
the boat be rocked
temperature is defined as :
(b) this will lower centre of gravity and the
(a) one hundred of the temperature
boat will rocked
difference between the triple-point of
(c) the effective weight of system increases
water and the steam-point
(d) of surface tension effects
(b) one hundred of the temperature-
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81. In high mountain regions bleeding 85. A bomb is dropped from an aeroplane
through nose occurs because moving horizontal at constant speed.
(a) the pressure of the blood capillaries is When air resistance is taken into
higher than the outside pressure consideration, then the bomb
(b) the pressure at high altitudes is greater (a) flies with the aeroplane
than that of the plains (b) falls on earth ahead of the aeroplane
(c) the blood pressure increases at high (c) falls on earth behind aeroplane
altitudes (d) falls on earth exactly below the
(d) the blood pressure fluctuates and aeroplane.
causes the blood vessels to break 86. In which of the following example of
82. One litre of cool air weighs heavier then motion, the body can he considered
one litre of hot air because of the approximately, a point object :
(a) increased number of collisions between (a) a railway carriage moving without jerks
the molecules between two stations.
(b) increased number of molecules at high (b) a monkey sitting on top of a man
temperature cycling smoothly on a larger circular
(c) greater energy of molecules at high path.
temperature (c) a spinning cricket hall that turns
(d) lower energy of molecules at high sharply on hitting the ground.
temperature (d) both (a) and (b)
83. Why does a liquid drop assuming a 87. A man carrying load on his back bends
spherical shape ? forwards because of one of the following
(a) because a sphere has the least surface reasons :
for a given volume. (a) to adjust the centre of gravity of the
(b) because a sphere has the largest surface system such that the vertical line
for a given volume surface tension. through the centre of gravity passes
(c) because intermolecular forces are within the base
strong in liquids. (b) the man feels lighter because of greater
(d) because intermolecular force are weak reaction
in liquids. (c) to prevent the load from slipping over
84. It takes much longer to cook on the hills and falling down
than in the plains, because : (d) to keep the centre of gravity of the
(a) due to low atmospheric pressure in the system outside the body
hills, the boiling point of water is raised, 88. Two bullets A and B, are fired from the gun
and therefore water takes longer to boil with the same speed but at angles 30° and
(b) in the hills, the atmospheric pressure is 60° to the horizontal, respectively. Choose
lower than that in the plains and the correct statement from the following:
therefore water boils at lower (a) bullet A will have a longer horizontal
temperature range
(c) in the hills, the atmospheric (b) bullet B will have a longer horizontal
temperature is low and therefore a lot range
of heat is lost to the atmosphere (c) the horizontal range of bullet B will be
(d) in the hills, the humid atmosphere half, that of bullet A
absorbs a lot of heat, leaving very little (d) both bullets have the same horizontal
for the cooking range
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89. While running over a horizontal level road, Reason (R): Objects in circular motion
the man holds the umbrella in the vertical experience centripetal force.
direction. If he stops, then in order to 94. Choose the most appropriate statement for
protect himself from the rain he should a particle body :
hold it : (a) particle is a point size body.
(a) still vertically (b) particle body has no dimensions.
(b) inclined to the front (c) two bodies are considered as particles
(c) inclined to the back it the distance between them is very
(d) at an angle of 45 large compared with their dimensions.
(d) in translatory\ motion, any body of
90. A car and a lorry both are moving with
finite size may be considered as
equal kinetic energies. If equal breaking particle.
force is applied on both, then before coming
to rest : 95. The incorrect statement about
(a) a car will cover a greater distance displacement is :
(a) displacement is the difference between
(b) lorry will cover a greater distance
the final and initial positions of the
(c) both will cover the same distance
particle
(d) the distance covered by them will (b) displacement is a vector quantity
depend only on their respective (c) displacement can be negative, zero or
velocities. positive
Directions: Questions consist of two statements, one (d) the magnitude of displacement is
labelled the Assertion (A) and the other labelled the always equal to distance.
Reason (R). Examine the statements carefully and 96. Identify the incorrect statement about the
decide if the Assertion A and Reason R are centre of mass.
individually true and if so, whether the reason is a (a) At the centre of mass, the entire mass of
correct explanation of assertion. Select your answers the body is concentrated.
to these questions from the codes given below: (b) The centre of mass of a body may lie
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct inside or outside the body.
(c) The centre of mass always lies on the
explanation of A.
axis of symmetry if it exists.
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
(d) The centre of mass of a system may
explanation of A.
coincide with one of the particles of the
(c) A is true but R is false.
system.
(d) A is false but R is true.
97. Identify the correct definition of
91. Assertion (A) : A particle moving in a
acceleration due to gravity :
uniform circular motion has uniform
(a) It is defined as the force experienced by
velocity.
a unit mass
Reason (R): The particle also has a uniform (b) It is defined as the acceleration of a free
speed. falling body.
92. Assertion (A): The acceleration due to (c) Both (a) and (b)
gravity decreases with height above the (d) None of these
earth’s surface. 98. Escape velocity of a rocket fired from the
Reason (R): Gravitational force increases earth towards the moon is a velocity to get
with height. rid of the
93. Assertion (A): Objects appear ‘weightless’ (a) Moon’s gravitational pull
inside on orbiting spacecraft. (b) Earth’s gravitational pull
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(c) centripetal force due to the earth’s 104. In radioactive decay, the emitted electrons
rotation come from the:
(d) pressure of the atmosphere (a) innermost shell of the atom
99. When a man cycles round the earth in a (b) K shell of an atom
satellite, than his (c) Outermost shell of an atom
(a) mass becomes zero but weight remains (d) Decay of neutrons in the nucleus
constant 105. Which of the following is true for Thomson
(b) mass remains constant but weight Model of the atom?
becomes zero. (a) The radius of an electron can be
(c) both mass and weight remain constant. calculated using Thomson Model.
(d) both mass and weight become zero. (b) In an undisturbed atom, the electrons
100. An artificial earth satellite is said to be in a will be at their equilibrium positions,
geo-stationary orbit when : where the attraction between the cloud
(a) it is so placed that it does not move. of positive charge and the electrons
(b) it remains stationary in relation to some balances their mutual repulsion.
point on the earth. (c) When the electrons are disturbed by
(c) its course is governed by terrestrial collision, they will vibrate around their
gravity. equilibrium positions and emit
(d) it is made to stay in one place in electromagnetic radiation whose
obedience to commands from a space frequency is of the order of magnitude
centre on the earth. of the frequency of electromagnetic
Directions: The questions given below consist of an radiation of a vibrating electron.
Assertion (A) and Reason (R). Use the following to (d) Both (b) and (c)
mark the appropriate answer. 106. When a gold sheet is bombarded by a beam
of a-particles, only a few of them get
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the
deflected whereas most go straight,
right explanation of (A).
undeflected. This is because:
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct but (R) is not (a) the forces of attraction exerted on the a-
the right explanation of (A). particles by the oppositely charged
(c) (A) is correct. (R) is incorrect. electrons is not sufficient
(d) (A) is incorrect, (R) is correct. (b) a nucleus has a much smaller volume
than that of an atom
101. Assertion (A):The pressure of a fixed
(c) the force of repulsion acting on the fast-
amount of an ideal gas is proportional to
moving a-particles is very small
its temperature at constant volume.
(d) the neutrons in the nucleus do not have
Reason (R): Ideal gas molecules neither any effect on the a-particles
attract nor repel each other.
107. From the a-particle scattering experiment,
102. Assertion (A): Van der Waals equation is Rutherford concluded that
applicable only to non-ideal gases. (a) a-particles can come within a distance
Reason (R): Ideal gases obey the equation of the order of 10–14 m of the nucleus
PV = nRT. (b) the radius of the nucleus is less than
103. Assertion (A): Helium shows only positive 10–14 m
deviations from ideal behaviour (c) scattering follows Coulomb’s law
(d) all of the above
Reason (R): Helium is an inert gas.
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108. Rutherford’s scattering formula fails for electron affinity

very small scattering angles, because 113. The cohesive energy of an ionic crystal is
(a) the full nuclear charge of the target atom the energy:
is partially screened by its electron (a) liberated during the formation of the
(b) the impact parameter between the crystal from individual neutral atoms.
a-particle source and the nucleus of the (b) absorbed during the formation of the
target is very large compared to the size crystal from individual neutral atoms.
of the nucleus (c) liberated during the formation of
(c) the kinetic energy of the a-particle is positive ions.
large (d) absorbed during the formation of
(d) (a) and (b) negative ions.
109. The branch of chemistry dealing with the 114. A saturated solution at a particular
accurate determination of the amounts of temperature:
various substances is called (a) is colourless
(a) biochemistry (b) is highly coloured
(b) inorganic chemistry (c) does not dissolve any more of the solid
(c) organometallic chemistry solute
(d) analytical chemistry (d) contains suspended solid particles
110. Paramagnetism is exhibited by elements, 115. What makes the water a very convenient
the atoms of, which have medium for chemical reactions and
(a) only an odd number of electrons biological processes?
(b) only an even number of electrons (a) It has a low specific heat
(c) the d-shells partially filled (b) It has a reasonable long temperature-
(d) none of these range between its freezing point and
111. A flaming splinter is thrust into a bottle of boiling point
Oxygen, a bottle of Nitrogen, and a bottle (c) It has greater density as liquid than
of Carbon-dioxide. The flame will go out when it is in solid state
in: (d) None of these
(a) Nitrogen and Carbon-dioxide but not 116. It is dangerous to have coal or charcoal
in Oxygen. burning in a closed room because:
(b) Oxygen and Nitrogen but not in Carbon (a) it produces the poisonous gas carbon
dioxide. monoxide
(c) Oxygen and Carbon-dioxide but not in (b) burning consumes all the oxygen and
Nitrogen. breathing becomes difficult
(d) Each case (c) the amount of heat produced is
112. An ionic bond can be formed between two intolerable
atoms when (d) there is serious risk of fire
(a) one of them has a low ionization energy 117. Though the temperature inside lighted
and the other has a high electron affinity electric bulb is around 2700°C, the filament
(b) both the atoms have low values of does not burn because:
ionization energy (a) the metal of which it is made is resistant
(c) both the atoms have high values of to burning
ionization energy (b) the oxygen necessary for combustion
(d) both the atoms have low values of (and burning) is not available as the
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bulb is evacuated and filled with pure (c) through the action of carbon-dioxide
nitrogen or inert gases (d) through the action of heat in the process
(c) it does not burn in closed systems of baking
(d) it is made of non-metallic substance 122. After boiling, rice grains become swollen
118. Match the following: and occupy more space because:
List I List II (a) solids enlarge on absorbing heat
A. Sodium carbonate 1. Photography (b) carbohydrate content becomes more
B. Sodium 2. Washing (c) starch swells in content with water and
bicarbonate heat
C. Sodium peroxide 3. Baking (d) rice has plenty of fat content
D. Sodium 4. Source of 123. There are three forms of iron given below.
thiosulphate Oxygen Arrange them in the descending order of
Code: carbon content and other impurities they
A B C D possess:
(a) 2 3 1 4 I. Pig iron II. Wrought iron
(b) 3 2 4 1 III. Cast iron
(c) 2 3 4 1 (a) I, II, III
(d) 3 2 1 4 (b) I, III, II
119. Which one of the following statements is (c) III, II, I (d) III, I, II
correct? 124. “Fixation of nitrogen” implies:
(a) Nature has no capacity of absorbing (a) the liquefaction of nitrogen
pollutants (b) the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen
(b) Nature has infinite capacity of into useful compounds
absorbing pollutants (c) the conversion of nitrogen into amines
(c) Nature has a finite capacity of (d) the solidification of nitrogen gas of the
absorbing pollutants atmosphere
(d) Only very high concentration of
125. Photograhic plates are covered with black
pollutants harm human beings
paper because:
120. Which of the following statement is wrong (a) the cellulose acetate of the paper must
about electrovalent substances? remain fresh.
(a) Electrovalent substances are made up (b) sunlight is easily absorbed by black
of ions held together by strong paper and it helps develop the film.
electrostatic forces (c) the silver bromide present on the plate
(b) The electrovalent substance, have high is very sensitive to light and the black
melting and boiling points. paper prevent contact with light.
(c) Structural units of electrovalent (d) the conversion of silver bromide to
compounds are neutral molecules metallic silver is essential
(d) Aqueous solution of electrovalent
126. Commercially, the production of ammonia
compounds can conduct electricity.
is important because it can be used in the:
121. Rising of dough in the process of (a) manufacture of proteins by
manufacture of bread is: polymerization
(a) because of evaporation of water in (b) preparation of soaps
kneading the dough (c) manufacture of artificial foods
(b) due lo capillary action of water in the (d) production of fertilizers
dough
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127. What are noble metals? 133. Dehydration of fruits is done before tinning
(a) Elements that do not form compounds them for food. This is:
ordinarily. (a) to add nutrients in the fruits
(b) Metals having very light weights (b) to remove bacteria
(c) Metals that do not corrode or tarnish in (c) to prevent microbial growth
air or water. (d) to preserve the essence in full strength
(d) Metals that do not form compounds 134. Match the following:
ordinarily. List-I List-II
128. The main use of salt in the diet is to: A. Sulphuric Acid 1. Silicon
(a) make the taste of food better process
(b) produce in small amounts the B. Ammonia 2. Contact
hydrochloric acid required for the process
digestion of food. C. Sulphur 3. Haeber’s
(c) ease the process of cooking process
(d) increase the solubility of food particles Code:
in water A B C
129. Match the following: (a) 1 2 3
I. Quinine A. Sugarcane (b) 2 1 3
II. Molasses B. Cinchona (c) 3 1 2
III. Iodine C. Hevea (d) 2 3 1
IV. Rubber D. Sea-kelp 135. Match the following:
(a) I-B, II-A, III-D, IV-C List-I List-II
(b) I-D, II-A, II-B, IV-C A. Tin 1. Aunite
(c) I-B, II-C, III-D, IV-A B. Copper 2. Argentite
(d) I-A, II-B, III-C, IV-D C. Silver 3. Starinite
D. Gold 4. Malachite
130. The purification of a substance in which it
evaporates without melting can be carried Code:
out by: A B C D
(a) Crystallization (b) Distillation (a) 2 1 3 4
(c) Steam distillation (b) 4 1 2 3
(c) Sublimation (c) 3 4 2 1
(d) 1 4 3 2
131. Carbohydrates are composed of
(a) Carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen 136. Match the following:
(b) Nitrogen, carbon and oxygen List I List II
(c) Oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen I. Natural rubber (A) Buna-S
(d) Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen II. Synthetic rubber (B) Latex
Ill. Natural fibre (C) Wool
132. Which of the following gives the correct IV. Synthetic fibre (D) Nylon
order in which things flow from the interior
of the earth from top to bottom when earth Code:
is drilled? I II III IV
(a) Natural gas, oil, water (a) B A C D
(b) Oil, natural gas, water (b) A B C D
(c) Water, natural gas, oil (c) B A C D
(d) Water, oil, natural gas (d) C D A B
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137. Match the following: (c) I-D, II-C, III-B, IV-A

List-I List-II (d) I-B, II-D, III-C, IV-A
A. Butadiene 1. Match 141. Denatured alcohol:
industry (a) is a very pure form of alcohol
B. Lead tetraethyl 2. Dye industry (b) is unfit for drinking as it contains
C. Phosphorous 3. Rubber poisonous substances
indursty (c) contains coloured impurities
D. Aniline 4. Petroleum (d) is sweet to taste
Code: 142. Cholesterol is a:
A B C D (a) type of chlorophyill
(a) 2 1 3 4 (b) derivative of chloroform
(b) 3 4 1 2 (c) fatty alcohol found in animal fats
(c) 1 2 3 4 (d) chromium salt
(d) 3 2 1 4 143. Silver halides are use in photographic
plates because they are:
138. Match the following:
(a) oxidised in air
List-I List-II
(b) colourless
I. Sodium A. Double salt
(c) easily soluble in hypo solution
bicarbonate (d) readily reduced by light
II. Alum B. Mixed salt
IlI. Bleaching Powder C. Acidic salt 144. Which of the following statement is correct
IV. Sodium chloride D. Normal salt ?
(a) I-C, II-A, III-B, IV-D I. German silver is an alloy of silver and
copper and zinc.
(b) I-A, II-D, III-B, IV-D
II. There is no zinc in brass
(c) I-D, II-A, III-C, IV-B
III. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin
(d) I-C, II-B, III-A, IV-D
(a) I, II and III
139. Match the following: (c) Only III
List-I List-II (c) I and III (d) I and II
I. Alumminium A. Pitch blende
II. Iron B. Lepidolite
List-I List-II
III. Lithium C. Haematite
A. Lead 1. Pitch blende
IV. Uranium D. Bauxite
B. Aluminium 2. Monazite
(a) I-D, II-A, III-B, IV-C
C. Thorium 3. Bauxite
(b) I-D, II-B, III-C, IV-A
D. Uranium 4. Galena
(c) I-C, II-A, III-D, IV-B
(c) I-D, II-C, III-B, IV-A Code:
A B C D
(a) 4 1 2 3
List-I List-II
(b) 2 3 1 4
I. Caustic Soda A. 2CaSO4H2O
(c) 1 4 3 2
II. Washing Soda B. NaOH
(d) 4 3 2 1
III. Plaster of Paris C. CaSO22H3O
IV. Gypsum D. Na2CO3 146. A substance effloresces
(a) I-A, II-B, III-C, IV-D (a) due to the formation of a crust on its
(b) I-B, II-D, III-A, IV-C crystal surface
(b) when the vapour pressure of the
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substance is greater than that of the (b) emission of sulphur oxides and
water vapour in air nitrogen oxides from thermal power
(c) till it melts plants and burning of fossil fuels; these
(d) when all of the above happen oxides dissolve in atmospheric water
147. Which of the following statement(s) is/are vapour and fall back on earth as acid
true about a solution? rain.
(a) It is a homogeneous mixture (c) natural carbon dioxide released during
respiration of living organisms
(b) The components of solution are
dissolves in water, forming carbonic
chemically non-reacting
acid which is the chief contributor to
(c) The particle size is of the order of
acidity in rain water.
10–9m.
(d) None of the above
(d) All the above
151. In the manufacture of Safety Matches,
148. Without burning paper, water can be boiled
which of the following materials are used
in a paper cup. This is because: to coat the two sides of the match boxes?
(a) paper is a bad conductor of heat I. Yellow Phosphorous
(b) heat capacity of paper is less than that II. Glass Powder
of water. III. Blue
(c) water is good conductor of heat with IV. Red Phosphorous
high specific heat
Choose the correct answer from the codes
(d) ignition temperature of paper is more given below:
than boiling point of water (a) I, II and III
149. Match the following’? (b) I, II and IV
A. Petroleum 1. Found in small (c) I, III and IV (d) II, III and IV
streaks on sides of the Direction: Questions consist of two statements one
mines labelled the ‘Assertion (A)’ and the other labelled the
B. Natural Gas 2. Found very deep ‘Reason (R)’. Examine the statement carefully and
inside the earth decide if the Assertion A and Reason R are
C. Coal 3. Found along with individually true and if so, whether the Reason is a
Petroleum correct explanation of the Assertion. Select your answer
D. Gold 4. Formed due to organic to these questions from the codes given below:
decay and pressure
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
Code: explanation of A.
A B C D
(b) Both A and R true but R is not a correct
(a) 1 2 3 4
explanation of A.
(b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 2 3 4 1 (c) A is true but R is false.
(d) 4 2 3 1 (d) A is false but R is true.
150. Acid precipitation is now regarded as a 152. Assertion (A): Oxygen gives reddish-
serious problem in sonic European and brown fumes with nitric oxide.
Asian countries. Its major cause or source Reason (R): Oxygen is a diatomic molecule.
is:
(a) discharge of acidic effluents onto 153. Assertion (A): Water can exist in all the
neutral or slightly alkaline land where three states i.e., solid liquid and gas.
the acidic components precipitate. Reason (R): Water has high boiling point.
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154. Assertion (A): The valency of carbon in (b) Sulphuric acid

carbondioxide is four. (c) Ethyl mercaptan
Reason (R): Carbon contains 6 unpaired (d) None of the above
electrons in its outermost orbit. 162. Which of the following statement about
155. The macromolecules consisting of a very natural gas is/are true?
large number of simple structural units (a) It is a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons.
joined together in a regular manner are (b) It is used in the manufacture of
called fertilizers.
(a) monners (c) It is used as a fuel.
(b) epimers (d) all of the above
(c) polymers
(d) all the above 163. Match the following:
List-I List-II
156. Which one of the following is a naturally
A. Freon 1. Bleaching
occurring polymer ?
B. Chloroform 2. Antiseptic
(a) Starch (b) PVC
C. Iodoform 3. Refrigerant
(c) Neoprene (d) Nylon
D. Ozone 4. Anaesthetic
157. Hexachloroethane is used
(a) as a substitute for camphor Code:
(b) in preparation of explosives A B C D
(c) in manufacture of silk (a) 2 3 4 1
(d) all the above (b) 3 4 2 1
(c) 4 3 1 1
158. Dacron, a synthetic polyester fibre is made (d) 3 2 1 4
from
(a) caprolactum and alcohol
List-I List-II
(b) phthalic acid and ethylene glycol
A. Helium 1. Treatment of cancer
(c) phthalic acid and cellulose
B. Neon 2. Electrical signs
(d) terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol.
C. Radon 3. Generation of low
159. Propellants used in Saturn booster-rocket temperature
is: Code:
(a) kerosene oil + liquid oxygen + liquid A B C
hydrogen (a) 1 2 3
(b) hydrazine + N2O4 (b) 3 1 2
(c) kerosene + liquid O2 (c) 3 2 1
(d) kerosene (d) 2 3 1
160. Which of the following groups represent 165. Which of the following explains the
gaseous fuel ? difference between explosion and
(a) Natural gas, liquified petroleum gas combustion?
(b) water gas, petrol, coke (a) combustion is accompanied by heat
(c) coke, wood, producer gas given out while explosion is caused by
(d) none of the above absorption of heat
(b) There is rapid increase of pressure in
161. In LPG gas leakage, which substance is
confined space in case of explosion
used to detect it?
(c) Combustion can take place only in air
(a) Methyl mercaptan
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while explosion can happen anywhere substance, which is used to destroy or

(d) Combustion is a chemical reaction inhibit the action of plant or animal
while explosion is caused by physical pests, is known as pesticide
factors. (c) pesticides include such chemicals such
166. Soda-acid fire extinguisher as insecticides, herbicides,
(a) based on the principle of extinguishing rodenticidcs, miticides, etc.
fire by cooling the burning substance (d) All of the above
below its ignition temperature 170. Ordinary glass is a mixture of:
(b) based on the principle of extinguishing (a) sodium silicate (Na2SiO3), calcium
fire by heating the burning substance silicate (CaSiO3) and silica (SiO2)
above its ignition temperature (b) sodium silicate and calcium silicate
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) Noneoftheabove (CaSiO3)
167. Match the following: (c) only sodium silicate and silica
List-I List-II (d) none of the above
A. Glass 1. Phosphorous 171. Detergents produce lather with hard water
B. Matchsticks 2. Sodium because:
C. Fertilizer 3. Sodium silicate (a) they are soluble in hard water
D. Salt 4. Potassium sulphate (b) they are colourless substances
Code: (c) the calcium and magnesium salts of
A B C D sulphonic acid are soluble in water
(a) 3 4 2 1 (d) they form sodium carbonate with hard
(b) 3 1 4 2 water
(c) 2 3 1 4 172. A pyrex tumbler does not crack when hot
(d) 4 3 2 1 water is poured into it, because pyrex:
168. Match the following: (a) a strong material
List-I List-II (b) does not expand much on heating
A. Nitrolime 1. Rocket fuel (c) is a good conductor of heat
B. Sodium 2. Sodium (d) expands equally from inside and
thiosulphate outside
C. Liquid ammonia 3. Photography 173. An electric bulb produces a loud sound
D. Hydrazine 4. Fertilizer when broken because:
Code: (a) the air rushes into the partial vacuum
A B C D in the bulb
(a) 3 2 4 1 (b) the gas inside it explodes
(b) 1 4 3 2 (c) the glass is brittle
(c) 4 3 2 1 (d) the gas inside it suddenly expands
(d) 3 4 1 2 174. Match List A with List B
List-I List-II
169. Choose the correct statement(s) from the
(Compound) (Present Acid)
following
A. Sour Milk 1. Maleic Acid
(a) A good pesticide should be cheap,
B. Circa 2. Carbonic Acid
effective, easy to apply in solution and
C. Soda Water 3. Acetic Acid
should be biodegradable
D. Apple 4. Lactic Acid
(b) Any inorganic or organic chemical
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Code: 179. Consider the following statements:

A B C D 1. The chemical name of Gammexene is
(a) 4 3 2 1 Benzene Hexachloride
(b) 3 4 2 1 2. Asprin is useful in pepticulcer.
(c) 3 4 1 2
Which of the following is correct ?
(d) 1 2 3 4
(a) only 1 is correct
175. Match List-I with List-II (b) only 2 is correct
Scientists Contributions (c) both 1 and 2 are correct
A. Dalton 1. Definition of an
(d) none of these
element
B. Madam Curie 2. Periodic Table 180. Which of the following is NOT a property
C. Robert Boyle 3. Atomic Theory of metal?
D. Mendeleev 4. Radioactivity (a) lustrous
Code: (b) capable of forming acidic oxides
A B C D (c) capable of forming basic oxides
(a) 3 4 1 2 (d) capable of forming non volatile
(b) 4 3 2 1 hydrides with hydrogen
(c) 1 2 3 4 181. Isobars are
(d) 2 3 4 1 (a) Same mass number but different atomic
176. When a bottle of soda-water is un-corked number
CO2 comes out in rushes. It shows: (b) Same number of neutrons but different
(a) CO2 is insoluble in water mass number
(b) The solubility of CO2 does not depend (c) Same difference between number of
upon pressure. protons & neutrons
(c) In comparison to high pressure, CO2 is (d) Same mass number and atomic number
less soluble in water at low pressure.
182. Isodiaphers are:
(d) By storage the solubility of CO 2
(a) Same mass number but different atomic
decreases.
number
177. When Portland cement is mixed with (b) Same number of neutrons but different
water, it sets and hardens into a few days mass number
into a solid and strong material due to (c) Same difference between number of
formation of which of the following ? protons & neutrons
(a) hydrous aluminates and silicates
(d) Same mass number and atomic number.
(b) hydrous silicates and phosphates
(c) hydrous aluminates and phosphates 183. Alkanes are
(d) sulphates and phosphates (a) Saturated fats
(b) Unsaturated fats
178. Consider the following statements:
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) can act as: (c) Ore of an element
1. an oxidising agent (d) Hydrocarbons containing alcoholic
2. a reducing agent group
3. a decolouring agent 184. When an electrolyte nearly breaks into ions
Which of the following is correct ? it’s called
(a) 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3 (a) weak electrolyte
(c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (b) strong electrolyte
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(c) dissociable electrolyte the mixture

(d) None of these (a) Oxygen is solute; Nitrogen is solvent
185. Potassium bromide is used in (b) Oxygen is solvent ; nitrogen is solute
(a) Gunpowder production (c) Oxygen and nitrogen is solute and
(b) Photography water is solvent
(c) Common salt (d) Radio dating (d) Oxygen and nitrogen is solvent and
186. The “Calx” is water is solute
(a) By product of petroleum 191. The emerald is the green crystalline form
(b) Compound of calcium of what common mineral ?
(c) Residue on heating calcium (a) Beryllium Aluminum silicate
(d) Residue on healing metal (b) Copper silicate
187. Which of following change will increase (c) Copper assenate
the mean free path of molecules in a (d) Copper acetate
sample of gas ? 192. What is the end product of alcoholic
(a) increase in pressure at constant fermentation?
temperature 1. Ethanol 2. Carbon dixoide
(b) increase in density at constant 3. Oxygen 4. Water
temperature (a) 1, 2 (b) 2, 3
(c) increase in temperature at constant (c) 3, 4 (d) 1, 2, 3
pressure
(d) increase in temperature at constant 193. PVC is used in Plastic industry, the term
volume PVC stands for
(a) polyvinyl chloride
188. Which of the changes occurs when a
(b) polyvinyl chlorobenzene
substance is converted from liquid to gas
(c) polyvinyl calcium
at the normal boiling point ?
(d) polyvinyl carbonate
I. Potential energy of the system increases
II. The distance between molecules 194. Tetraethyl lead (TEL) is added to petrol to
increases (a) increase flash point
Ill. The average kinetic energy of the (b) to increase anti-knocking rating
molecules increases. (c) it acts as anti freezer
(a) I only (b) II only (d) it increases combustion
(c) I and II only (d) II and Ill only 195. Match list-I with list-II and select correct
189. Which of the following statement is correct answer by using code given below
? List-I List-II
1. Most metals are good conductor of heat A. Silicol gel 1. Cation exchanger
2. Most metals are poor conductor of heat B. Zeolites 2. Lubricant
3. Most metals are good conductor of C. Silicones 3. Thermal insulator
electricity D. Arbestos 4. Dehydrating agent
4. Most metals are poor conductor of Code:
electricity A B C D
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (a) 4 1 2 3
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4 (b) 1 2 3 4
(c) 2 1 3 4
190. 4.0 litre of oxygen is mixed with 8.0 litre of
(d) 3 4 2 1
nitrogen. Identify the solute and solvent in
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196. Bones glow in the dark because Code:

(a) they contain shining material A B C D
(b) they contain red phosphorus (a) 2 5 3 4
(c) white phosphorus undergo slow (b) 1 2 3 4
combustion in contact with air (c) 2 3 4 5
(d) white phosphorus changed into red (d) 3 2 4 1
phosphorus 198. Which one of the following is best suitable
197. Match the list-I with list-II and select for semi-conductor?
correct answer using code (a) Cu + As (b) Zn + Ge
List-I List-II (c) Ge + As (d) Sb + As
(Type of Glass) (Properties / 199. Which of the following substance can
use) conduct electricity in molten state
A. Aluminium 1. very high (a) glucose
silicate glass transparency (b) urea
B. Calcium alkali 2. Cheap (c) common salt
laboratory (d) polythene
silicate glass glasswares 200. A gas behaves like an ideal gas at:
C. Lead glass 3. Optical glass (a) high pressure and low temperature
D. Soda glass 4. Window glass (b) low pressure and high temperature
5. Low (c) high pressure and high temperature
coefficient of (d) low pressure and low temperature
expansion.
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (d) 25. (d) 26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (c) 29. (d) 30. (c)
31. (d) 32. (a) 33. (d) 34. (c) 35. (a) 36. (c) 37. (b) 38. (b) 39. (b) 40. (b)
41. (b) 42. (d) 43. (b) 44. (a) 45. (b) 46. (a) 47. (c) 48. (a) 49. (d) 50. (c)
51. (c) 52. (a) 53. (c) 54. (d) 55. (b) 56. (b) 57. (c) 58. (d) 59. (b) 60. (c)
61. (d) 62. (a) 63. (d) 64. (b) 65. (c) 66. (d) 67. (c) 68. (c) 69. (c) 70. (c)
71. (b) 72. (d) 73. (c) 74. (b) 75. (c) 76. (c) 77. (c) 78. (c) 79. (c) 80. (a)
81. (a) 82. (b) 83. (a) 84. (c) 85. (c) 86. (d) 87. (a) 88. (d) 89. (c) 90. (c)
91. (d) 92. (c) 93. (b) 94. (d) 95. (d) 96. (a) 97. (b) 98. (b) 99. (c) 100. (b)
101. (c) 102. (a) 103. (b) 104. (d) 105. (d) 106. (b) 107. (d) 108. (d) 109. (d) 110. (d)
111. (a) 112. (a) 113. (a) 114. (c) 115. (c) 116. (a) 117. (c) 118. (c) 119. (c) 120. (d)
121. (c) 122. (c) 123. (b) 124. (b) 125. (c) 126. (d) 127. (c) 128. (b) 129. (a) 130. (d)
131. (d) 132. (c) 133. (c) 134. (d) 135. (c) 136. (a) 137. (b) 138. (a) 139. (d) 140. (b)
141. (b) 142. (c) 143. (d) 144. (b) 145. (d) 146. (b) 147. (d) 148. (d) 149. (c) 150. (b)
151. (d) 152. (c) 153. (b) 154. (c) 155. (c) 156. (d) 157. (a) 158. (d) 159. (a) 160. (a)
161. (c) 162. (d) 163. (b) 164. (b) 165. (b) 166. (a) 167. (b) 168. (a) 169. (d) 170. (a)
171. (c) 172. (b) 173. (a) 174. (a) 175. (a) 176. (c) 177. (a) 178. (d) 179. (a) 180. (b)
181. (b) 182. (c) 183. (a) 184. (b) 185. (b) 186. (d) 187. (c) 188. (c) 189. (a) 190. (a)
191. (a) 192. (a) 193. (a) 194. (b) 195. (a) 196. (c) 197. (a) 198. (c) 199. (c) 200. (b)
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52 Gist of Biology from NCERT Books

GIST OF BIOLOGY FROM NCERT BOOKS

CELL functions. To keep their function different from

cell. It is another packaging organelle own protein.

8 Sieve cells in plants transport nutrients Comparisons between

to enter the ovum. Vacuole Middle lamella

8 During the transformation of tadpole Primary pit

gills and tail are digested by the Cytosol

8 Mitochondria contain DNA, hence Chloroplasts

It remains saturated with water.

Epithellal tissue Muscle tissue is

8 Squamous : when it forms a living as that of blood vessels, it is called endothelium.

Arelor Adipose Skeletal Fluidl

Neurons: it actually transmit the impulses, contraction of muscles. The skeleton

vertebrates have an embryonic a cartilage disk. These disks allow a

levels, serving as a calcium sink. Rapid Scapula

muscular contraction is important in Thoracic vertebrae Sternum

bones of the appendages (limbs, wings, Femur

girdles in fish, which have their weight Sterno-mastoid

animals have more developed pelvic Sternum Deltoid

negative feedback loops. head. Although lacking a brain or either nervous

Endocrine System 1. steroids

secrete insulin. Insulin has discovered by contain an enzyme called ‘anylax’

Kidneys, The Fascinating Filters reaches a certain point.

excessive drinking (polydipsia) and too

bloodstream to the kidneys and

8 T-lymphocytes (T-cells) mature in the membranes.

bursting the cell. The complement molecule that causes antibody

Rh antibody during the first pregnancy with an immunity, and T lymphocytes

8 Fibrinogen is a protein which is contribute to this process of harmostasis by

ii. Heart: a muscular pump to move the

fertilization, and depends on the 8 FSH acts on cells to help in sperm

matures within a follicle. At midpoint 8 During menstruation the uterine lining

Tail centriole Vitelline membrane

Travels of a Young Zygote Implantation

Three processes occur during what we loosely refer to as “digestion”.

Oral cavity, teeth, tongue Pharynx

Large Intestine Small Intestine

PHOTOSYNTHESIS 8 Likewise, oxygen produced during

Differentation of Animals (vi) Arthropods

Respiration is through either gills or 8 Viruses : They reproduce only inside

8 Alexander Fleming discovered which act as carrier of disease causing

Some Common Plant Disease Caused by Microorganisms

Citrus canker Bacteria Air

Some Common Human Disease Caused by Micro Organisms

(I) PROTOZOA (III) MOLLUSKS

(VIII) CRAB Arachnids are a type of arthropod. You

can even be found in cold, snowy areas. Their (c) Tarantula

(X) INSECTS fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals,

(a) Paddlefish moving on land. Most amphibians can both walk

(h) Dolphin amphibians, and fish. The defining characteristic

Animal Group Key Features

GIST OF WHAT, WHY & HOW

RADARS WORK FIRE EXTINGUISHERS WORK

& artificial Engineering Science &

by an arc or a spark. An infrared spectrometer is CRUDE OIL REFINED

selenium is first charged electrically in the dark. MEHANDI COLOUR SKIN

antibodies which are produced in the body in FIREFLIES GLOW