Bridgeway

Bible Commentary

A running explanation of the biblical text

Don Fleming

BRIDGEWAY
© Bridgeway Bible Commentary
Don Fleming 1988, 1994, 2005

First published in an 8-volume set as Bridge Bible Handbooks 1988

First published as Bridge Bible Commentary 1994

First published as Bridgeway Bible Commentary 2005

ISBN 0 947342 72 9

All Rights Reserved

Bridgeway Publications
GPO Box 2547
Brisbane 4001
Australia
Contents
Preface
Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Joshua
Judges
Ruth
1 Samuel
2 Samuel
1 Kings
2 Kings
1 Chronicles
2 Chronicles
Ezra
Nehemiah
Esther
Job
Psalms
Proverbs
Ecclesiastes
Song of Songs
Old Testament Prophecy
Isaiah
Jeremiah
Lamentations
Ezekiel
Daniel
Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
The New Testament World
Introduction to the Four Gospels
Jesus and the Kingdom
Index to the Four Gospels
The Four Gospels
Acts
The post-Acts Period
Romans
1 Corinthians
2 Corinthians
Galatians
Ephesians
Philippians
Colossians
1 Thessalonians
2 Thessalonians
1 Timothy
2 Timothy
Titus
Philemon
Hebrews
James
1 Peter
2 Peter
1 John
2 John
3 John
Jude
Revelation
Preface
The origins of this commentary go back to my missionary years in Thailand, when I began writing a
few books in the Thai language to help local people understand the Scriptures. The result, after many
years, was a series of fifteen mini-commentaries on the Thai Bible.
 Although the success of the books in Thai was due largely to the lack of available alternatives, news
of the books spread, and it was suggested that I prepare an English equivalent for use in other countries.
Over some years the fifteen-volume series was produced in English, but by this time I had written several
other books and their production was scattered over a variety of countries.
When Bridgeway Publications in Australia undertook a project to republish all these books in a new
format, the fifteen volumes were revised and reissued in eight volumes under the series title, Bridge Bible
Handbooks. Those eight books are now combined into the one-volume Bridgeway Bible Commentary,
which is a companion in size, style and format to the Bridgeway Bible Dictionary, an A to Z of biblical
information.
The eight Handbooks were dedicated to people who, in different ways, had a significant influence in
my life and ministry. Since the present volume is not a new work but a reformatted (and in parts revised)
version of the eight Handbooks, no new dedication attaches to it. Instead I am pleased to acknowledge
again my indebtedness to those to whom the earlier editions were dedicated.
Book 1 Philip and Pat Juler
Book 2 Chun Kertyoo
Book 3 Reg and Marjorie Vines
Book 4 David Clines
Book 5 John and Grace Robertson
Book 6 Bob and Vic McCallum
Book 7 Chue Petnamngern
Book 8 Vic and Jean Fleming
In the present book, as in my other books, my aim is to provide biblical reference material that
bridges two gaps at the same time. First, I want to bridge the gap in time and culture between the world of
the Bible and the world of today. Second, I want to bridge the gap between the technical reference works
and the non-technical reader. Above all, my desire is to produce books that will encourage people to read
the Bible.
Though labelled a commentary, this volume is not a word-by-word or verse-by-verse technical
reference book. But neither is it a survey that flies over the top of the various biblical books without
touching the text. Perhaps ‘running commentary’ would be a more appropriate description.
My suggestion is that instead of trying to ‘dig deep’ or ‘squeeze lessons’ from the Bible, we relax a
little, try to understand what each book is saying, and then let the Bible do whatever it wants to do. ‘Let
the Bible speak for itself’ – which is the title of a practical handbook I have written on how we might
teach the Bible in plain language. The aim of such teaching, like the aim of this commentary, is not to
exhaust the meaning of the text, nor to force the text to fit our schemes of interpretation, but to provide
enough background and comment to enable people to read with understanding.
The Bible has its own power as God’s Word, and is an authoritative standard for teaching truth,
correcting error, and instructing in right living. It is living and active, and has its own way of making its
message relevant to us as readers, but it can do so only if first we understand it. This commentary is
designed to help us understand what the biblical writers might have meant, and to do so in such a way that
we might readily see the relevance of the ancient Word to present-day living. And once we have the
understanding, we have an obligation to act upon it.

Don Fleming
Genesis
INTRODUCTION
The name Genesis means ‘origin’ or ‘beginning’ and is a suitable name for the book of the Bible that
speaks of the origins of the universe, of the human race, of human sin and of God’s way of salvation.
Though it stands at the beginning of our Bibles as an individual book, it was originally part of a much
larger book commonly called the Pentateuch.
The Pentateuch
Hebrew, the mother tongue of the Israelite people, was the original language of the Old Testament.
During the third century BC this Hebrew Old Testament was translated into Greek, the translation being
known as the Septuagint (often written LXX), after ‘the seventy’ who translated it. From these translators
we have borrowed the word Pentateuch as a name for the first five books of the Bible (from two Greek
words, penta, meaning ‘five’, and teuchos, meaning ‘a volume’).
Originally the five books were one, but they were put into their present five-volume form so that they
could fit conveniently on to five scrolls. The Hebrews referred to the whole Pentateuch simply as ‘the
law’ (2 Chron 17:9; Neh 8:1-3,18; Matt 5:17-19; 11:13; 12:5; Luke 24:44).
Age-old tradition, both Hebrew and Christian, recognizes Moses as the author of the Pentateuch (2
Chron 35:12; Neh 8:1; 13:1; Dan 9:11; Mark 12:26; Luke 16:29-31; Acts 15:21), though the Pentateuch
itself does not say who wrote it. Nevertheless, it mentions Moses’ literary activity. He wrote down the
law that God gave to Israel (Exod 24:4; 34:27; Deut 31:9,24), he kept records of Israel’s history (Exod
17:14; Num 33:2) and he wrote poems and songs (Exod 15:1; Deut 1:22,30).
As leader of the nation, Moses was no doubt familiar with the family records, traditional stories and
ancient songs that people of former generations had preserved and handed down, whether by word of
mouth or in written form (cf. Gen 5:1; 6:9; 10:1; 11:10,27). Like other writers, he would have used
material from various sources, especially in writing about places and events outside his own experience
(Gen 26:33; 35:19-20; 47:26; Num 21:14). In addition he had direct contact with God and received divine
revelations (Exod 3:4-6; 33:9-11; Deut 34:10). Under the guiding hand of God, all this material was put
together to produce what we call the five books of Moses.
People who study biblical documents have at times suggested that the Pentateuch reached its final
form much later than the time of Moses. They base their ideas on the similarities and contrasts they see in
such things as narrative accounts, the names used for God, usage of certain words and phrases, and details
of Israel’s religious system. Some even see a number of independent documents that were later combined
into one.
Amid all the discussion that has taken place concerning these matters, people have sometimes
forgotten that the important issue is not how the Pentateuch was written, but what it means. And in both
the Hebrew and Christian Bibles it stands as a book whose unity is clear and whose message is the living
Word of God (Neh 8:8,14; 9:3; John 5:39,46; Acts 28:23).
The book of Genesis
Those who gave the name ‘Genesis’ to the first book of the Bible were the translators of the
Pentateuch. The ancient Hebrews called the book by its opening words, ‘In the beginning’. The book’s
chief concern, however, is not with physical origins, but with the relationship God desires to have with
the people who inhabit his earth.
Adam and Eve, though sinless when created, fell into sin, and the evil consequences of their sin
passed on to the human race descended from them. Rebellious humanity deserved, and received, God’s
judgment, but that judgment was always mixed with mercy. God did not destroy the human life he had
created. Rather he worked through it to provide a way of salvation available to all. His way was to choose
one man (Abraham), from whom he would build a nation (Israel), through which he would make his will
known and eventually produce the Saviour of the world (Jesus).
The book of Genesis shows how human beings rebelled against God and fell under his judgment, but
it shows also how God began to carry out his plan for their salvation. After recording his promises to
make from Abraham a nation and to give that nation a homeland in Canaan, it shows how the promises
concerning both the land and the people began to be fulfilled.
OUTLINE
1:1-2:3 The story of creation
2:4-4:26 Early human life
5:1-32 Genealogy from Adam to Noah
6:1-9:29 Rebellion and judgment
10:1-11:26 Genealogies from Noah to Abram
11:27-15:21 Abram’s entry into the promised land
16:1-25:18 Abram and the promised heir
25:19-28:9 Isaac passes on the inheritance
28:10-36:43 Jacob establishes the family
37:1-50:26 Family growth and the move to Egypt
1:1-2:3 THE STORY OF CREATION
The Bible and science
Modern science has revealed so much about the wonders and the size of the physical universe that
human beings may seem almost to be nothing. The Bible takes a different view. Human beings are its
main concern, for they alone are made in God’s image. The story of creation is but an introduction to the
story of God’s dealings with the human race. The Bible demonstrates this order of importance from the
outset by fitting the story of creation into a mere week, into the opening page of a 1,000-page Bible.
The Bible was never intended to be a scientific textbook. It is not concerned with the sort of
investigation that modern science is concerned with. If its language were that of modern science, people
in former ages would not have understood it, and people in future ages would find it out of date. The
purpose of the Genesis account of creation was not to teach scientific theories, but to give a short simple
account of the beginning of things in language that people of any age would understand.
Language of the Bible
As with the rest of the Bible, the book of Genesis was written in the everyday language of the people
of the time. For example, the Bible speaks of the four corners of the earth (Isa 11:12) and of the pillars,
bases and cornerstone of the earth (Job 9:6; 38:4-6); but if people use those statements to deny that the
earth is a globe, they misuse the Bible. They show a misunderstanding of the nature of the Bible’s
language.
Yet such misunderstandings occur. Centuries ago people thought that the sun moved round the earth,
but when one scientist suggested that the earth moved round the sun, he was condemned for not believing
the Bible. The argument his accusers used was that the Bible says the earth remains still and the sun rises
and sets upon it (1 Chron 16:30; Eccles 1:5).
The Bible speaks of the heavens and the earth as ordinary people see them from their standpoint on
earth. The scientist may speak of the sun as the centre of the solar system, with the earth a minor planet of
the sun, and the moon a small satellite of the earth. But to people of ancient times, and even to us today,
the earth where people live is the centre of their world. The sun is merely the ‘greater light to rule the
day’, and the moon the ‘lesser light to rule the night’.
In reading the Bible we must understand not only what the Bible says but also what it means. When it
says that God ‘sits above the circle of the earth’ (Isa 40:22), it does not mean that he sits in space
somewhere above the horizon, but that he is the sovereign Lord of the universe. Likewise when it says
that God ‘made man from the dust of the earth’ (Gen 2:7), it does not mean that he took in his hands a
ball of clay and formed it into a human shape as a baker makes a gingerbread man, but that he made man
out of common chemicals. Even we ourselves, who came by natural processes of birth, are said to be
formed out of clay and made from the dust of the earth (Job 10:9; Eccles 3:20).
The Creator at work
God is pleased when people study his creation and learn its wonders (Ps. 111:2). The Bible tells us that
God is the Creator, and it reveals something of his purposes in creation, but if people want to find out
how the physical creation functions, they must do so by hard work as God has appointed (Gen 3:19). God
does not give such knowledge by direct revelation. How the various organs of the human body function,
for example, is a problem for medical science to solve, not the Bible. The same principle applies in other
fields of science.
Science may tell us more about God’s creation, but it does so from a viewpoint that is different from
that of the Bible. The Bible tells us that God is the one who did these things, and the scientist tells how he
might have done them.
When the Bible says ‘God did this’ or ‘God created that’, it does not mean that he must have done so
instantaneously or ‘magically’. We pray, ‘Give us this day our daily bread’ (Matt 6:11), but we do not
expect God to work instantaneously and drop food from heaven on to our plates. We expect him to work
through the normal processes of nature in producing the crops from which we get our food by hard work.
Yet we still thank God, for we know that he is the provider of all things. Believers and unbelievers might
agree on how nature provides humankind with food, but believers add something extra, because they see
God working through nature. The ‘laws of nature’ are God’s laws. Science may investigate the physical
world and suggest how something happened, but it cannot say who made it happen. Believers can, for ‘by
faith we understand that the world was created by the word of God’ (Heb 11:3).
Believers may therefore hesitate to dismiss a scientific theory simply by saying, ‘But I believe God
did it’, because the theory may have been the way God has done it. When the scientist tells us how rains
falls or how grass grows, we do not contradict him by saying, ‘But the Bible says God makes the rain fall,
God makes the grass grow’ (Matt 5:45; 6:30). We accept both as true.
Plan of the Genesis account
As we might have expected, the Genesis account of creation is from the viewpoint of the ordinary
person. The story is recorded as if someone were describing creation, not from somewhere in outer space,
but from his dwelling place on earth. The earth is only a very small part of God’s creation, but the
creation story in the Bible is concerned mainly with the earth and mentions other features only in relation
to the earth.
The Genesis account is concerned with showing that God made everything out of nothing, that he
worked from the formless to the formed, from the simple to the complex. It outlines how he brought the
universe through various stages till his creative activity reached its climax in Adam and Eve. Its basic
design is to divide the creation story into two groups of three days each. The first group shows how God
created the basic spheres of operation (light and dark; sea and sky; fertile land), the second how he
created the features within each of those spheres (lights of day and night; creatures of sea and sky;
creatures of the land).
This simple creation story, though not intended to be a scientific account, is not in conflict with
science. The following notes suggest one way in which scientific knowledge, far from causing us to doubt
the Genesis creation story, may in fact give us a more meaningful view of it.
The creation (1:1-2:3)
Countless years ago God, by his sovereign power and will, created the universe. At first the earth was
featureless and in darkness because of the mass of surrounding water, but as the thick clouds of water
vapour began to lose their density, a hazy light came by day from the invisible sun (1:1-5; first day). As
they lost further density, the surrounding clouds of vapour gradually rose from the earth, producing a
clear distinction between the ocean’s surface below and the ceiling of heavy cloud overhead (6-8; second
day). Meanwhile the earth was drying and land became visible. Simpler forms of life then began to
appear. Various kinds of soils and climatic conditions produced various kinds of plants, which were so
created as to continue producing further plants of their own kind (9-13; third day).
The heavy cloud overhead, which had been becoming thinner and thinner, finally broke. The sun,
moon and stars, previously hidden, now became clearly visible. Their effect upon the earth helped to
produce a variety of weather and a pattern of annual seasons (14-19; fourth day).
As God’s creative activity moved on, animal life began to appear, with creatures in the sea and creatures
in the air, all of them suited to their environment (20-23; fifth day). The land also experienced this
development of animal life, till it too became full of all kinds of creatures. Finally came the first human
couple, who together represented the peak of God’s creation. Like the other animals, they were so
made that they could feed themselves from what grew on the earth and reproduce their own kind. But
they were different from all other animals and were given power over them; for they alone, of all God’s
creatures, were made in God’s image (24-31; sixth day). (See ‘The image of God’ below.)
God’s rest after the creation of the first human couple signified not that he had become tired or
inactive (for he continues to care for what he has created), but that he had brought his work to its goal.
Having prepared the natural creation for human life, God now desired humankind to enjoy that creation
with him (2:1-3; seventh day).
The image of God
Being made in God’s image, human beings are unique in God’s creation. Somehow they are like God
in a way that nothing else is. This does not mean simply that certain ‘parts’ of human beings such as their
spiritual, moral or mental capacities reflect the divine nature. The whole person is in God’s image.
Because of this expression of God within them, men and women are in a sense God’s representatives
upon earth. He has appointed them rulers over the earthly creation (see 1:27-28).
 Without the image of God within them, people would not (according to the biblical definition) be
human. Even if they had the physical appearance of human beings, they would be no more than creatures
of the animal world.
An animal’s ‘animality’ is in itself; a person’s humanity is not. It depends for its existence upon God.
That is why human beings, in spite of the dignity and status given them by God, cannot exist
independently of God. They may want to, and may bring disaster upon themselves as a result (as seen in
the story of their original disobedience; see notes on 2:8-17, 3:1-24 below), but they cannot destroy the
image of God. The image of God within them is what makes them human.
2:4-4:26 EARLY HUMAN LIFE
Life in the Garden of Eden (2:4-25)
From this point on, the story concentrates on the people God made, rather than on other features of
the created universe. Again the Bible states that the world was not always as it is now, but was prepared
stage by stage till it was suitable for human habitation. God created Adam (meaning ‘man’ or ‘mankind’)
not out of nothing, but out of materials he had previously created. Like the other animals, Adam had his
physical origins in the common chemicals of the earth, but his life existed in a special relationship with
God that no other animal could share (4-7).
This status of existing in God’s image brought with it the responsibility to respond to God’s purposes.
God therefore placed Adam in a chosen locality, a beautiful parkland, for his training and testing. This
parkland was part of a well watered territory known as Eden, situated somewhere in the region of
Mesopotamia (8-14).
With a variety of foods available and a variety of tasks to be carried out to maintain the garden, Adam
had plenty of opportunity to develop in mind and body. He could mature through making choices and
learning new skills. God’s instructions showed that he wanted the people of his creation to enjoy the
fulness of their unique life (to eat of the tree of life), but they had to do so in submission to him. Their
creation in the image of God meant they could not be independent of God. They did not have the
unlimited right to do as they pleased, to be the sole judge of right and wrong (to eat of the tree of the
knowledge of good and evil) (15-17).
Whether we see the two trees as metaphorical or literal, their meaning is the same. The emphasis in
the story is not that the trees were magical, but that they presented Adam with a choice of either
submitting to God or trying to be independent of him. Growth in devotion to God involves self-denial
(Heb 5:8). Maturity comes through choosing the good and refusing the evil (Heb 5:14), and each victory
over temptation would have helped Adam grow from a state of childlike innocence into one of adult
maturity. His fellowship with God would have deepened, and his understanding of God’s purposes
increased.
Because human life alone existed in God’s image, none of the other creatures could share this life in any
satisfying way. God therefore gave Adam one of his own kind, but of the opposite sex, to be his
companion. The man and the woman were equal in status as being made in God’s image (cf. 1:27) and
were harmoniously united, to the exclusion of all others (18-25). The woman was later given the name
Eve, meaning ‘life’ or ‘living’, because she was the one through whom future human life would come
(see 3:20).
Human disobedience (3:1-24)
Since human beings were made in God’s image, and since God was unlimited, the first human couple
soon showed that they too wanted to be unlimited. They had to remember, however, that they were not
God; they were only creatures made in the image of God. Just as the image of the moon on the water
could not exist independently of the moon, so they could not exist independently of God. Their
relationship with God contained an element of dependence, or limitation, and consequently God limited
their freedom. He told them not to eat of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil.
Satan, the opponent of God and chief of the evil angels, set out to spoil the relationship between God
and those created in his image. His evil work was to tempt them to go beyond the limit God had set, to be
independent of God, to put themselves in the place of God, to make their own decisions, to rule their own
lives, to be the independent judges of right and wrong. The root sin was pride – the desire people have to
be their own god – and through this, Satan successfully tempted them to rebel against God (3:1-7). (For
the identification of the snake with Satan see Revelation 12:9.)
 In a sense the man and the woman gained a knowledge of good and evil, but from the standpoint of
guilty sinners, not from the standpoint of a holy God. They knew evil through doing it, and the result was
a feeling of shame (8-13).
As for the deceiver Satan, his humiliation would be symbolized in the snake’s wriggling in the dirt.
Henceforth, the human race (the descendants of Eve) would be in constant conflict with Satan. Yet God
promised them victory over Satan. A snake might injure a man by biting his heel, but a man can kill a
snake by crushing its head. Humankind had been successfully attacked by Satan, but through Jesus Christ
humankind would eventually conquer Satan, though the conquest would involve suffering (14-15).
The disorder created by human sin brought with it suffering for the whole human race. From this time
on, people could live in God’s world and reproduce their own kind only through suffering. Conflict
entered human relationships, and even the harmony between husband and wife became spoiled through
domination (16-21).
No longer were human beings at peace with God. They had rejected eternal life, and therefore God
withheld it from them. They had wanted to be independent of God, and therefore God sent them away
from his presence. They had wanted to determine good and evil for themselves, and therefore God drove
them into a world where they would learn good and evil only through the sorrow and hardship created by
their own mistakes (22-24).
Sin and human death
According to the Bible, human death is a result of sin (Rom 5:12). Yet it would seem from the nature
of the human body that physical death is inevitable, whether sin is present or not. Is there a solution to
this problem?
Adam was warned that on the day that he sinned he would die (see 2:17). When he sinned, he passed
out of a condition where life dominated into one where death dominated. His whole being was affected,
so that spiritually he was cut off from eternal life and physically he was certain to die (Rom 5:12-17). The
saving work of Christ reverses the effects of sin, bringing victory over death in both its spiritual and
physical aspects (Rom 6:23; 8:10-11; 1 Cor 15:21-22). Christ restores people, in the totality of their
being, to the life that is proper to them, eternal life.
Some may argue that since human beings are creatures of the natural world, their lives are controlled
by the laws of nature and therefore they must die as other animals do (Eccles 3:19-20). But the Bible
shows that human beings are not simply creatures of the natural world. They are related to God in a way
that makes them different from all other creatures.
It has been suggested that before Adam sinned, the spiritual life within him was so dominant that it
prevented those natural processes towards bodily decay that we might normally expect. Sin so changed
the situation that bodily decay could no longer be prevented and death became inevitable. If this was the
case, physical death became at the same time a completely natural process and completely a result of sin.
Where the spirit had complete control over the body death could not occur, but once it rebelled against
God it lost control over the body and death resulted.
We need not imagine the chaos of an over-populated world had sin and death not entered, with people
being born but never dying. It is death that is the enemy, not the termination of earthly existence. Death
has its ‘sting’ because of sin, but there may be some way of departing this world that has no such sting (1
Cor 15:26,55-56; cf. Gen 5:24; 2 Kings 2:11; 1 Cor 15:51-52; Heb 11:5).
Results of sin in the natural world
Concerning the death of other forms of life before the entrance of sin through Adam, we need not try to
picture a world in which death never occurred. It is human death that is the consequence of sin. Even in
the ideal conditions of the Garden of Eden, fruit and leaves died as they were separated from the trees
they grew on (see 2:15-16). Wild creatures existed before Adam sinned (see 3:1). Tigers, sharks and ant
eaters no doubt fed on other animals and helped then, as they do now, to keep the balance of nature.
God did not create the world as one great paradise, nor did he intend human beings to spend their days in
lazy idleness. It seems, in fact, that most of the world was untamed and awaited the arrival of the human
race to enter its full glory (Rom 8:19-23). The duty of Adam and his descendants was to bring the
earth under human control, something they would gradually achieve as their numbers increased and
people moved out from Eden into the world beyond (see 1:28). But instead of being the means of God’s
blessing to nature, they themselves fell into disorder.
 The ideal conditions of paradise existed only in the Garden of Eden, where God placed the first human
couple for their training and testing. When they sinned, they were driven from this garden into the
untamed world outside. But because they had lost the spiritual life that God had given them, the physical
creation that God intended for their development became the means of their torment. Physical effort and
bodily functions that should have brought pleasure brought instead pain and hardship (see 3:16-19).
Cain and Abel (4:1-16)
Adam and Eve’s first two sons, Cain and Abel, maintained a belief in God and presented offerings to
him. Abel offered the best of his flock in humble faith and God accepted him. Cain’s attitude was
arrogant and his life ungodly, and therefore God rejected him (4:1-5; cf. Heb 11:4; 1 John 3:12). Since the
attitude and conduct of the offerer were more important than his gifts, God told Cain that if he wanted
God to accept him, he would have to overcome the sin that threatened to destroy him. That sin was like a
wild beast crouching at the door, waiting to attack its victim (6-7).
Cain failed to overcome his sin and in jealous anger he killed Abel. His taking of Abel’s life called
out for revenge from the one who had given that life. God therefore drove Cain into the barren
countryside, away from the place where people, though sinners, at least still worshipped God. Although
Cain remained unrepentant, God in his mercy protected him from any possible revenge killing (8-16).
Cain’s followers and Seth’s (4:17-26)
Difficult though this new way of life was, the ungodly Cain was no doubt relieved to be free from the
influence of God. The human population had been growing constantly, so in a plan to make himself
secure Cain established his own independent settlement (17-18).
The beginnings of settled life were marked by both good and evil. People made some progress in the
raising of sheep and cattle, and developed skills in various arts and crafts, but morally they became worse.
Lamech not only murdered a boy who had done no more than slightly injure him, but wrote a song to
celebrate his crime. Cain had at least looked for, and received, God’s protection against revenge killing,
but Lamech was so arrogant and defiant that he challenged anyone to take action against him (19-24).
Cain’s descendants now disappear from the story. From this point on the story will be concerned with
the descendants of another of Adam’s sons, Seth, for these were the ones who continued to worship God
(25-26). Adam and Eve produced many sons and daughters (see 5:4), since part of their responsibility was
to help populate the earth (see 1:28). Over a long period different racial groups emerged, as people settled
in various regions and multiplied.
The Bible story, however, deals with the history of only a small portion of the human race, namely,
that which produced the Semitic people, of whom the Hebrews were a part. This was the one line of
descent through which people maintained a belief in the one true God (cf. Rom 1:20-23).
5:1-32 GENEALOGY FROM ADAM TO NOAH
As the human race expanded, the minority of people who remained faithful to God became smaller
and smaller. The purpose of the genealogy recorded in this chapter is to trace from Adam to Noah that
thin line of believers who kept alive the knowledge of God.
The genealogy does not name every descendant in the line from Adam to Noah, but selects ten
important people to form an overall framework. Selective genealogies such as this, being easy to
remember, were common in the ancient world. In Genesis 11:10-26 another selective genealogy, also
based on ten names, carries on from this one to cover the time from Noah to Abram. (The genealogy of
Jesus in Matthew 1:1-17 is also selective, omitting several names to produce a simple arrangement of
three sets of fourteen.)
Genealogies, particularly selective genealogies, cannot be used to measure the age of the human race.
The word ‘son’ may simply mean descendant, and the word ‘father’ may simply mean ancestor (e.g. Matt
1:1,8). The ten men named in the genealogy of this chapter are the ten most prominent men of the era.
The list notes also the age of each man when he produced the son who became the first link in the chain
between him and the next-named person. Death, as usual, demonstrated the results of sin (5:1-20).
The exceptional case of Enoch, however, might have encouraged the faithful to believe that death
was not all-powerful. It would not always have power over those who pleased God (21-24; cf. Heb 11:5).
The father of Noah expressed the hope that the ground also would be freed from the curse that human sin
had brought (25-32).
Different weather and living conditions may have been part of the reason for the unusually long life spans
 of that time. (Non-biblical records also speak of unusually long life spans among ancient races in the
Mesopotamian region.) Whatever the cause, it was no doubt a gracious provision by God in view of the
need for people to spread out and bring more of the untamed world under their control (see 1:28). Such
tasks were not easy when the human race was small in numbers and lacking in technical knowledge.
6:1-9:29 REBELLION AND JUDGMENT
The wickedness of human society (6:1-8)
As the population grew and societies developed, people again showed the tendency to want to exist
independently of God. Like their original ancestors, they wanted to be as God and live for ever (cf.
3:5,22).
It seems that certain angels (the probable meaning of ‘sons of God’ in this story; cf. Job 1:6; 38:7;
Dan 3:25) had, in rebellion against God, taken human form and co-operated with ambitious people in
trying to produce a race of ‘super-humans’ who would be unconquerable and immortal. In response God
reminded his human creatures that they were mortal, kept alive only by his spirit within them. In
punishment he reduced the human life span from its former length to approximately 120 years (6:1-4).
(God’s punishment of the angels is possibly referred to in 1 Peter 3:19-20 and Jude 6.)
People, however, did not heed God’s warning. Their wickedness continued to increase, till God
decided that the only thing to do was to destroy them (5-8).
The flood (6:9-8:19)
Amid the corruption, there was one man, Noah, who remained faithful to God. Therefore, God
promised to preserve Noah, along with his family, so that when the former evil race had been destroyed,
he could use Noah and his family to build a new people (9-12; cf. Heb 11:7; 2 Peter 2:4-5).
God’s means of destruction was a great flood. Besides preserving Noah and his family, God
preserved a pair of each kind of animals in the region, thereby helping to maintain the balance between
people and animals.
All the people and animals to be preserved were housed in a huge box-like structure called an ark,
which was designed to float on the floodwaters. The ark was about 133 metres long, 22 metres wide and
13 metres high. It had a door in the side, and a light and ventilation opening, almost half a metre deep,
running around the top of the wall just below the roof overhang. Horizontally it was divided into three
decks and vertically it was divided into a number of rooms. These divisions helped to separate the
animals and brace the whole structure (13-22). Noah took additional clean animals into the ark, possibly
to use later for food and sacrifices (7:1-10; cf. 8:20; 9:2-3).
It seems that, in addition to the forty days’ constant downpour of heavy rain, there was a break in the
earth’s crust that sent the waters from the sea pouring into the Mesopotamian valley (11-16). Even when
the rain stopped and the earth’s crust and sea bed settled again, the floodwaters took many months to go
down (17-24).
Almost four months after the rain stopped, the ark came to rest somewhere in the Ararat Range (8:1-
4). Noah had difficulty seeing anything out of the ark, but he managed to notice a number of hilltops
when they later became visible (5). By sending out firstly a raven and then a dove, he found out whether
the land was drying out in the lower regions that he could not see (6-12). When at last he removed the
ark’s covering, he saw clearly that the land had now dried out completely. Nevertheless, he had to wait
further till grass and plants had grown sufficiently to support animal life. Finally, more than seven months
after the ark had been grounded, Noah, his family and all the animals came out of the ark (13-19).
As we have come to expect, the Bible describes the flood from the viewpoint of an ordinary person
who might have seen it (e.g. Noah). As far as Noah was concerned, the flood was universal, as it covered
the whole area which he could see or about which he could get information. It probably concerned the
area of the world that the Bible story has been concerned with in the previous chapters. It was a total
judgment on that ungodly world.
Expressions of universality such as ‘all the earth’, ‘all people’, ‘every nation under heaven’, etc. are
used frequently in the Bible with a purely local meaning. They do not necessarily refer to the whole world
as we know it today (e.g. Gen 41:57; Deut 2:25; 1 Kings 4:34; 18:10; Dan 4:22; 5:19; Acts 2:5; 11:28;
Col 1:23).
A new beginning (8:20-9:7)
On returning to the earth now cleansed from sin, Noah first offered sacrifices to God. God’s promise not
to destroy the earth by a flood again was not because he expected people to improve. He knew they
would be as sinful as ever. If God always dealt with people as they deserved, such floods would occur
constantly. But in his mercy God would allow sinful people to continue to live on his earth (20-22).
With this new beginning, God gave Noah the same sorts of commands as he had given Adam. People
were still God’s representatives over the earth, but they still did not have the right to act independently of
God. Even in killing an animal for food, they had to realize that they had no independent right to take its
life. By not using the animal’s blood (representing its life) for their own benefit, they acknowledged that
God was the true owner of that life. Human life was even more precious to God than animal life, because
human beings were made in God’s image. Therefore, any person who killed another without God’s
approval was no longer worthy to enjoy God’s gift of life and had to be put to death (9:1-7).
God’s covenant with Noah (9:8-17)
A covenant was an agreement between two parties that carried with it obligations and possibly
benefits or punishments, depending on whether a person kept or broke the covenant. Covenants to which
God was a party, however, differed from covenants between people in that they were not agreements
between equals. God was always the giver and the other person the receiver. The covenant promises
originated in the grace of God and were guaranteed solely by him.
Earlier God had made a covenant promise to Noah to save him and his family (see 6:18). After the
flood God made another covenant promise, and, like the first, it originated entirely in God’s grace. The
covenant was made not with Noah as an individual but with all earthly life through him. God would never
again destroy earthly life by a flood (8-11). God pointed Noah to the rainbow as his sign to all generations
that the covenant depended entirely upon him for its fulfilment (12-17).
Noah and his sons (9:18-29)
On one occasion Noah brought shame upon himself through becoming drunk. But God’s condemnation
was concerned more with Noah’s son Ham, and particularly his grandson Canaan who tried to add to
Noah’s disgrace (18-23). God announced a curse on the descendants of Ham who would come through
Canaan, though not on Ham’s other descendants. The descendants of Canaan would have
their land taken from them by the descendants of Shem (the nation Israel) and they themselves would be
made to serve Israel (24-26; see Josh 9:23; Judg 1:28; 1 Kings 9:21).
The descendants of Japheth, who spread to the north and west through Asia Minor and Greece, were
promised a share in the blessings of Shem. This was fulfilled when the New Testament church spread
through this region and multitudes of Gentiles believed. As a result they enjoyed the blessings of God’s
people that formerly had been limited largely to Israelites (27-29; see Gal 3:14; Eph 3:6).
10:1-11:26 GENEALOGIES FROM NOAH TO ABRAM
Nations descended from Noah (10:1-32)
This genealogy must have been written hundreds of years after the time of Noah, when his
descendants had multiplied and moved to many places. By that time differences in language, race and
culture were noticeable. The purpose of the listing here is to trace the origin of these groups, not to name
every single descendant of Noah.
Again the genealogy is simplified, being based on a selection of seventy descendants. Most likely the
names in the genealogy were originally the names of individuals, but later were applied to the peoples
descended from them and, in some cases, to the territories or towns inhabited by those peoples. The
record concerns only the sons of Noah, and says nothing about peoples in the more distant parts of the
world who may not have been affected by the flood.
Japheth’s descendants settled mainly in the regions north and north-west of Palestine, spreading
across Asia Minor to Greece (10:1-5). The Hamites occupied Canaan (until the Israelites took it from
them) and parts of Mesopotamia to the east, while in the south they spread to Egypt and the areas on the
western side of the Red Sea (6-20). The descendants of Shem (Semites) also occupied parts of
Mesopotamia, and spread south from there across Arabia. The particular part of the Semite family that
produced the Israelites (that of Peleg) is merely mentioned here, being treated more fully in the next
chapter (21-32).
Sometimes the same name appears in more than one list, since there was much inter-marriage,
migration and conquest among the various peoples. Also, it should be noted that the territory of Canaan,
later to be occupied by the Israelites, contained many tribal groups (see 15:18-20; 23:17-20; 34:2,30), and
sometimes the name of one of these tribal groups may have been used to refer to Canaanites in general
(cf. 12:6; 15:16).
Rebellion against God at Babel (11:1-9)
Babel was one of the cities founded by Nimrod in the land of Shinar, ancient Babylonia (see 10:8-
12). The people of this region, proud of the society they had established, displayed the same anti-God
spirit as had brought about God’s judgment through the flood. They joined together to build for
themselves a new city that would make them famous and give them complete security. They decided to
crown their city with what they considered to be a skyscraper, as a symbol of their advanced civilization
and complete self-sufficiency (11:1-4).
Their skyscraper may have been a fortress, or it could have been a temple, but whatever it was God
saw it as a symbol of rebellion. The more people progressed, the more they tried to use their collective
abilities to build for themselves a society that would make them independent of God. God therefore
smashed their unholy union decisively (5-9).
Preparation for Abram (11:10-26)
During the period between Noah and Abram, the earth’s population increased greatly. People
migrated to various regions, and many tribal groups, even nations, were established (see 10:1-32). It
appears from this that there must have been more than ten generations between Noah and Abram. In that
case, the genealogy recorded here has been simplified, the ten names listed being those of ten leading men
of that period. (See notes on 5:1-32.)
The genealogy from Shem to Eber repeats what has been given in Chapter 10 (10-15; cf. 10:21-24). The
genealogy from Eber onwards differs from that in Chapter 10. It traces the line through Eber’s elder son
Peleg (since that was the line that produced Abram), whereas the genealogy in Chapter 10 traced the
line through Eber’s younger son Joktan (a line that produced many of the Arab tribes) (16-26; cf. 10:25-
31). The genealogy shows also that the human life span was shortening, as God had previously
announced (see 6:3).
Note: It seems that the name Eber is the source of the word ‘Hebrew’. Although in theory all the
descendants of Eber could be called Hebrews, in practice the name became limited to those of the line of
descent that passed through Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (14:13; 39:17; 40:15; 43:32). In time it became
simply another name for Israelites (Exod 2:6,11; 3:18; 1 Sam 4:6; Jer 34:9; Acts 6:1; Phil 3:5).
11:27-15:21 ABRAM’S ENTRY INTO THE PROMISED LAND
Abram obeys God’s call (11:27-12:9)
From the nations of the world God now chose one man through whom he would build a new nation,
which, in turn, would be the means of bringing his blessing to the whole world (see 12:2-3). God’s
chosen man, Abram (later called Abraham), lived originally in the idolatrous city of Ur in ancient
Babylonia. Although others in his family worshipped idols (Josh 24:2), Abram worshipped the one true
God and obeyed him when told to move out of Ur. With his wife Sarai (later called Sarah), his father
Terah, and his nephew Lot, he travelled north-west through the Mesopotamian valley to the town of
Haran, where he settled temporarily (11:27-32; Acts 7:2-4).
Some time later Abram and Sarai, along with Lot, moved at God’s direction south into Canaan.
Abram believed that God would give him a better dwelling place, even though he did not know exactly
where he was to go. He believed also that God would make him the father of a great nation, even though
his wife had not been able to have children (12:1-5; Heb 11:8-12). At that time the Canaanites lived in the
land, but Abram firmly believed that one day his descendants would live there instead. He openly
expressed his faith in God by building altars in the very places where the Canaanites were then living (6-
9).
Journey to Egypt and return (12:10-13:18)
A long drought in Canaan must have caused Abram to wonder just how reliable this promised land
was. In the end he journeyed to Egypt in search of better pastures (10).
Fearing that the Egyptians would kill him in order to take his beautiful wife, he preserved himself by
saying she was his sister. This was half true, because Sarai was a daughter of Terah by another wife (see
20:12); but Abram and Sarai did wrong in telling only half the truth in order to hide the full truth (11-16).
Even the Egyptian king whom Abram had deceived was more open and straightforward than Abram.
Without delay he drove Abram from Egypt in disgrace (17-20).
Abram and his household returned to Canaan (13:1). Throughout these events he and Lot had
preserved their flocks and herds, and even increased their wealth (cf. 12:5,16). In fact, they owned so
many animals that the place they had moved to (near the northern tip of the Dead Sea) was not able to
support them both and trouble arose between them (2-7).
In contrast to his behaviour in Egypt, Abram acted with generosity and faith. He allowed Lot first
choice of the pasture lands available, agreeing to accept for himself whatever remained. No doubt he
trusted God to look after him in the land God had promised him. Lot chose the fertile lands east of the
Dead Sea (8-13).
God responded to Abram’s faith by renewing his promise to make Abram’s descendants into a great
nation and give them Canaan for a homeland. Abram then moved to the pasture lands west of the Dead
Sea and settled at Hebron (14-18).
Abram meets Melchizedek (14:1-24)
Lot’s selfish choice brought him unexpected trouble. In the Dead Sea region where Lot lived, a group
of city-states rebelled against their Mesopotamian overlords and brought war upon themselves. Lot was
captured and his possessions plundered (14:1-12). Abram was in no danger but he was concerned for Lot.
With a fighting force of over three hundred from his large household, along with others from
neighbouring households, he pursued the invaders. He overpowered the enemy in a surprise night attack,
rescued Lot and recovered all the plunder (13-16).
On his return, Abram was met by the king of Sodom, whose goods Abram had recovered. He was
met also by Melchizedek, king of the Canaanite city-state of Salem (probably the place later called
Jerusalem), who, like Abram, was a worshipper of
the Most High God. More than that, Melchizedek
was God’s priest. He therefore blessed Abram,
reminding him that God, and no other, was the true
owner of heaven and earth. God was the one who
had given Abram this victory. Abram
acknowledged this, firstly by making a costly
offering to God’s priest, and secondly by refusing
to accept any reward from the king of Sodom. God
alone controlled Abram’s affairs in Canaan.
Nevertheless, Abram gladly allowed his
neighbours to be rewarded (17-24; cf. Heb 7:1-10).
God’s covenant with Abram (15:1-21)
Earlier God had promised Abram a people and
a land (see 12:2; 13:15). Abram’s faith concerning
the promised land had been tested through drought
and conflict, and his faith concerning the promised people was constantly being tested through his wife’s
inability to have children. According to a custom of the time, a childless couple could adopt a person and
make him heir to the family property. Abram therefore decided to adopt his trusted slave Eliezer. But
God persuaded him not to, reassuring him that he would have a son and, through that son, countless
descendants. Abram believed God, and on the basis of his faith God accepted him as righteous (15:1-6;
cf. Rom 4:1-5,13-22).
God then confirmed his promise to Abram of a people and a land in a traditional covenant-making
ceremony. Normally in such ceremonies sacrificial animals were cut in halves, after which the two parties
to the covenant walked between the halves, calling down the fate of the slaughtered animals upon
themselves should they break the covenant. God therefore commanded Abram to prepare the animals (7-
11; cf. Jer 34:18).
 In this case, however, God alone (symbolized
by a smoking fire-pot and a flaming torch) passed
between the pieces of the slaughtered animals,
because he alone took the responsibility to fulfil the
covenant promises. All was by God’s grace, and
was received by Abram through faith. Yet Abram
felt a terrifying darkness upon him, for the covenant
would be fulfilled amid opposition, bondage,
judgment and oppression over a period of hundreds
of years. God would be patient with the peoples of
Canaan and give them ample opportunity to repent.
Only when their wickedness had reached
uncontrollable limits would he allow Israel to
destroy them and possess their land (12-21).
The reason God established the descendants of
Abram as the nation Israel was chiefly to use Israel
to produce Jesus the Saviour. God’s promise of
worldwide blessing through Abram was fulfilled in
Jesus Christ, through whom people of all nations
may receive God’s salvation. Jesus Christ was, in a
special sense, the promised descendant of Abram
(see 12:2-3; Luke 1:54-55,72-73; Gal 3:16). When
believers become Christ’s people, they become,
through him, Abram’s descendants also, and so
share in the blessings promised to Abram (Rom 4:16-17; Gal 3:6-9,14,29; Eph 3:6). The permanent rest
God gives them is more than a dwelling place in Canaan; it is salvation through Jesus Christ (Heb 4:6-
10).
16:1-25:18 ABRAM AND THE PROMISED HEIR
Birth of Ishmael (16:1-16)
When Abram earlier suggested adopting his slave as his heir, God reassured him that his heir would
be a son of his own (see 15:2-4). But after ten years in Canaan, Sarai was still childless. Weakened in
faith, she suggested that Abram obtain his son through their slave-girl Hagar. This was not God’s way,
but it followed an accepted custom among the people of the region. All legal rights over the child
belonged to the wife, not to the slave-girl, though the wife had no right to expel the slave-girl. However,
when jealousy arose between Sarai and Hagar, Sarai enforced her rights with such bitterness that Hagar
fled (16:1-6).
Hagar was probably heading for her home country Egypt when she was met by the angel of the Lord.
Through the angel God told Hagar to return and submit to Sarai, adding that the son to be born to her
would himself become the father of a great people. He would be named Ishmael and would grow into a
tough, fiercely independent desert-dweller (7-12; cf. 17:20; 21:13). Hagar was so amazed to think she had
seen God and lived, that she addressed God by a special name in acknowledgment of her extraordinary
experience (13-16).
Note: In the early books of the Old Testament the angel of God appears almost to be the same as God
himself. This is possibly because the angel is so closely identified with God as his messenger that when
he speaks, God speaks. The temporary physical appearance of the angel is interpreted as the temporary
physical appearance of God. (See also 21:17-18; 22:15-17; Exod 3:2-6.)
The covenant sealed (17:1-27)
As Abram and Sarai grew older, God told them again that he would be faithful to his promises. He
revealed himself to them in a new name of power (God Almighty) and gave them each new names
(Abraham and Sarah) to emphasize that he would make them parents of a multitude (17:1-6,15-16). The
Almighty had made a covenant to be God to Abraham and his descendants, and he would give them
Canaan to be their homeland (7-8).
To reassure Abraham that he would keep his covenant promises, God told him to make a permanent
distinguishing mark in his body. This mark, circumcision, was a symbol of God’s faithfulness to his
covenant and a sign that Abraham believed God’s promises and obeyed his commands. Circumcision
sealed Abraham’s faith and at the same time demonstrated his obedience (Rom 4:9-12; cf. Acts 7:8).
Others in Abraham’s household, and all his male descendants throughout the generations to come, were
likewise to be circumcised if they wished to be God’s people under the covenant. The covenant originated
with God, but people had to respond to God’s grace with faithful obedience if they were to participate in
the blessings of the covenant (9-14).
When God promised Abraham that Sarah would have a son, Abraham felt, in view of his and Sarah’s
old age, that this was almost too much to expect. It seemed to him more reasonable to expect God to
make Ishmael (now an impressive thirteen-year-old youth; see 16:16; 17:1) heir to the covenant promises.
God told Abraham that Ishmael would certainly have a notable line of descendants, but God’s covenant
people would be established through the son yet to be born, Isaac (15-22). Abraham believed God’s
covenant promises, and gave expression to his faith by carrying out God’s covenant commands (23-27).
Messengers from God (18:1-33)
A short time later three men visited Abraham (who was still living at Hebron; see 13:18; 14:13;
18:1.) Abraham welcomed them, not realizing at first that they were God’s special representatives. This
was another appearance of the angel of the Lord (18:1-8; see also v. 22; 19:1; Heb 13:2). Apparently
Abraham had not been able to convince Sarah that she would have a child, so God sent his messenger to
her direct. She had to share Abraham’s faith (9-15).
Because Abraham had an important part in God’s plan, not only for the nation Israel but for the
whole world, God decided to tell Abraham what he intended to do to the wicked city of Sodom (16-21).
Therefore, while two of the messengers went on to Sodom, the third stayed behind with Abraham.
Abraham’s plea to God not to destroy Sodom showed a good understanding of the righteousness and
mercy of God, but it showed also that Abraham did not realize how bad Sodom was (22-33).
Sodom and Gomorrah (19:1-38)
Meanwhile the two messengers arrived in Sodom. Lot, knowing the danger that strangers faced in the
streets of Sodom at night, welcomed them into his house (19:1-3). Although Lot did not agree with the
immoral practices of Sodom (2 Peter 2:7-8), he apparently did not have the courage to oppose them. He
was even prepared to allow the sexual perverts of the city to rape his daughters, in order to protect his two
guests from homosexual assault. In a blinding judgment, God showed his hatred of sexual violence and
perversion (4-11; cf. Lev 18:22; 20:13; Rom 1:26-27; 1 Cor 6:9-10; 1 Tim 1:10).
God’s messengers then told Lot and his family to escape, because Sodom was about to be destroyed
(12-14). Yet Lot had become so much at home in Sodom that God’s messengers had almost to drag him
from the city. Even then he asked a special favour from God that would allow him to carry on his former
way of life in another city (15-22).
The region around the Dead Sea where Sodom and Gomorrah were situated contained tar pits,
sulphur and natural gases (cf. 14:10). A combination of an earthquake and lightning could have caused an
explosion similar to that of a volcano, resulting in burning sulphur raining down over the cities (and over
Lot’s wife). At the same time it was a direct judgment by God, happening at the time and in the place God
had announced (23-29).
So horrifying was the destruction, that Lot decided he could no longer live in safety inside the city.
So he took his family out to the hills and lived in a cave. But his two daughters, still affected by the evil
influences of Sodom, forced their father into immoral sexual relations with them. The two children that
were born through this immorality produced respectively the Ammonites and the Moabites, peoples who
later became a source of trouble to Israel (30-38).
Abraham deceives Abimelech (20:1-18)
From Hebron Abraham moved into the territory of the Philistine king Abimelech. As a result of
Abraham’s deceit concerning Sarah, Abimelech took Sarah as a wife and brought God’s threat of death
upon him (20:1-7). Upon discovering the truth, Abimelech acted quickly and honourably. He restored
Sarah’s honour in the eyes of the people, gave gifts to Abraham, and invited Abraham to settle in his land
(8-16). Humbled by these events, Abraham turned again in faith to God and asked his blessings on
Abimelech and his people (17-18).
The failure of Abraham and Sarah at a time so close to the birth of Isaac showed once more that the
fulfilment of God’s covenant promise of an heir depended on divine grace, not on human merit.
Birth of Isaac (21:1-21)
When Isaac was born, Abraham circumcised him as commanded. In this way he demonstrated that
Isaac was heir to God’s covenant promises (21:1-7; cf. 17:9-14).
Ishmael made fun of the covenant family, as Sarah had feared. Being the son of a slave-girl, Ishmael
had the right to inherit some of Abraham’s wealth, but he could surrender this right in exchange for the
freedom of himself and his mother. Sarah, determined that her son should be the sole heir, tried to
persuade Abraham to force freedom upon Hagar and Ishmael by expelling them. Abraham hesitated to do
this, because they had full rights to remain in his household. But God supported Sarah’s suggestion. He
promised to look after Hagar and Ishmael, and to make of Ishmael a great people; but his covenant was
with Isaac (8-21).
Treaty with Abimelech (21:22-34)
Abraham had settled in the south of Canaan in Abimelech’s territory and at Abimelech’s invitation
(see 20:15). Abimelech, however, was still wary of Abraham and fearful of the God whom Abraham
worshipped. He suggested that Abraham and he make a treaty that would guarantee good relations
between them (22-24). Abraham agreed to this, but at the same time he forced Abimelech to agree to
return to him a well that Abimelech’s herdsmen claimed as theirs. Abimelech publicly bound himself to
the agreement by accepting from Abraham seven lambs as a witness (25-34). The place where the well
was located became known as Beersheba, and Abraham later settled there (see 22:19).
The offering of Isaac (22:1-19)
Although Abraham probably knew that certain peoples of the ancient world at times sacrificed
children to the gods, he was no doubt shocked when God told him to sacrifice Isaac. It tested not only his
obedience but also his faith, because once Isaac was dead, God could no longer fulfil his covenant
promise of giving Isaac a multitude of descendants. A conflict existed between obedience to God’s
command and faith in his promise. Nevertheless, Abraham obeyed, believing that God would provide the
solution to this difficulty, even if it meant raising the sacrificed son back to life (22:1-8; cf. Heb 11:17-
19).
Abraham passed God’s test: his obedience proved his faith. He did, in fact, sacrifice Isaac, though he did
not kill him. God provided an innocent substitute, and Isaac’s life was given back, as it were, from the
dead (9-14; cf. Heb 11:19; James 2:21-24). God pointed out how these events proved that obedience was
the way to blessing. He then reassured Abraham of a multitude of descendants through Isaac (15-19).
Further expressions of faith (22:20-23:20)
While Abraham was establishing his family in Canaan, the family of his brother Nahor in
Mesopotamia was growing. The writer records this growth to introduce Rebekah, the future wife of Isaac
(20-24).
Back in Canaan, Abraham moved from Beersheba to Hebron, and there Sarah died (23:1-2). Though
God had promised the whole of Canaan to Abraham and his descendants, Abraham still owned no land
there. The death of Sarah gave him an opportunity to buy a piece of land which, besides being a burial
place, symbolized his permanent ownership of Canaan (3-18). By being buried in Canaan, Abraham and
his family expressed their faith that this was their homeland, and one day their descendants would live
there permanently (19-20; cf. 25:8-10; 49:29-32; 50:13,25; Heb 11:13,22).
A wife for Isaac (24:1-67)
Since Isaac would succeed Abraham as heir to the land of Canaan and ancestor of the promised
nation, Abraham required two things concerning him. First, he was not to leave Canaan; second, he was
not to marry one of the Canaanites, as they were under God’s judgment. Abraham therefore sent his chief
servant (possibly Eliezer; see 15:2) on a long journey to Paddan-aram in north-western Mesopotamia to
find a wife for Isaac among Abraham’s relatives there (24:1-9).
The servant prayed for God’s special guidance (10-14) and, on finding that God had led him to the
grand-daughter of Abraham’s brother, praised God for answering his prayer. The girl’s name was
Rebekah (15-27). The servant then explained to Rebekah’s father Bethuel and her brother Laban why he
believed she was God’s chosen wife for Isaac (28-49). When all parties agreed that Rebekah should go
and marry Isaac, Abraham’s servant gave gifts to Rebekah’s family as the bride price, and Rebekah’s
family gave servants to her as a wedding gift (50-61). The large party then journeyed to Canaan, where
Rebekah met and married Isaac (62-67).
Abraham’s other descendants (25:1-18)
Before continuing the story of Isaac, the writer concludes the story of Abraham with a summary of
his other descendants. Besides having a relationship with Hagar, Abraham had taken a minor wife,
Keturah (1 Chron 1:28,32). But since Isaac was the promised heir, only he could remain in Canaan and
receive Abraham’s inheritance. Abraham therefore gave gifts to his minor wives and their children and
sent them off to establish independent lives elsewhere. They became ancestors of various Arab tribes
(25:1-6).
There was a brief reunion between Ishmael and Isaac at the burial of Abraham (7-11), but Ishmael
and his family remained largely outside Canaan. The promises given earlier to Ishmael were fulfilled in
the many Arab tribes descended from him (12-18).
25:19-28:9 ISAAC PASSES ON THE INHERITANCE
Isaac’s two sons (25:19-34)
After being childless for twenty years, Isaac and Rebekah had twin sons. The characters of the two
sons proved to be opposites, and this was later reflected in the two nations that were descended from
them. God appointed that the elder, Esau, should serve the younger, Jacob (19-26). But that did not
excuse the worthlessness of Esau in selling his right as the eldest son (cf. Heb 12:16-17). Nor did it
excuse the ruthlessness of Jacob in gaining the birthright (27-34).
The right of the firstborn was to become family head and receive a double share of the inheritance. In
the wider view of the covenant promises given to Abraham, the inheritance involved headship of the
nation Israel and possession of the land of Canaan.
Isaac and Abimelech (26:1-33)
When a famine created hardship in Canaan, Isaac proved his faith and obedience by refusing to leave the
land. He remained in the Palestine region on the south coast of Canaan, believing that God would
provide for him and his household in the land God promised him. But he lacked the faith to trust God to
protect him from violence and, like his father, he lied to protect himself (26:1-11; cf. 12:10-20, 20:1-18).
God blessed Isaac as he had promised, but Isaac’s farming successes stirred up the envy of the
Philistines. He and his men were forced to flee from place to place as the Philistines either seized their
wells or filled them in (12-22). Gradually he was pushed out of the best Philistine pastures, but God was
still with him. Though he was forced back eventually to Beersheba, God reassured him of his presence
and encouraged him to persevere (23-25).
The Philistine king, fearful of the power of Isaac’s God, thought it wise to renew the treaty made
previously with Abraham. In spite of the Philistines’ hostility and arrogance, Isaac renewed the treaty
(26- 31; cf. 21:22-24). That same day Isaac’s men found water, having redug Abraham’s well that the
Philistines had apparently filled in (32-33; cf. 21:25-34).
Note: Abimelech (meaning ‘father-king’) was not a person’s name, but a Philistine royal title (cf. the
Egyptian royal title, Pharaoh). The Abimelech of Abraham’s day was a different Abimelech from the one
of Isaac’s day. The Abimelech of David’s day was named Achish (cf. the title of Ps 34 with 1 Sam 21:10-
15). Likewise Phicol was not a person’s name, but the title of the army commander (cf. 21:32; 26:26).
Jacob receives Isaac’s blessing (26:34-28:9)
The custom in ancient times was for the father of the household to confirm the birthright on his
firstborn son by giving his special blessing just before he died. People considered this blessing to be more
than just a promise; they saw it as a prophecy that carried God’s favour. Isaac knew that God’s will was
for Jacob, not Esau, to receive the firstborn’s blessing (see 25:23). Yet he was determined to give the
blessing to Esau, even though Esau, by taking wives from among the Canaanites, confirmed his own
position as being outside God’s covenant blessings (26:34-27:4).
Rebekah and Jacob were also at fault, because of their deceit and lack of trust in God (5-24). In spite of
these failures, Jacob received the blessing that God intended for him. He was to be the head of God’s
promised people, who would live in a prosperous land and have victory over their enemies (25-29).
On finding that his scheme had not worked, Isaac accepted the fact that God’s will for the blessing of
Jacob could not be changed (30-37). The only blessing Isaac could give Esau was the promise that he too
would be father of a nation (to be known as Edom; cf. 25:30); but that nation would live in a barren
region where it would be in constant conflict with its neighbours, particularly Israel (38-40; cf. Num
24:18; 1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:13-14; 1 Kings 11:15-16; 2 Kings 8:20-22; 14:7,22).
In bitterness Esau planned to kill Jacob, so Rebekah decided to send Jacob to her brother Laban for
safety (41-45). However, knowing Isaac’s feeling concerning Jacob’s deceit, she gave Isaac a different
reason for sending Jacob away. Jacob needed a wife, and Rebekah knew that Isaac would not want a third
Canaanite daughter-in-law, as Esau’s existing Canaanite wives created enough trouble (46; cf. 26:34-35).
Isaac therefore agreed to Rebekah’s suggestion to send Jacob north to find a wife among Rebekah’s
relatives. He sent Jacob off with the blessing of the covenant, this time giving his blessing knowingly and
willingly. As for Rebekah, she gained what she wanted, but as far as we know she never saw her favourite
son again (28:1-5).
When Esau learnt that his parents did not approve of his Canaanite wives, he married again, this time
to one of Ishmael’s daughters. By such a marriage, Esau gave further confirmation that he was outside
God’s covenant blessings (6-9).
28:10-36:43 JACOB ESTABLISHES THE FAMILY
Jacob’s marriages (28:10-29:30)
Before Jacob left Canaan, God appeared to him in a dream. In spite of Jacob’s shameful behaviour,
God repeated to him the covenant promises given earlier to Abraham and Isaac, promising also to bring
him back safely to Canaan (10-15; cf. 12:1-3; 26:24). In return for God’s favour to him, Jacob promised
to be loyal in his devotion and generous in his offerings. He named the place where he met God, Bethel
(16-22).
From Bethel Jacob journeyed on and finally reached Haran. He first met his cousin Rachel at a well,
and she took him home to her father Laban (29:1-14). Laban was as deceitful with Jacob as Jacob had
been with Isaac. When Jacob had worked for Laban seven years as payment of the bride price for Rachel,
Laban gave him the older daughter Leah instead. After the week-long wedding celebrations for Jacob and
Leah were over, Laban gave Rachel to Jacob as a second wife, but only on the condition that Jacob
worked an additional seven years as payment of the second bride price. According to custom, each wife
received a slave-girl as a wedding gift (15-30; cf. 24:59).
Children born in Haran (29:31-30:24)
Jacob’s coolness to Leah created unhappiness in his household. Leah’s desire for Jacob’s love is seen
in the names she gave her first four sons (31-35). Rachel, feeling ashamed that she had not yet produced a
child herself, gave her slave-girl to Jacob so that the slave-girl might produce a son whom Rachel could
adopt as her own. The result was two sons (30:1-8; cf. 16:1-4). Leah, believing she was not able to have
any more children, did the same, and soon Jacob had two more sons (9-13).
When Leah obtained some mandrakes (plants used to make a medicine that people believed helped a
woman become pregnant), Rachel bought them from her at the price of giving her a night with Jacob.
Rachel’s bitterness increased when she found that the mandrakes did not help her, whereas Leah had
another son. Leah soon afterwards had yet another son (her sixth) and then a daughter (14-21). Finally
Rachel had a son, Jacob’s eleventh (22-24).
Jacob tricks Laban (30:25-43)
After Rachel had borne him a son, Jacob decided to return to Canaan. Laban asked Jacob what wages
he would like, since much of Laban’s prosperity had resulted from Jacob’s farming ability (25-30). Jacob
claimed as wages all the part-coloured animals in the flock, plus all the black sheep. As these were
relatively few in number, Laban agreed, though he then attempted to lessen Jacob’s profit by removing
from the flocks all the part-coloured animals and black sheep he could find (31-36).
But Jacob was not to be beaten. He decided not to return to Canaan immediately, and spent the next
few years carefully breeding Laban’s animals. He cross-bred the best of the animals to produce more and
more sheep and goats that were healthy and of a colour that advantaged him, while the number of all
black goats and all-white sheep (Laban’s share) steadily decreased, in both quality and quantity. Like
others of his time, Jacob thought that if an animal when breeding was startled by the sight of something
spotted or striped, its offspring would be spotted or striped. His success was due rather to his wise
selection of animals, and especially to the overruling activity of God (37-43; cf. 31:8-9).
Jacob flees from Laban (31:1-55)
As Laban and his sons became increasingly hostile to him, Jacob prepared to leave for Canaan
without delay (31:1-13). Leah and Rachel agreed, for they too were angry with Laban. He had used them
to make himself rich, but apparently had no intention of giving them a share in the inheritance (14-16).
Therefore, when they fled, Rachel stole her father’s household idols, for according to Mesopotamian
custom possession of these gave her some right to the inheritance (17-21).
Laban was upset to find that Jacob and his family had escaped, but was particularly upset that they
had taken his idols with them. However, when he caught up with Jacob he was unable to find his idols
(22-35). Jacob could bear Laban’s persecution no longer, and accused him of heartless ingratitude in view
of Jacob’s twenty years hard work for him (36-42).
Jacob and Laban, equally suspicious of each other, then made an agreement to prevent one from
attacking the other. They set up a stone as witness to their agreement and, by eating a sacrificial meal
together, bound themselves to their word (43-55).
Preparing to meet Esau (32:1-32)
During the twenty years that Jacob had been in Mesopotamia, Esau had established his household in
territory to the south near the Dead Sea. Jacob knew that if he was to live in peace in Canaan, he would
first have to put things right with Esau. With much fear and anxiety he sent news to Esau that he was
coming to meet him (32:1-8).
Jacob had by now learnt a humility before God that was lacking the previous time he met Esau. He
thanked God for his remarkable blessings in the past, and prayed that God’s promises for the future would
guarantee protection for him against his brother (9-12). At the same time he thought it wise to send Esau a
series of gifts, with the aim of winning his favour (13-21).
Still moving south, Jacob sent his family across the river Jabbok, while he remained behind by
himself (22-24a). That night he met God, who appeared to him in the form of a man wrestling with him.
As they wrestled, Jacob realized that this ‘man’ had superhuman strength and the power to bless. As in
previous conflicts, Jacob was determined to win, but now he had to learn that against God he could never
win. His proud self-confidence was at last defeated. Yet in another sense Jacob did win, for he demanded,
and received, a special blessing of God’s power that
would ensure victory in the future. Though defeated
and humbled, he did not lose his persistence or fighting
spirit. The old determination was still there, but Jacob
the cheat now became Israel, God’s champion (24b-29).
By giving him a permanent limp, God never allowed
Jacob to forget that the only way he triumphed was
through defeat (30-32).
Meeting with Esau (33:1-17)
Jacob may have had a dramatic spiritual experience
with God, but he still had to face Esau the next day. He
took precautions to protect his family against any
possible hostility, then went ahead to meet Esau
personally (33:1-3). Esau showed a generous spirit of
forgiveness, with the result that the dreaded meeting
proved to be a happy reunion. Jacob had gained Esau’s
birthright and blessing by cunning and deceit, but he
was not allowed to enjoy them fully till he humbled
himself before Esau, and Esau acknowledged that he
had no claim against Jacob. Esau did this by accepting
Jacob’s gift (4-11).
Esau asked Jacob to follow him to Edom, but Jacob
thought it better not to go immediately. He had a large
family and large flocks and herds, and decided to settle
for the time being at the town of Succoth nearby (12-
17).
Back in Canaan (33:18-35:15)
From Succoth Jacob later moved with his household across the Jordan River into Canaan itself and
settled in Shechem. By buying a piece of land, he gained permanent possession of part of the land God
had promised to him and his descendants (18-20; cf. 23:1-20; 28:1-5).
 When the son of a local headman raped Jacob’s daughter Dinah, the headman suggested to Jacob that
his son marry Dinah, and that Jacob’s sons marry the local Canaanite women (34:1-12). Jacob’s sons
agreed to the intermarriage provided the men of Shechem were first circumcised (13-17). The
Shechemites agreed, for they saw the opportunity for economic profit through intermarriage with Jacob’s
household (18-24).
But Jacob’s sons deceived the Shechemites. As soon as the Shechemite men were circumcised and
not physically in a condition to defend themselves, Jacob’s sons attacked the town, killing the men and
plundering their households (25-29). By going too far in taking revenge for the rape of their sister,
Jacob’s sons opened the way for further violence (30-31).
God then told Jacob to go to Bethel, where God had appeared to him at the time of his departure from
Canaan many years earlier (35:1; cf. 28:11-22; 31:13). First, however, all those with Jacob were to get rid
of any idols they had brought with them from Mesopotamia (2-4). In view of the hostility against Jacob
and his household after the massacre at Shechem, God gave them his special protection as they travelled
(5-8).
At Bethel God renewed his covenant promises to Jacob. The significance of God’s reassurance at this
time was that Jacob was now back in the land God had given him, and he had with him the family
through whom God’s promises would be fulfilled (9-15; cf. 13:14-16; 17:2).
Further details of Jacob’s family (35:16-29)
This section of the history of Israel closes by recording the birth of Jacob’s last son (16-18), the death
of Rachel (19-21), the sin of Reuben because of which he lost the birthright (22; cf. 49:4; 1 Chron 5:1),
the names of Jacob’s twelve sons, who are listed in legal order according to their mothers (23-26), and the
death of Isaac (27-29).
Descendants of Esau (36:1-43)
The story is now about to move on from Jacob to his family, but first the record of Esau is brought to
a close. The covenant family (Jacob’s) had settled in Canaan, while the non-covenant family (Esau’s) had
settled in Edom. There, over many years, Esau’s descendants grew into a large nation (36:1-19; cf. 27:39-
40). As the Edomites grew, the original inhabitants of the land, the Horites, were either forced to move
elsewhere or absorbed into Edom (20-30; cf. 14:6; Deut 2:12). The record lists the early Edomite kings
(31-39) and the main Edomite tribal divisions (40-43).
37:1-50:26 FAMILY GROWTH AND THE MOVE TO EGYPT
Joseph taken to Egypt (37:1-36)
God had told Abraham that his descendants would become slaves in a foreign land, and would remain
there till Canaan was ready for judgment. Then they would destroy the Canaanites and possess their land
(see 15:13-16). The long story of Joseph shows how God was directing events according to his
preannounced purposes.
Being the father’s favourite, Joseph was not popular with his ten older brothers. He was even less
popular when he told them about his dreams, which suggested that one day he would have authority over
them (37:1-11). When a suitable opportunity arose, his brothers tried to kill him, but Reuben saved his
life (12-24). The brothers then sold Joseph to some traders who took him to Egypt, where he became a
slave in the house of Potiphar, one of Pharaoh’s chief officers (25-36).
Judah and his descendants (38:1-30)
Back in Canaan, Jacob’s family had further troubles. Judah, Jacob’s fourth eldest son, had three sons, the
eldest of whom had married. When this son died childless, Judah, according to the custom of the time,
asked his next son Onan to have a temporary sexual relationship with the widow Tamar, with the hope
that by him Tamar might produce a child. Legally, this child would be considered son of the dead man
and so would carry on the family name and inheritance. But Onan refused, for he wanted any children he
fathered to be his own. Because of his refusal to carry out his family obligation, God killed him (38:1-10).
Thinking that he had already lost two sons because of Tamar, Judah hesitated to give his last son to
her in case that son died too. Even when the son was old enough to marry, Judah would not give him to
her. Tamar therefore thought of a plan to force Judah himself to have intercourse with her, so that she
might produce an heir. She disguised herself as a prostitute and succeeded in seducing Judah (11-19).
When Judah later found that his daughter-in-law was pregnant, he saw a welcome opportunity to be rid of
her once and for all. Tamar saved herself and shamed Judah by revealing that he was the cause of her
pregnancy (20-26).
Tamar gave birth to twins, the elder of whom began that line of descent from Judah which led to
David and finally produced Jesus the Messiah (27-30; cf. Matt 1:3,6,16; Luke 3:23,31,33).
Joseph’s rise to power (39:1-41:57)
In contrast to Judah, Joseph was blameless in his behaviour in Egypt. Soon he was placed in charge
of Potiphar’s household (39:1-6). When he rejected the immoral invitations of Potiphar’s wife, she turned
against him bitterly and had him thrown into prison (7-20). Again his behaviour was blameless, and soon
he was given a position of responsibility over the other prisoners (21-23).
Among the prisoners who later joined Joseph were two of Pharaoh’s palace officials (40:1-4). One
night they both had unusual dreams and, believing the dreams foretold something, told their dreams to
Joseph. Joseph predicted that within three days one of the officials would be restored to his former
position and the other executed (5-19). The predictions came true, but the restored official failed to do as
Joseph requested and bring Joseph’s case to Pharaoh’s attention (20-23; cf. v. 14-15).
Two years later, when Pharaoh described some puzzling dreams to his palace advisers, the restored
official for the first time told the king about Joseph (41:1-13). As a result Pharaoh sent for Joseph, who
interpreted the dreams as meaning that Egypt would have seven years of plenty followed by seven years
of famine (14-32). Joseph added a recommendation of his own that would ensure a constant food supply
throughout the fourteen years (33-36).
Pharaoh was so impressed with Joseph that he made him not only administrator of the program but
governor of all Egypt (37-44). The thirteen years Joseph spent as a slave and a prisoner (cf. v. 46 with
37:2) taught him much about practical wisdom and dependence on God, qualities that would now help
him considerably in his government of Egypt. He married an Egyptian and had two sons by her (45-52).
When the famine came, Egypt alone was prepared for it, and people travelled there from other countries
to buy food (53-57).
Joseph and his brothers (42:1-45:28)
When Joseph’s brothers came to Egypt to buy grain, Joseph recognized them but they did not
recognize him (42:1-8). Rather than make himself known to them immediately, Joseph decided to test
them to see if they had experienced any change of heart over the years. Joseph was not looking for
revenge. His apparently harsh treatment of them, mixed with kindness, was designed to stir their
consciences. They realized they were being punished for their unjust treatment of their younger brother
(9-24). Further events impressed upon them that God was dealing with them (25-28).
Joseph’s brothers returned to Canaan with a genuine desire to do what was right. But when they told
Jacob what the Egyptian governor required of them, they could not persuade him to cooperate (29-38).
After resisting for some time, Jacob eventually realized that he had to allow his sons to return to
Egypt, this time taking Benjamin with them. A new spirit of unity and self-sacrifice now appeared among
the sons of Jacob (43:1-14). They were still fearful of Joseph (15-23), whose remarkable knowledge gave
them the uneasy feeling that they could hide nothing from him (24-34).
The greatest test of the brothers came when Joseph placed them in a situation similar to that of many
years earlier when they had sold him. He accused them of a theft by Benjamin, and then gave them the
chance to save themselves at Benjamin’s expense (44:1-17). The brothers could easily have escaped by
sacrificing Benjamin, but instead one of them offered to bear the punishment in his place, so that he, the
favourite son, could return to his father (18-34).
Joseph’s plan had succeeded. His brothers, accepting the consequences of their past guilt, were now
changed men, both in their attitudes and in their behaviour. Therefore, when Joseph told them who he
was, he had no need to accuse them of their misdeeds. Instead he pointed out that God had arranged for
him to come to Egypt so that the covenant family could be kept alive during the famine (45:1-8). He told
them that, since the famine would last another five years, they should bring Jacob and their families to
Egypt where he could look after them (9-15).
Pharaoh confirmed Joseph’s invitation and provided his family with transport for the move (16-20).
Loaded with provisions, the brothers then returned home and told their father all that had happened (21-
28).
The migration to Egypt (46:1-47:12)
 As they were leaving Canaan for Egypt, Jacob and his family stopped to worship God at Beersheba,
the last town in Canaan. Here God told Jacob that, though he would die in Egypt, his descendants would
one day return and possess the land (46:1-4). Jacob’s family, at the time of the move to Egypt, numbered
about seventy people (5-27).
Knowing that Egyptians did not like to live alongside people who kept sheep or cattle, Joseph told his
brothers to tell Pharaoh that they were keepers of both sheep and cattle and that they had brought their
flocks and herds with them. This would ensure that Pharaoh gave them a territory separate from the
Egyptians, where they could live together and multiply without their culture and religion being too easily
corrupted by the Egyptians (28-34). Joseph’s plan again succeeded, and the family settled in the fertile
land of Goshen near the mouth of the river Nile (47:1-12).
Joseph’s economic policy (47:13-26)
If Joseph had not planned wisely, the seven-year famine would have ruined Egypt and Canaan. He
gave the people food in return for their money (13-15), then, when they had no money, in return for their
animals (16-17), then, when they had no animals, in return for their land and even themselves (18-19). In
the end all the land belonged to the government and everybody worked for the government, but in return
Joseph gave the people land and seed for farming (20-24).
Joseph’s policy may have appeared to be hard-hearted at first, but in time the people discovered that
it saved them from disaster. Soon they were producing good crops again, though they had to pay the usual
tax to the government (25-26).
Words for Joseph and his sons (47:27-48:22)
By insisting that Joseph bury him at Machpelah, Jacob showed his faith in God’s promises. He knew
that Canaan would become the land of his people (27-31; cf. 23:17-20; 35:12; 46:4).
Joseph’s two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, were by now about twenty years old (see 41:50; 45:6;
47:28), and Joseph wanted his father to bless them before he died. This blessing was more than an
expression of good wishes; it was an announcement believed to carry with it the power to make the
blessing come true. Jacob blessed Ephraim and Manasseh, raising them to the status of sons. This gave
Joseph the birthright that Reuben had lost, for now Joseph, through his two sons, would receive twice the
inheritance of Jacob’s other sons (48:1-7; 1 Chron 5:1-2).
Both of Joseph’s sons would become heads of tribes in Israel, though the tribe of the younger son
Ephraim would be greater than that of Manasseh (8-
20). Jacob also gave to Joseph his plot of ground near
Shechem, which was the one piece of land he
owned in Canaan (21-22; cf. 33:19; 34:26-29; John
4:5).
Blessings on Jacob’s twelve sons (49:1-28)
The last words of Jacob to his sons found their
fulfilment in the history of Israel’s twelve tribes
(49:1-2). First Jacob dealt with the six sons of Leah
(see v. 3-15), then with the four sons of the minor
wives (see v. 16-21), and finally with the two sons
of Rachel (see v. 22-27).
Reuben should have been strong, but through
lack of self-control he lost the leadership of the
nation (3-4; cf. 35:22). Simeon and Levi had been
violent, and their tribes were scattered in Israel (5-
7; cf. 34:25-26). Simeon lost its separate tribal
identity and was absorbed into Judah (Josh 19:1,9).
Levi, however, had a more honourable scattering
because of its zeal against idolatry. It had no
separate tribal inheritance of its own, but was given
cities in all the other tribes (Exod 32:26-29; Num
35:2-8).
Judah was the leading tribe, fierce and
powerful in conquering its enemies and ruling over
the other tribes. From this tribe came the royal family of David, whose greatest king, the Messiah, would
rule universally in an age of unimaginable prosperity (8-12; cf. Judg 1:2; 2 Sam 7:16; Rev 5:5).
The tribe of Zebulun, which settled near the Mediterranean coast, was enriched through the trade that
passed through its territory to the sea (13; cf. Deut 33:18-19). Issachar gained some prosperity from the
good farming country it inhabited, but too often it submitted to the powerful Canaanites who controlled
much of the region (14-15).
Though pushed out of its original territory on the coast, Dan believed it had the same right to exist as
any other tribe. It gained a new dwelling place in the far north, but only by treachery and cruelty (16-18;
cf. Judg 18:1-31). Gad, on the east of Jordan, was more open to attack than the western tribes, but its men
were fierce fighters who drove back the invaders (19; cf. Deut 33:20).
Asher, bordering the northern coast, lived in rich farming lands whose olive orchards produced the
best oil in Palestine (20; cf. Deut 33:24). The neighbouring tribe of Naphtali spread across the highland
pasture lands to the Sea of Galilee (21; cf. Deut 33:23).
At the time of Jacob’s prophecy, Joseph was at the height of his power. He may have been
treacherously attacked in the past, but God had strengthened and blessed him (22-24). The two tribes
descended from Joseph were likewise blessed. They were large in number, and the regions they occupied
were among the best in the land (25-26; cf. Josh 17:17-18). The final tribe, Benjamin, was too warlike for
its own good, and brought such trouble upon itself that it was almost wiped out (27-28; cf. Judg 19:1-
21:25).
Deaths of Jacob and Joseph (49:29-50:26)
Again Jacob insisted that he be buried at Machpelah, as a final witness that he died having the same
faith as Abraham and Isaac (29-33; cf. 47:29-31). When Jacob died, Pharaoh declared an official time of
mourning for him of seventy days. Pharaoh also sent a large group of officials and servants to Canaan
with Jacob’s family to provide all necessary help and protection (50:1-9). The Canaanites were amazed
that Egyptians should come all the way to Canaan to bury someone who was obviously a very important
person (10-14).
After seventeen years in Egypt (see 47:28), Joseph’s brothers still had feelings of guilt and fear
because of their treatment of Joseph in his youth. Joseph was saddened that they should think he might
yet try to take revenge on them. He repeated that he would look after them in the future as he had in the
past, for God had overruled their evil to preserve the family (15-21; cf. 45:7).
Joseph lived for at least another fifty years after the death of his father (22; cf. 41:46; 45:6; 47:28).
Like his father he saw his family grow, and he died with the same assurance that his descendants would
inhabit the promised land. As an expression of that faith, he left instructions that when the covenant
people moved to Canaan they take his remains with them (23-26; cf. Heb 11:22). His faith was not
disappointed (Exod 13:19; Josh 24:32).

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX B
 Exodus
BACKGROUND
As with Genesis, Exodus takes its name from the Septuagint (abbreviated as LXX), the first Greek
translation of the Old Testament. The name means ‘a going out’, and refers to the central event of the
book, Israel’s escape from Egypt.
The Genesis story concluded with the family of Jacob (Israel) firmly settled in Egypt. Exodus takes
up the story approximately four hundred years later (Gen 15:13-14; Exod 12:41), by which time the
descendants of Israel had multiplied till they were a nation in their own right, even though still in Egypt.
The book shows how God delivered his people from slavery in Egypt, led them to Mount Sinai, and there
formally confirmed the covenant made with Abraham, so that Israel might become in reality a people who
would belong to and live for God. God then gave the people, through Moses, the principles by which they
were to live and the religious order which they were to maintain if they were to enjoy the blessings of the
covenant.
Revelation of God’s character
Apart from its value in recording the historical facts on which Israel’s national and religious life was
built, Exodus is important in revealing much of the character of the one who was Israel’s God. Above all,
he was a God who redeems. The people of Israel were always to remember him as the one who brought
them ‘out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage’ (Exod 6:3-8; 20:2).
Israelites were to see their history not just as a collection of stories, but as a revelation to them of who
God was, how he operated, and what he expected from them. God was involved in every aspect of Israel’s
life: victories were his saving acts, disasters were his judgments. The preservation and growth of the
nation was God’s doing (Exod 1:21; 14:21-22,31; 32:35). Israel’s God was holy, which meant that the
people also had to be holy. They were to be set apart for God and were to keep his commandments (Exod
19:5).
Yet this God, who was different from and separate from his sinful creatures (Exod 19:12-13), also
wanted to dwell among them (Exod 25:8; 33:14). The one whose holiness and justice required the
punishment of the sinner (Exod 32:33) was the same one who graciously provided the way whereby
repentant sinners could come to him, have their sins forgiven and be brought into living fellowship with
the holy God (Exod 29:10-14; 34:6-7).
OUTLINE
1:1-4:31 Preparation of Moses
5:1-15:21 Deliverance from Egypt
15:22-18:27 Journey to Sinai
19:1-24:18 Making of the covenant
25:1-31:18 The tabernacle and the priesthood
32:1-34:35 Covenant broken and renewed
35:1-40:38 Construction of the tabernacle
1:1-4:31 PREPARATION OF MOSES
Egypt’s oppression of Israel (1:1-22)
The small community of Israelites who first settled in Egypt were all members of one family, the
family of Jacob, and their early days were ones of happiness and prosperity (Gen 46:1-7; 47:11-12). God
had promised they would grow into a nation, and over the following centuries they increased in numbers
and influence till they dominated the whole of the north-east corner of Egypt (1:1-7; cf. Gen 13:16; 17:2;
47:27).
By this time the Egyptian rulers no longer showed friendship to the Israelites (or Hebrews, as the
Egyptians called them). Pharaoh feared that if an enemy invaded from the north-east, the Israelites might
join them, so he decided to act. He took control of the Israelites and forced them into slavery, using them
to build fortified cities where he could keep supplies for his army (8-14). Pharaoh also tried to control the
Hebrews’ population growth by introducing a policy of child slaughter. But his plan failed, largely
because of the courage of the Hebrew midwives, who feared God more than they feared him. Through it
all God was at work, preserving his people according to his covenant promise (15-22).
Preparation of Moses (2:1-25)
Moses was the person God chose to save his people and lead them out of Egypt. He was born of
godly Hebrew parents, who no doubt taught him that the true and living God was the only legitimate
object of human worship, and this God had chosen Israel to be his people. At the same time Moses grew
up in the Egyptian palace, where he was trained in the best learning and culture available at that time
(2:1-10; see Acts 7:22; Heb 11:23).
By the time he was forty years of age, Moses believed that God had chosen him to deliver Israel from
oppression in Egypt. But when in a burst of anger he killed an Egyptian who was beating a Hebrew, he
showed that he was not yet ready for the task God had for him. Neither were his people ready to
recognize him as their deliverer. To save his life Moses fled Egypt, and in so doing he rejected, willingly
and decisively, his Egyptian status (11-15; see Acts 7:23-29; Heb 11:24-25).
Midian, the place to which Moses escaped, was a semi-desert region to the east, believed to be
somewhere in the Sinai peninsular. (The Midianites were descended from Abraham through one of his
lesser wives, Keturah, and so were distant relatives of the Hebrews; Gen 25:2-4.) Moses lived for many
years in the house of a Midianite chief, Jethro (also known as Reuel), whose daughter Moses married.
Here Moses no doubt learnt much about desert life and tribal administration, experience that later proved
useful in his leadership of Israel on the journey to Canaan (16-22).
For forty years Moses remained in Midian (Acts 7:30). During this time the Hebrews back in Egypt
were suffering increasingly cruel persecution, but at the same time God was preparing Moses to save
them. God was teaching Moses those qualities of discipline, toughness, obedience and trust that were
necessary if Moses was to rescue God’s people from slavery in Egypt and bring them safely to their new
homeland (23-25).
God calls Moses (3:1-12)
While Moses was minding sheep at Mount Sinai (also called Mount Horeb, after the range in which it
was situated), the unseen God, who for eighty years had silently guided his life, made himself known to
him. The revelation of God in the burning bush showed that though this God was unapproachably holy,
he could dwell among earthly things without destroying them (3:1-6).
God was now going to use Moses to deliver his people from bondage in Egypt and bring them into a
new homeland in Canaan. Moses was hesitant when he saw the task that lay ahead, but God assured him
of divine help. Once Moses had led the Israelites out of Egypt and brought them to Mount Sinai, he
would know with assurance that Israel would conquer all enemies and possess the promised land (7-12).
The God of Israel (3:13-22)
If Moses was to present himself to the people of Israel as the one who would lead them out of Egypt,
he would need to convince them that he knew God’s purposes for them. But he doubted whether they
would understand, since they did not know the character of him whom they vaguely called the God of
their ancestors. In asking God for help in explaining his purposes to them, Moses was wanting to know
not simply the name of God, but the character of the God who owned that name (13).
 On certain occasions when God gave a fresh revelation of himself, he revealed a new title for himself
that summarized the revelation in one or two words. The name that God announced to Moses on this
occasion was ‘I am’.
The name ‘I am’ and the few words of divine explanation that accompanied it were deliberately
mysterious, for God’s concern was not to satisfy curiosity, but to make himself known to those who
wished to know him. His name indicated a character that would be revealed in the triumphant events to
come. The eternal, unchangeable, ever-present, ever-active God would prove himself to be always
dependable and completely able to meet every need of his people. He would be whatever he would
choose to prove himself to be in the varied circumstances Israel would meet (14-17).
Although Moses would eventually be accepted by the Israelites, he would meet only stubbornness in the
Egyptian king. He would have an early demonstration of the character of his opponent in Pharaoh’s
refusal to allow the Israelites’ reasonable request to offer sacrifices in a place that was not offensive to the
Egyptians (cf. 8:26-27). So great would be the display of God’s power in overcoming such stubbornness,
that the Egyptians would gladly give their riches to the Israelites (a debt they owed after so many years of
slave labour) in order to be rid of them (18-22; see 12:33-36).
The name of God
Israel’s ancestors knew God as ‘the LORD’, Yahweh (or Jehovah) (Gen 2:4; 12:1; 26:2; 28:21;
49:18), but the name meant little to the Israelites of Moses’ time. God’s revelation to Moses in the ‘I am’
statement of Exodus 3:14 was an explanation of what the name Yahweh should have meant to God’s
people.
In the Hebrew language the word translated ‘I am’ is related to the name Yahweh. Originally,
Hebrew was written with consonants only, and the readers put in the vowels as they read. It is believed
that ‘Yahweh’ is the correct pronunciation of the word YHWH (the name of Israel’s God), though
absolute certainty is not possible, as there are no Hebrew records old enough to preserve the original
pronunciation. By the time it had become the practice to add the vowels in written Hebrew, the Jews no
longer spoke the name YHWH. They claimed this showed their reverence for the holy name of God, but
for many it was more a superstition. Whatever the reason, the practice developed that when Jews read the
Scriptures, instead of speaking the word YHWH, they substituted the word adonai, meaning ‘lord’ or
‘master’.
When the Hebrew Bible added vowels to the consonants for the first time (about 300 BC), it put the
vowels of adonai to the consonants YHWH. This produced a new word, Jehovah, though Jews continued
to substitute adonai for YHWH when speaking. Translators of English versions of the Bible usually avoid
the pronunciation problem by using the expression ‘the LORD’ (in capital letters) as the substitute for
YHWH.
God gives his power to Moses (4:1-17)
In reply to Moses’ further complaints that the people of Israel would not believe God had sent him,
God enabled Moses to perform three startling signs. The Israelites had no doubt seen magicians in Egypt
and such signs would impress them. But they would see that what Moses demonstrated was more than
mere magic (4:1-9).
At times Moses himself showed a tendency towards the same disbelief as he suspected in his fellow
Israelites. Whether his claim to be unskilled in speech was true or not, his attitude showed a lack of faith.
He was merely making excuses and this displeased God. The outcome of his complaint was that God
appointed his older brother Aaron to be his spokesman (10-17).
Moses returns to Egypt (4:18-31)
After meeting God, Moses returned to Jethro and then set out with his wife and sons for Egypt. God
warned Moses of the stubbornness he could expect to meet in Pharaoh and of the disaster this would bring
upon the Egyptian people (18-23). However, Moses could hardly instruct Israel to obey God when he
himself had neglected the first requirement of the covenant, the circumcision of his son (cf. Gen.
17:10,14). God sent Moses a near-fatal illness or accident to awaken him to his responsibilities. As Moses
was unable to perform the operation, his wife did so instead. Consequently, she saved Moses’ life and so
received her husband back when she thought she had lost him for ever (24-26).
Aaron came to meet Moses at Horeb and the two then moved on to Egypt. As Moses expected, the
Israelites were unbelieving at first, but they changed their minds when they saw the divinely directed
signs (27-31).
The hardening of Pharaoh’s heart
In considering the biblical language concerning the hardening of Pharaoh’s heart, we must bear in
mind that to the godly Hebrew, God was the first cause of everything. Language that to us seems strange
would not appear strange to the writer of this story. He would see no inconsistency in saying that God
hardened Pharaoh’s heart, that Pharaoh hardened his own heart, or that Pharaoh’s heart was hardened.
They were different ways of saying the same thing.
Certainly, we must not imagine that God hardened Pharaoh’s heart against his will, then punished
him for having hardness of heart. Before Moses had returned to Egypt, Pharaoh’s heart was filled with
pride and rebellion against the God of Israel. This was clearly shown in his treatment of the Israelites, and
was confirmed by his challenge to God when Moses first met him (5:1-2). His heart was already hardened
by his own choice. He was determined to resist God at all costs, in spite of repeated opportunities to
reverse this attitude (7:13; 8:32). By confirming Pharaoh in this hardness, God showed both the greatness
of Pharaoh’s sin and the justice with which it was punished (9:12; cf. Rom 9:14-18).
5:1-15:21 DELIVERANCE FROM EGYPT
Moses’ first meeting with Pharaoh (5:1-6:27)
In the eyes of the Israelites, Moses’ first meeting with Pharaoh was a disaster. Pharaoh had no fear of
Yahweh and no concern for Yahweh’s people. In fact, when Moses asked to take his people into the
wilderness to offer sacrifices to Yahweh, Pharaoh responded by accusing the Israelites of laziness and
making their work harder (5:1-14). This not only increased the suffering of the Israelites but also caused
them to turn against Moses. Their great deliverer had done nothing but add to their troubles (15-21)!
Moses was bitterly disappointed at what was happening. It seemed to him that God had failed to keep
his promise. In desperation he turned to God and was reassured (22-6:1).
God told Moses that the full significance of his character as Yahweh, the Saviour and Redeemer of
his covenant people, would now be revealed to these oppressed slaves in a way that the great men of
former times had never seen. Those men, Israel’s ancestors, knew that God was the Almighty, the one
who created and controls all things and who is fully able to fulfil all his promises; but they had never
experienced his character as the covenant Redeemer, the one who would save them from slavery
according to the promise given to Abraham (Gen 15:13-14).
In the days of the ancestors, the nation Israel did not exist; it was but a promise of something future. As
a result the significance of Yahweh as Saviour-Redeemer had gradually been forgotten. But now the
full significance of that name would be dramatically revealed. The Israelites would learn not just the
name of their God, but the character indicated by that name. Yahweh was a God of redemption (2-8).
When Moses tried to explain all this to the disheartened Israelites, they were not interested enough to
listen. This in turn caused Moses to become disheartened, but God strengthened and encouraged him (9-
13).
A selective genealogy shows how God had been working through Israel’s history to produce Moses
and Aaron at this time. They were prepared and appointed by him to carry out his work of delivering
Israel from Egypt. The two men belonged to the tribe of Levi (14-27).
Forecast of coming judgment (6:28-7:13)
Before Moses approached Pharaoh to give him a final opportunity to release Israel, God reminded
Moses that not just Pharaoh but the whole Egyptian nation was under the threat of judgment. People and
king alike were stubbornly opposed to Yahweh and were devoted followers of Yahweh’s enemies, the
Egyptian gods (6:28-7:7; cf. 9:27; 12:12).
These were gods of nature and were therefore connected with the river Nile, on which Egypt depended
entirely for its water and for the fertile soil washed down at flood time each year. According to the
Egyptians’ belief, their gods brought them fruitfulness and prosperity. The plagues that God sent were
therefore a judgment on these gods, bringing devastation to the Nile valley and creating widespread ruin
and disease. Because these plagues had a religious significance, the Bible calls them ‘signs’ (see 10:2).
God gave Pharaoh one last chance to release the Israelites before the plagues began. But when his
magicians used their skills to imitate the miracle performed by Moses and Aaron, Pharaoh arrogantly
dismissed the Israelite leaders (8-13).
Nine plagues (7:14-10:29)
 The timing, intensity and extent of these plagues show clearly that they were sent by God. It also
seems fairly clear that God used the physical characteristics of the Nile valley to produce them.
When the first plague struck, it polluted all the water in the Nile and in the irrigation canals and reservoirs
connected with it, resulting in all the fish dying. As the dead fish floated to the banks they would force
the frogs out of the water, thereby producing the second plague. Egypt’s magicians were able to copy
Moses in these two plagues, though in view of the abundance of red water and frogs, their achievements
were hardly impressive. They would have helped Pharaoh more by removing the plagues.
God alone was in control, and Moses proved this to Pharaoh by removing the plagues at the time he had
announced (7:14-8:15).
As God intensified his display of power in the successive plagues, the Egyptian magicians were
forced to admit defeat. They saw that Moses and Aaron were not just a couple of sorcerers or magicians
who could foresee events then perform tricks to make it appear they had produced the events. This was
the direct activity of God, and the protection of Israel through the plagues confirmed the fact. The
favourable breeding conditions created by the first two plagues may have been the causes God used to
produce successive plagues of gnats and flies (8:16-32).
With piles of dead frogs rotting in the sun and swarms of flies spreading the germs, there was soon a
deadly plague of cattle disease throughout the land (Israel’s cattle excepted). This was followed by an
outbreak of painful skin diseases among the Egyptian people (9:1-12).
Before he announced the seventh plague, God reminded Pharaoh of his mercy towards him in the
previous plagues. God could have destroyed him and his people in one mighty plague, but instead he sent
these lesser plagues, each time giving Pharaoh an opportunity to repent. The longer Pharaoh delayed, the
greater would be his downfall, and the greater would be God’s glory when he finally overthrew him. God
gave good warning before the coming destruction by hail and lightning, so that people could escape the
judgment if they wished. Many of Pharaoh’s courtiers, fearful of Israel’s God, heeded Moses’ warnings
and so were not affected by the disaster (9:13-35).
A clear division now existed among Pharaoh’s courtiers. Some stubbornly supported Pharaoh but
others tried to persuade him to release the Israelites. Pharaoh offered Moses a compromise that was
unacceptable and disaster struck again. Only the flax and barley had been destroyed in the seventh plague.
The wheat, which grew up later in the season, was now destroyed by locusts in the eighth plague (10:1-
20).
The ninth plague was probably a dust storm so intense that the sun was blotted out and the land left as
dark as night. So thick was the dust that the darkness could literally be felt. Pharaoh would still not
release the Israelites unconditionally. Moses saw that the time for reasoning with Pharaoh had come to an
end (10:21-29).
Final plague announced (11:1-10)
Although God gave Pharaoh full warning of the final plague, he stated no time. However, the
Israelites had to make preparation for departure from Egypt, for this plague would bring more than
judgment on Egypt; it would bring redemption for God’s people (11:1-3; for v. 2-3 see notes on 3:21-22).
The plague, some form of physical affliction, would prove fatal to the firstborn of people and animals
throughout Egypt. It would fulfil the warning given earlier to Pharaoh (4-10; see 4:22-23).
The Passover (12:1-36)
Until now the Israelites had escaped the judgment of the plagues without having to do anything, but
now their safety depended on their carrying out God’s commands. Redemption involves faith and
obedience.
Each family would be delivered from judgment only by killing a sacrificial animal as substitute for it,
and sprinkling the animal’s blood on the door of the house where the family lived. The sprinkled blood
indicated to those outside that a substitutionary sacrifice had been made; the life of an animal had been
taken instead of the life of the firstborn. The Lord’s executioner would then ‘pass over’ that house and no
one inside would be killed.
The Passover feast that followed was to be prepared with a minimum of delay. For this reason, the
animal was not to be cut up or boiled, but roasted whole over an open fire, and the bread was to be baked
without yeast (leaven) to save time waiting for it to rise. The meal was to be simple and the people were
to eat it in haste, fully dressed ready for their departure in the morning. They were not to save any of the
uneaten meat for the next day, possibly to avoid spoiling, and possibly to prevent people from keeping it
as a sort of magic charm. The simplicity and solemnity of the meal no doubt kept them from any feelings
of self-glory (12:1-14).
For the next week the people would have no time to bake their bread leavened. They therefore had to
carry their dough and baking pans with them, baking as they went. Throughout its future history, Israel
was never to forget its hasty departure from Egypt. A symbolic re-enactment of the Passover along with a
Feast of Unleavened Bread was to be held as an annual festival, to remind the people of Israel of their
deliverance from bondage (15-36; cf. Mark 14:1).
The Israelites leave Egypt (12:37-51)
Approximately 430 years after Jacob entered Egypt with his family, his nation of descendants departed
(cf. Gen 15:13; 46:6-7). A sizable group of non-Israelite people, including Egyptians and others who had
intermarried or mingled with the Israelites, went with them (37-42). The Israelites were not to send these
people back, but neither were they to lessen God’s requirements for joining in religious festivals simply
to suit these foreigners. Rather they were to encourage the foreigners to carry out the covenant
requirements and join with them as worshippers of Yahweh, the only true God (43-51).
Dedication of the firstborn (13:1-16)
Since God had spared the firstborn of Israel’s people and animals in the Passover judgment, these
rightly belonged to him. The people were to acknowledge this by dedicating, or setting apart, their
firstborn to God in an act of thankful worship (13:1-2; see also v. 15). This act also symbolized the
consecration (or dedication) of the entire redeemed nation to God, since Israel as a whole was God’s
firstborn (see 4:22). The people were reminded again to keep the Feast of Passover and Unleavened
Bread, for the event that the feast commemorated was the reason for the dedication of the firstborn (3-10).
Animals considered ceremonially clean, such as sheep and cattle, were dedicated to God by means of
sacrifice. Animals considered ceremonially unclean and therefore unfit to be offered as sacrifices, such as
donkeys, had to be redeemed. That is, they had to be bought back from God, and this was done by the
payment of a clean animal in the place of the unclean. If an animal was not redeemed, it had to be
destroyed. Human sacrifice, however, was forbidden. Instead the parents ceremonially presented their
firstborn to God, and then redeemed the child by a payment of money (11-16; cf. Num 18:15-16).
Note: The instruction in 13:9,16, which speaks of the necessity for true religion in one’s inner life and
outward behaviour, is in figurative language that Jews of later generations understood literally. This
resulted in the creation of phylacteries. These were small boxes containing strips of cloth on which people
wrote selected teachings from the law of God. The Jews usually wore phylacteries on their arms or
foreheads (see Matt 23:5).
Final triumph over Egypt (13:17-14:31)
When they left Egypt, the Israelites did not go by way of the Mediterranean coast, as this was well
defended by the Egyptians and war would certainly have resulted. Instead they went east towards the Red
Sea (17-18). (A literal translation for the name of this stretch of water is Sea of Reeds. It was not the 200
kilometre wide sea that we today call the Red Sea, but probably an extension of the Red Sea’s north
western arm, the Gulf of Suez. It seems to have been a large shallow expanse of water near the line of the
present-day Suez Canal.)
Guided by the symbols of God’s presence, the Israelites headed for Canaan. They took with them the
embalmed body of Joseph, in accordance with Joseph’s earlier request whereby he expressed his faith that
one day his people would return to the promised land (19-22; cf. Gen 50:25; Heb 11:22).
The Israelites, by contrast, showed no faith at all when they found they had been led into a dead end.
With an impassable stretch of water in front of them, Egyptian soldiers in pursuit behind them, and
difficult country on both sides, escape seemed impossible (14:1-12). Moses, however, saw that God was
in control. God had drawn Pharaoh out, and now he would be glorified in a final demonstration of power
that would overthrow Egypt and bring complete deliverance to his people (13-18).
By nightfall the Egyptians had almost caught up to the Israelites, but the fiery cloud that symbolized
God’s presence came between the two, and so prevented the Egyptians from advancing farther (19-20).
The Israelites received further assistance from the wind, which blew at gale force all night and dried up
enough of the sea to form a passage for them to cross to the other side. Just before daybreak, when all the
Israelites had crossed over, the Egyptians tried to follow. But by then the wind had dropped and the sea
waters began to return to normal, bringing firstly confusion, then panic, and finally destruction to the
Egyptian chariot force (21-29). God’s intervention had defeated the enemy and at the same time humbled
Israel to a new attitude of faith and reverence (30-31).
Moses’ victory song (15:1-21)
The song that Moses and the people sang was more than just a song of rejoicing over a fallen enemy.
It was above all a song of praise to God, whose character the people had come to know better in the
events of their deliverance from Egypt. He was a God of power who saved his people and overthrew their
enemies, a God of terrible majesty and holiness who so directed the forces of nature that arrogant,
rebellious people were destroyed (15:1-10). Yahweh executed his judgment on Egypt’s gods and proved
to his people that he was the only God. Moreover, he was their covenant Redeemer, and was faithful to
his promises (11-13; cf. 6:6; 12:12).
In addition the victory gave Israel confidence for the future. As God overthrew mighty Egypt, so he
would overthrow less powerful nations that Israel would meet on the journey ahead. Having redeemed his
people from bondage, God would surely bring them into the land he had promised them (14-18). Miriam
then led the women in a victory celebration of music, dancing and singing (19-21).
15:22-18:27 JOURNEY TO SINAI
Complaints about water (15:22-27)
Having spent all their lives in Egypt, the Israelite people were not prepared for the hardships of life in
the barren wilderness regions. Their joyous feelings of faith, so confidently displayed in their song of
victory at the Red Sea, did not last long. When, after three days thirsty travel, they found that the only
water available was undrinkable, they complained bitterly (22-24).
God had to teach the people that his presence
among them did not mean they would be free of the
problems of daily living. Nevertheless, if they lived
each day in obedience to him, he would help them
survive in the desert amid hardship and disease. He
could teach them bushcraft so that undrinkable
water could be made drinkable; or he could guide
their journeyings so that they came to places where
good water was available (25-27).
Complaints about food (16:1-36)
The people soon forgot God’s goodness to them
in giving them water, and complained against him
again. This time their complaint was that they had
no food (16:1-3). Once more God lovingly gave his
people what they needed. From this time on till they
entered Canaan, their regular food would be a flake
like substance that they had never seen before. They
called the food manna (meaning ‘What is it?’),
because they did not know what else to call it (4;
see v. 15).
God supplied the manna every morning and the people had to eat it that day. The only exceptions
concerned the Sabbath, their weekly day of rest. On Saturday mornings God gave no manna, but on
Fridays he gave two days supply, half of which the people kept for use on Saturday. The manna spoiled
quickly, so the people preserved the extra amount for Saturday by baking or boiling it beforehand (5-7;
see v. 23). The night before the first supply of manna, God gave the people additional food in the form of
an abundance of birds which, apparently being tired after a long flight, were easily caught and cooked for
supper (8-13). Concerning the collection and distribution of the manna in the morning, Moses gave
instructions to ensure that no one had either too much or too little (14-18).
Through the command that prohibited keeping the manna overnight, God gave his people the
opportunity to prove their obedience. Through the promise that ensured rest on the Sabbath because of the
double supply of manna each Friday, God presented them with a way to demonstrate their faith. But in
both matters they failed (19-30).
Moses was commanded to put part of the manna in a jar and keep it as a memorial of how God fed
his people in the wilderness. The jar was later placed in the ark of the covenant together with Aaron’s rod
and the stone tablets on which the law was written (31-36; see Heb 9:4).
Events at Rephidim (17:1-16)
When the people arrived at Rephidim and found no water, they again complained against God and
against Moses. Once more Moses prayed for them and once more God miraculously provided. The names
by which the place became known, Massah and Meribah, reminded the people of how they ‘tested’ God
(Massah) and ‘argued with’ Moses (Meribah) (17:1-7).
The Amalekites, a race of wild desert nomads descended from Esau (see Gen 36:12,16), saw the
migration of the Israelites to their region as a threat to their security. They attacked Israel but, again in
response to Moses’ prayer, God gave Israel a notable victory (8-13). Israel could expect further trouble
from the Amalekites in the future. For the benefit of future leaders, Moses recorded that God would fight
for Israel until Amalek was entirely wiped out (14-16; cf. Deut 25:17-19; 1 Sam 15:2-23; 1 Chron 4:41-
43).
On looking back over the weeks since Israel left the Red Sea, we can see how God proved that he
could meet all his people’s needs. He had preserved them through all dangers and hardships, whether
from thirst, disease, hunger or war.
Organizing the administration (18:1-27)
As the Israelites approached Sinai, Moses’ wife and children joined him. (He had apparently sent
them back to Midian for safety during the time of his conflict with Pharaoh.) With them came Moses’
father-in-law Jethro, now a believer in the God of Israel (18:1-12).
Moses had a heavy responsibility in leading the people and dealing with their troubles, and Jethro
soon saw that it was wearing him out. Up till then, the people brought all their disputes to Moses, and
they accepted his decisions as the laws of God. Jethro suggested that the time had come for a more
organized system of administration, with responsible men appointed to assist Moses. These could look
after the simple everyday cases, leaving only the more difficult cases for Moses. This would relieve the
pressure on Moses and at the same time benefit the people, for they too were becoming worn out because
of the long delays in waiting for cases to be heard (13-23). Moses saw the worth of Jethro’s advice and
put it into practice. Meanwhile Jethro returned home (24-27).
Now that others were to assist Moses in judging the people, a set of laws became necessary. The
judges needed some recognized standard if they were to give fair judgments. God therefore gave ten
commandments (Chapter 20) as the basic principles that were to underlie the whole law. These were
probably the principles that Moses had used as his unwritten standard all the time. The miscellaneous
laws that follow (Chapters 21-23, known as the Book of the Covenant) were based on these principles.
They were probably taken from cases that Moses had already judged and were now confirmed as being
acceptable laws for the future.
19:1-24:18 MAKING OF THE COVENANT
Israel at Mount Sinai (19:1-25)
The arrival of the people at Mount Sinai marked the fulfilment of the promise God made to Moses on
the occasion of the burning bush (see 3:12). The journey from Egypt took three months and was
accomplished solely by God’s power and care. Long before the nation of Israel existed, God chose it to be
his people and he confirmed this choice in a covenant made with Abraham. He then guided the history of
Abraham’s descendants to bring his covenant promises to fulfilment (see Gen 12:2; 15:7-21; Exod 2:24;
4:22; 6:6-8; 15:13). (For the meaning of ‘covenant’ see note on Genesis 9:8-17.) The blessings of this
covenant meant that the people of Israel were to belong to God and, as priests, worship and serve him. As
God’s chosen people, Israel was to represent him to the nations of the world (19:1-6).
Although the covenant was established solely by God’s grace, the covenant’s central blessing of
communion with God could become a reality only as the people were holy in life and devoted to him; and
this could be so only as they understood God’s requirements and were obedient to them. The people
acknowledged this and solemnly pledged themselves to carry out God’s commands. Thus, although the
covenant originated in divine grace and was not conditional upon human works (see Gal 3:17-18), the
people were still required to keep their part of the covenant if they were to enjoy its blessings (7-9).
Before receiving the detailed requirements of the covenant, the people were reminded of the holiness
of the God who initiated the covenant. So holy was he that the people had to carry out symbolic acts of
cleansing over the next two days before they were allowed even to look on the mountain while God was
speaking there with Moses. A boundary was drawn around the mountain to emphasize the distance
between this holy God and his sinful people (10-15). The people were then given a brief view of the
awesome power of the one to whom they had submitted themselves. He was not be treated lightly. Any,
except those specially invited, who crossed the boundary around the mountain, whether out of idle
curiosity or misguided zeal, would be struck with certain death (16-25).
Basic principles of the covenant (20:1-17)
The form of the covenant God made with Israel followed a pattern that was common in the ancient
world when an overlord made a covenant with his subjects. God introduced himself to his people by
declaring his name and status as Yahweh the sovereign Lord, and recounting to his people what he had
graciously done for them. He reminded them that their God was living and active, and that the words they
were about to hear were a revelation direct from him (20:1-2).
After the introduction came the basic covenant obligations, summarized in ten easily remembered
commandments. These were not laws in the legal sense, for they carried no penalties. Rather they were
the principles on which the nation’s laws would be built and by which the nation should live.
The first three commandments were concerned mainly with attitudes to God. He alone was the true
God; there was room for no other (3). No image of any kind was to be an object of worship, whether used
as a symbol of the true God or as the representation of some other (false) god. God would act in righteous
judgment against those who rebelled in this way, and against those of succeeding generations who
followed the bad example of their ancestors. The sins of one generation would affect the next. But to
those who remained faithful, God would prove himself faithful (4-6).
Yahweh’s people were not to misuse his name, either in swearing to a statement that was not true or
in swearing to a vow that was not kept. They were also to be careful not to use his name irreverently, such
as when cursing in anger (7; cf. Lev 24:16).
In the fourth commandment God showed that people could combine an attitude of reverence towards
him with an attitude of care for their own needs. The weekly Sabbath encouraged people to worship God,
since the day was set apart to him as holy, but at the same time it benefited them by making sure they had
adequate rest from their regular work (8-11).
The remaining six commandments dealt with people’s duties in the community. They were to be
faithful to their family responsibilities, and in doing so would help towards a healthy stable society and
ensure for themselves a long and happy life. They were to act with love and consideration towards others
by refraining from murder, maintaining purity in sexual relationships, respecting other people’s rights to
their possessions, refusing to make false accusations, and avoiding the desire for anything belonging to
another person (12-17).
Correct attitudes in worship (20:18-26)
Moses was satisfied when he saw that the people, having witnessed the frightening events connected
with God’s coming to Mount Sinai, were suitably humbled. They became aware of their shortcomings
and at the same time developed a greater fear of God (18-21).
People were to show a similarly humble attitude when they built altars at places of God’s special
revelation (e.g. 17:14-16). Because Israel was a wandering people, such altars were not to be permanent;
because Israel was a sinful people, the altars were not to be lavish. They were to consist of simply a
mound of earth or a heap of loose rocks, depending on which material was available in the region. The
altars were not to be so high that they required steps, in order to avoid any immodesty that might occur if
people lifted up their robes while climbing the steps (22-26; cf. 28:42-43).
Characteristics of Hebrew laws
Hebrew laws were mainly of two kinds. The first kind we have met in the Ten Commandments. These
were absolute standards, usually in the negative (e.g. ‘You shall not steal’). The second kind, which
we shall meet repeatedly in the next three chapters, consisted of laws that probably resulted from cases
where Moses or his assistants had given judgments, and those judgments now became standards for use in
future cases (e.g. ‘If a man borrows anything from his neighbour, and it is hurt or dies . . . he shall make
full restitution’). Laws of the first kind may be considered basic principles; those of the second kind, the
application of those principles to specific circumstances.
When reading the Hebrew law code, we should remember that it was designed to suit the cultural and
social habits of the time. It’s purpose was to maintain order and administer justice among a people whose
way of life was already established. For example, it did not immediately outlaw slavery, for the social,
economic and political order of the age was so constructed that slavery could not be instantly abolished.
But Hebrew law introduced attitudes of consideration for the welfare of others that were unknown in most
other ancient cultures, and so began the process that eventually brought an end to slavery.
Hebrew law was in some ways similar to other law codes of the ancient world, but it also had some
important differences. A fundamental requirement was that the punishment had to fit the crime. There
was not the brutality found in some ancient nations, where punishments were out of all proportion to the
crime (21:22-25; Deut 25:3). Also, justice was the same for everyone, regardless of status. Laws did not
favour the upper classes, but guaranteed a fair hearing for all (23:3,6; Lev 19:15).
In particular the Hebrew law code protected the rights of the defenceless and disadvantaged, such as
the poor (23:6), foreigners (23:9), widows and orphans (22:22), debtors who sold themselves into slavery
(21:1-11) and even those who were born slaves (23:12).
The basic reason for these differences was no doubt that the Hebrew law came from God, a fact that
is stated repeatedly. Legal, moral and religious matters were not separated as in some law codes, for in the
community of God’s people all areas of life were relevant to each other. The people viewed everything in
the light of their understanding of God and their relation to him.
Laws concerning slavery (21:1-11)
Among the Hebrews a slave had rights. Any person, man or woman, who became the slave of another
Hebrew, could not be held as a slave for more than six years (21:1-2; Deut 15:12). If a man took his wife
with him into slavery, he also took her with him when he was released. If he was unmarried when he
became a slave, then later was given a wife by his master, he did not take his wife and children with him
when released. They remained with the master. However, if he chose to continue working for the master,
he could keep his wife and family (3-6).
The case of a female slave who had become a wife or concubine of the master was different. She was
not freed after six years like other slaves, but neither could her master sell her to a foreigner if he no
longer wanted her. She had to be bought either by her parents or by some other close relative. If no one
bought her, the husband-master had to continue to look after her in accordance with her rights as his wife.
If the husband failed to do this, he had to free her without payment (7-11).
Concerning violence and injury (21:12-27)
Death was the penalty for wilful murder, violence to parents and kidnapping for slavery. Israelite law
did not allow the widespread ancient practice of a murderer trying to escape punishment by clinging to
the horns of the altar and pleading for mercy. But cases of manslaughter were different. When the
Israelites settled in their new homeland, they were to appoint certain places as cities of refuge, where a
person guilty of manslaughter could find safety (12-17; Num 35:9-15; Deut 19:1-6).
A person had to pay compensation for injuries done to others, the amount paid depending on the
nature of the injury and the loss or inconvenience it caused (18-19). A master could not treat a slave
brutally and could not beat him to death. If he did, he was punished. If there was no proof that the slave’s
death was the result of the beating, the master was not punished; but neither could he replace the slave.
He had to bear the cost of the loss (20-21).
The basic principle of justice was ‘an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth’; that is, the punishment
had to fit the crime. A heavy penalty was required for a major offence, a light penalty for a minor offence.
This principle also restricted vengeance, as people often take revenge far in excess of the wrong done to
them (22-25). If a slave suffered serious injury through cruel treatment, he was compensated by being
freed unconditionally (26-27).
Jesus, in his reference to ‘an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth’ (see Matthew 5:38-42), did not
contradict the principle of fair punishment for wrongdoing, a principle that is a basic element in civil
government. Jesus was not laying down laws for civil administrators as was the case with Moses, but was
reminding his disciples that they must not always stand on their rights. In personal relationships they must
be guided by a spirit of forgiveness, self-denial and active love towards the offender. The spirit ruling in
the hearts of Christians is not the same as that which rules in the code of legal justice.
Injuries caused by animals (21:28-36)
Laws were laid down both to protect and to punish the owners of animals that injured or killed
people. In determining how much the owner was at fault and what compensation he should pay, the main
consideration was how much he could be held responsible for control of the animal. If the person killed
by the animal was a slave, compensation was paid to the master, since he owned the slave. But the slave
was acknowledged as a human being, not treated as a mere ‘thing’, and the animal that killed him was
destroyed as in the case of an animal that killed a free person. This destruction of the animal was a
recognition of the sanctity of human life (28-32).
The principles for assessing responsibility and compensation for injury to animals were similar to
those outlined above for injury to people. All parties received fair treatment (33-36).
Laws about repayment (22:1-17)
A convicted thief had to return stolen goods and pay a fine in the form of an additional compensation
to the owner. The more serious the crime, the heavier the fine. If the thief could not make the payment, he
himself became the payment by becoming the slave of the one whose goods he had stolen. It was not
lawful to kill a thief caught in the act, unless at night, when self-defence could make such action
excusable. Normally the thief was to be captured and brought before the judges (22:1-4).
Compensation had to be made for damage caused by cattle or fire (5-6). A person who had goods left
in his care could become the centre of a dispute if those goods were lost or damaged. If he could satisfy
the judges, either through making a statement on oath or by producing evidence, that he was not
responsible, he was not required to pay compensation. But if a suspicion of dishonesty existed, or if two
parties claimed possession of the same thing, the judges had some means of deciding who was wrong (7-
15).
When a man, through misbehaviour, caused a young woman to lose her virginity, he had to pay
compensation to the woman’s father. This payment was required whether the father allowed the man to
marry his daughter or not, because the father now had no chance of obtaining the bride price he could
normally expect for a virgin daughter (16-17).
Miscellaneous matters (22:18-23:19)
Israelite law prohibited pagan customs and religious practices that threatened the nation’s spiritual
life. The penalty for such offences was usually death (18-20). The Israelite people were to remember their
own bitter experiences in Egypt and show mercy to the disadvantaged. The law against charging interest
on a loan was designed to encourage the rich to help the poor instead of exploiting them (21-27). (For the
contrast between lending that is greedy exploitation and lending that is a legitimate investment see Luke
6:34; 19:23.) Being part of a nation dedicated to God, the people were to be respectful and generous
towards him, and keep themselves pure from all uncleanness (28-31).
Officials had to administer strict justice at all times. They were not to favour either the rich or the
poor, nor were they to allow popular opinion to influence justice. Yet to follow strictly the letter of the
law was not enough. People were to be kind to others, even to enemies and foreigners. They were also to
be kind to animals (23:1-9).
Every seventh year the people had to rest the land from farming. Any produce that grew of itself
during that year was to be left for the poor. God would give extra produce in the sixth year so that there
would be no shortage the following year. Every seventh day was to be a rest day for all, masters, workers
and animals (10-13; see Lev 25:18-22).
There were three main festivals each year that at least all male adults were to attend. The first of these
was Passover-Unleavened Bread, which commemorated the deliverance from Egypt. The second was
Pentecost-Harvest Firstfruits, which was celebrated fifty days later and marked the end of the wheat
harvest. The third was Tabernacles-Ingathering (GNB: Festival of Shelters), which came at the end of the
agricultural year (14-17; for details see Lev 23:1-44).
One superstitious heathen practice that Israel’s law prohibited was the keeping of part of a sacrifice as
a good luck charm. Another was the boiling of a young goat in its mother’s milk, in the hope that this
would give increase in the flocks (18-19).
Promises and instructions (23:20-33)
The covenant document, which began in Chapter 20 and which has laid down God’s requirements for
his people, concludes with a number of promises and warnings. This again follows the well known form
of ancient covenant documents. The specific promises for God’s people were protection on their journey
to the promised land, victory over enemies, health and prosperity in Canaan, and national expansion till
they filled their allotted territory. These blessings, however, were conditional upon their obedience and
complete loyalty to God (20-33).
The covenant sealed (24:1-18)
When Moses recounted the covenant demands to them, the people once more declared their
willingness to obey (cf. 19:8). In ancient times covenants were usually sealed by blood (see notes on Gen
15:7-21), and at Sinai too God and his people were joined in a blood ritual. Half of the blood was thrown
against the altar (representing God) and half was sprinkled on the people. This blood ritual, though having
its usual significance in covenant ceremonies, may have had added meaning in view of Israel’s recent
experience in the events of the Passover. On that occasion sacrificial blood was evidence of life laid down
to release a person under condemnation of death. The blood that sealed the covenant at Sinai seems to
have had a similar significance. It spoke of Israel’s release from the penalty of past sin so that the nation
entered the covenant as a people who were holy and dedicated to God (24:1-8; cf. 19:5-6). (For details of
the various sacrificial offerings see notes on Leviticus 1:1-7:38.)
To emphasize the closeness of this covenant relation with God, the representatives of Israel went up
into the mountain, where they saw the glory of God (without being struck dead, the writer notes) and ate
the meal of the peace offering in fellowship together (9-11). On returning to the camp, Moses appointed
Aaron and Hur to govern the people in his absence while he and Joshua returned to the mountain. Joshua
went only part of the way, but Moses, when invited, entered the very presence of God. He was there about
six weeks, during which he received God’s directions concerning the building of the tabernacle and the
establishment of the priesthood, as recorded in Chapters 25-31 (12-18).
25:1-31:18 THE TABERNACLE AND THE PRIESTHOOD
Purpose of the tabernacle
The cloud on the mountain was only a temporary sign of God’s presence with his people. Now that
Israel was beginning a new era, God gave the people a tabernacle, or tent, as a permanent sign that he
dwelt among them and was part of them. He was the very centre of their national life. This tabernacle was
known as the tent of meeting (39:32), for it was the place where God met with his people. It was also
called the tent of the testimony (38:21), to remind the people that within it, in the ark, was the testimony
of God, the law, that was to guide and control their lives.
Yet while God dwelt among his people, he also, in a sense, dwelt apart from them, for they were
sinful and he was holy. They could not come to God directly. They had to come first to the priests and
offer sacrifices, then the priests approached God on their behalf. The contrasts between the limitations of
this old covenant and the perfections of the new covenant through Jesus Christ are presented in the New
Testament book of Hebrews. But until God’s purposes were fulfilled in the life, death and resurrection of
Jesus, the laws and ceremonies of the old covenant helped people to understand God and to understand
themselves.
God did not design these laws and ceremonies as a means by which people might earn salvation.
Rather they were part of the developing plan of God that showed people, stage by stage, how he was able
to forgive those who trusted in him, yet be just in doing so. This revelation reached its climax in Jesus
Christ, and on the basis of his death God could forgive all who had faith in him, even those who lived in
Old Testament times (Rom 3:25-26; Heb 9:15).
Then, as now, people were saved only by faith in the sovereign God who in his mercy forgave them
and accepted them. Faith, not understanding, was the requirement for salvation. A person’s understanding
of how God’s work of salvation operated depended on how far the divine revelation had progressed in its
movement towards completion in Jesus Christ. But in any era the repentant sinner who turned in faith to
God could be forgiven.
Design of the tabernacle
The tabernacle was designed so that it could be easily put together, taken apart and transported, for
the people of Israel took it with them on their journey to Canaan and set it up at camps along the way.
Simply described, the tabernacle consisted of a wooden box-like frame covered with a cloth and
protected from the weather by a tent that covered the whole. In outward appearance it was a tent (which is
the meaning of the word ‘tabernacle’). The timber framed structure hidden under this tent consisted of
two rooms. The front room, which was entered through a curtain, was called the Holy Place and
contained three pieces of furniture – a table, a lampstand and an altar for burning incense. A second
curtain separated the Holy Place from the smaller rear room, which was called the Most Holy Place or
Holy of Holies. This room was the symbolic dwelling place of God and contained the ark of the covenant.
This tabernacle-tent was set in a large court surrounded by a fence. In this enclosure were two
articles, the most important of which was an altar on which all the animal and food sacrifices were
offered. The other article was a laver, or large basin, in which the priests washed. The tabernacle complex
was in the centre of the camp, with the people’s tents pitched in an orderly arrangement around it (see
Num 2:1-31; 3:21-38).
As a structure, the tabernacle was entirely suited to Israel’s circumstances. A tent over a prefabricated
frame was suitable for a travelling people, and its construction could withstand the desert winds. Many of
its articles of furniture were fitted at the corners with rings, through which poles were placed to make the
articles easy to carry. The wood to be used was plentiful in the region, did not warp or rot easily and was
light, which helped further towards easy transport. Metals were of the kind that would not rust. Timber
was overlaid with metal, bronze being used to cover articles in the open courtyard, and gold those inside
the tabernacle-tent. Cloth hangings were suitable for the entrances and partitions of a tent.
The brilliance of the metals and the richness of the cloth hangings increased as one moved from the
outer court, through the Holy Place to the Most Holy Place. This helped emphasize the glory and majesty
of Yahweh, the King of Israel (cf. 28:2).
Materials given by the people (25:1-9)
All the building materials used in the tabernacle came from the voluntary offerings of the people,
who at the time were enjoying a degree of prosperity because of their recent gains from the Egyptians and
the Amalekites (25:1-7; see 12:36; 17:13). The people gave so generously that Moses had more than he
needed and asked them not to bring any more (see 36:5-7). In order that the visible (symbolic) dwelling
place of God might be a help and not a hindrance to the people’s spiritual growth, everything had to be
built according to God’s instructions. The people were not to try to ‘improve’ God’s plan by introducing
ideas they may have got from similar kinds of structures they had seen in Egypt (8-9).
Ark of the covenant (25:10-22)
The ark (GNB: covenant box) was a gold covered wooden box, two and a half cubits long, one and a
half cubits wide, and one and a half cubits high. (A cubit was about forty-four centimetres or eighteen
inches.) It was the only piece of furniture in the Most Holy Place (see 26:34). Inside the ark were the two
stone tablets on which the law was written, as a constant reminder to the people of Israel that the God
who dwelt among them was also their law-giver (10-16; Deut 10:1-5). (Later Aaron’s rod and the golden
pot of manna were also placed in the ark; see Heb 9:4.)
A specially sacred part of the ark was its richly ornamented lid, called the mercy seat. The two
cherubim (GNB: winged creatures) attached to the top of the mercy seat apparently symbolized divine
protection of the seat, the ark and the contents (17-21). This mercy seat appears to have been a visible
throne for the invisible God. It was the place where God spoke with Moses and where the high priest
made atonement for the sins of the people when he entered the Most Holy Place once a year (Lev
16:1- 19,29-31; Heb 9:7). The name mercy seat emphasized to the people of Israel that when they
finally
reached the heart of their religion they were still sinners, dependent entirely upon the mercy of God for
their salvation (22).
The table and the lampstand (25:23-40)
These two pieces of furniture were placed opposite each other against the side walls of the Holy Place
(see 26:35). The table was made of wood overlaid with gold, and the vessels associated with it (used in
the ceremonies of the Holy Place) were all made of gold (23-29). On the table were twelve small loaves
of bread (called ‘presence bread’) arranged in two rows of six. Each Sabbath the priests placed twelve
fresh loaves on the table and ate the old loaves (Lev 24:5-9). The symbolism of the presence bread is not
explained. Possibly it was a reminder that the whole of Israel, in its twelve tribes, lived constantly in the
presence of God. God was their provider, and the bread was a fitting and constant acknowledgment of this
before him (30).
No dimensions are given for the lampstand. It weighed about thirty-five kilograms, held seven lamps,
was made of one piece of gold, and was richly ornamented. Its trays and other utensils were also of gold.
This seven-headed lamp provided continual light in the otherwise dark Holy Place, and was tended by the
priests morning and evening (31-40; cf. 27:20-21).
Curtains, coverings and framework (26:1-37)
Probably the easiest way to picture the two-roomed structure under the tent is as a huge open box with a
cloth draped over it. This cloth was a multi-coloured, richly embroidered linen covering that formed a
ceiling and hung over the four sides but did not quite reach the ground. It consisted of two sets of five
curtain strips sewn along their length and then tied together to form one huge covering (26:1-6).
Over this multi-coloured linen covering was draped a second covering, this one of black goats’ hair.
It was cut and sewn in similar fashion to the inner linen covering but was bigger all round so that it
reached to the ground, thereby protecting the inner covering (7-13).
Pitched over this covered box-like structure was a two-layer tent made of animal skins. This provided
the entire structure inside with protection against the weather (14).
The two sides and rear of the structure under the tent were made of wooden frames overlaid with gold and
fitted vertically. This produced a structure thirty cubits long, ten cubits wide and ten cubits high. The
wooden frames were inserted into metal bases and held firm by five horizontal bars in each wall (15-30).
A richly embroidered multi-coloured curtain was hung from pillars to form a partition between the
two rooms of this rectangular structure. This curtain is usually called the veil, to distinguish it from
another curtain that hung from another set of pillars to form the front wall and entrance to the structure
(31-37). The pillars were fitted into metal bases and were probably held firm at the top by a connecting
horizontal bar. Their tops were richly ornamented (see 36:38).
Altar of burnt offering (27:1-8)
All animal sacrifices were offered on what has become known as the brazen altar (though the metal
referred to in older English versions as brass was probably bronze or, less likely, copper). The altar was
made of timber overlaid with bronze and was hollow inside. Its utensils also were made of bronze
(27:1- 3).
The instructions do not tell us how sacrifices were burnt on this altar. Either the altar was filled with
earth to form a mound on which the sacrifices were burnt, or it had an internal grid for the same purpose.
Halfway up the altar on the outside was a horizontal ledge supported by a grating. The priest may have
stood on this ledge while offering the sacrifices, to avoid treading in the blood of the sacrificial animals
that was poured out at the base (4-8).
Tabernacle court; oil for the lamp (27:9-21)
Around the perimeter of the tabernacle courtyard (GNB: enclosure) was a fence, which separated the
tabernacle sufficiently from the camp to create a feeling of reverence towards the symbolic dwelling place
of God. This fence gave protection against desert winds and was high enough to prevent people outside
from watching the rituals out of idle curiosity.
The fence was made of cloth attached to posts, which were fitted into metal bases in the ground and
held firm by ropes tied to ground pegs (see 35:17-18). A silver band at the tops of the posts may have
been a decoration, or it may have been a means of connecting the tops of all the posts to give the fence
added stability. As with the tabernacle-tent, the court faced east and had a curtain entrance in its eastern
side (9-19).
Light from the seven-headed lamp was the only light in the tabernacle. The ordinary people supplied
the oil for the lamp, and the priests tended the lamp morning and evening to keep it burning continually
(20-21).
The priesthood
Having outlined his plans for the tabernacle as the central place of worship for his people, God now
provided further for that worship by establishing a priesthood. The priests were responsible for the proper
functioning of all matters connected with the tabernacle and its services.
Until now Moses had been not only the leader of the people but also the go-between, or mediator,
between the people and God. In the ordered religious life of the nation that was now being established,
this function of people’s representative in religious affairs was given to Aaron (who was appointed high
priest) and his sons (who were the ordinary priests that assisted him). In future only direct male
descendants of Aaron could be priests. It was further revealed (see notes on 32:25-29 below) that only
those of the same tribe as Aaron, the tribe of Levi, could assist in the practical affairs of the tabernacle
such as its erection, maintenance and transport (cf. 6:16-25; 29:9; Num 3:9-10).
Priests were required to offer sacrifices on behalf of those who brought them (Heb 8:3). They
therefore served as mediators between the people and God. They also carried out daily functions
connected with the overall tabernacle rituals, such as ensuring that a sacrifice was burning on the altar
continually (29:38-42; Lev 6:12), keeping the lamp burning in the Holy Place (27:20-21) and offering
incense on the golden altar (30:7-8). They were also to teach the law of God to the people and serve as
moral guides to the nation (Deut 31:9-13; 33:10; Mal 2:7).
Only priests could enter the Holy Place and only the high priest the Most Holy Place. Even then he
could do so only once a year, on the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:1-19,29-31; Heb 9:6-7).
Clothing for the priests (28:1-43)
All priests wore special clothing that gave them a dignity and honour suited to their office. The high
priest’s clothing was especially striking, but more importantly its various pieces helped the people
understand the sacredness of his functions before
God (28:1-3).
The most colourful piece of clothing worn by the
high priest was the ephod (GNB: sacred vest), a short
linen garment of the same material as the tabernacle
curtains but with gold thread worked into the cloth
(see
39:2-3). It was held in place by two shoulder straps and
bound at the waist by a band (RSV: girdle; GNB: sash)
of the same material. Attached to the shoulder straps
were two stones, one to each shoulder, engraved with
the names of the tribes of Israel (4-14).
Positioned centrally over the high priest’s chest
was a piece of richly embroidered cloth, doubled to
form a square flat pouch. This was called the
breastplate or breastpiece. Fixed to the outside of it
were twelve precious stones, again symbolic of Israel’s
twelve tribes. The breastplate was tied over the ephod
with gold chains attached to rings at the four corners.
Inside it were the Urim and Thummim, generally
thought to be two small objects which, when drawn out
of the pouch, would indicate ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to a suitably
put question (15-30; cf. Num 27:21; 1 Sam 14:41;
28:6).
Directly beneath the ephod was a blue robe. From
the bottom of this robe hung bells and pomegranates, so
that when the high priest moved from place to place
inside the tabernacle, the people outside, on hearing the
bells, could follow him in their thoughts and prayers.
The sound of the bells would reassure them, letting
them know that the high priest had not been struck
dead. Their offering had been accepted (31-35).
On his head the high priest wore a turban, fixed to
the front of which was a gold plate engraved with the
words ‘Holy to the Lord’. This declared to all that holiness was essential to every part of Israelite
worship (36-38). The remaining garments of the high priest (that is, those worn under his blue robe)
were the same as those for ordinary priests, namely, a full length long-sleeved white linen garment
(GNB: embroidered shirt), along with undergarments and other accessories (39-43).
Several features of the high priest’s clothing reminded him constantly that he was acting not as an
individual, but as the representative of the people. First there were the engraved stones bearing the names
of the twelve tribes on his shoulder pieces and breastplate (v. 12,21). Second there were the objects
known as the Urim and Thummim, through which he sought God’s will in judging the people (v. 30).
And third there was the gold plate on his turban to symbolize that he bore their guilt before the holy God
who alone could pardon them (v. 38).
Dedication of the priests (29:1-37)
One purpose of this dedication ceremony was to impress upon priests and people alike that those who
served God had to do so with purity and reverence. The priests were washed, symbolizing purification,
then clothed and anointed, symbolizing appointment to their position (29:1-9).
Since they themselves were not free from sin, the priests had to offer sacrifices for their own sins before
they could act on behalf of others. First they offered a bull as a sin offering. By laying their hands on its
head, they identified themselves with the animal. As their representative it died the death that they,
because of their sins, should have died. The blood placed on the horns of the altar was evidence of life
laid down. The offering of the best parts of the animal on the altar signified the priests’ devotion to God,
and the burning of its remains outside the camp their hatred of sin (10-14).
Once sin had been justly dealt with, the priests offered a burnt offering. By burning the entire animal
on the altar they pledged total dedication to God and his service (15-18).
After this the priests offered a second ram, called the ram of ordination (GNB: dedication). The
unusual procedure in placing blood on the ear, thumb, toe and clothing of the priests probably symbolized
the dedication of their whole life and service to God (19-21). Another way the priests demonstrated their
dedication was by taking the most valued parts of the animal, along with certain cereal foods, waving
them up and down in symbolic offering to God, then sacrificing them on the altar (22-25).
 God showed his acceptance of the priests’ offering and his fellowship with them by giving them, as
their special portion, certain other parts of the sacrificial animal. Again, however, the offerers first waved
these portions before God to acknowledge that all rightly belonged to him (26-28). Finally, the priests
came together to eat the remainder of the animal in a meal, thereby expressing fellowship with one
another and with God (29-34).
This whole ceremony was repeated seven days. This gave the priests time to think carefully about the
importance of the ritual and the life of service that lay ahead (35-37).
The daily offerings (29:38-46)
As an expression of Israel’s constant devotion to God, an offering of consecration was kept burning
on the altar continually. The priests renewed the offering morning and evening, arranging the parts of the
sacrificial animal on the altar in such a way as to ensure that the fire never went out (38-42; see Lev 6:8-
13). God reminded Moses that his purpose in giving Israel the tabernacle and the priesthood was that he
might dwell among his people and that they might know and serve him (43-46).
Altar of incense; tabernacle tax (30:1-16)
The altar of incense was made of wood overlaid with gold. It was much smaller than the altar of burnt
offering, was located in a different place and was designed for a different purpose. It was not used for
sacrifices, but only for the burning of incense, offered each morning and evening. Incense was a
substance produced by grinding and blending certain spices (see v. 34-38 below), and when burnt gave
off thick white smoke and a strong smell. Its ceremonial burning seems to have symbolized the offering
of prayers and homage to God (30:1-10).
Whenever there was a national census, the people were to pay a special tax, which was then used for
the maintenance of the tabernacle. This tax was equal for all, but small enough for even the poorest to
pay, indicating that before God the rich had no advantage over the poor. The lives of all were preserved
on the same basis, the mercy of God. All had an equal share in the maintenance of the tabernacle and its
services (11-16).
Bronze laver (30:17-21)
The laver was a large basin in which the priests washed their hands and feet before either entering the
Holy Place or administering the sacrifices. No doubt they needed to wash again after offering the
sacrifices (cf. 2 Chron 4:6). Such washing, apart from its practical benefits, had symbolic significance,
since cleansing from all uncleanness was necessary for acceptable service for God (17-21).
No details are given concerning the shape or size of the laver, though it was large enough to require a
firm base or stand (see v. 17). It was made from polished bronze mirrors that many of the women gave as
their contribution to the construction the tabernacle (see 38:8).
Anointing oil; incense (30:22-38)
Oil had special significance when used to anoint people or things. Anointing, in its highest sense,
meant that holy oil was poured over, or otherwise applied to, people or things to signify that they were set
apart for the service of God. The art of preparing oils, perfumes and incenses was well known in Egypt
and Arabia, and the Israelites apparently learnt such skills from these people. But the formula given to
Moses for the anointing oil was to be used only for the oil of the tabernacle rituals (22-33).
Likewise the incense for the tabernacle was to be made according to an exclusive formula. This
incense was to burn ‘before the testimony’, that is, on the golden altar that stood in front of the ark of the
testimony (the covenant box) but separated from it by a curtain (34-38).
Craftsmen for the work (31:1-11)
In building the tabernacle, the craftsmen were to follow strictly the God-given plan, but they still had
plenty of opportunity to use their creative abilities. The power of God’s Spirit worked through human
intelligence and ability. At the same time people had to remember that natural ability was not enough for
the service of God. His Spirit was necessary in guiding the craftsmen so that everything might be in
accordance with his purposes (31:1-6)
This combination of obedience and initiative in the work of the craftsmen applied not just to the
tabernacle itself. It applied also to the priests’ clothing, the anointing oil and the incense (7-11).
The tabernacle and its services were similar enough to other ancient structures and religious practices
for the Israelite people to understand them readily. Yet they were different enough to impress upon them
the uniqueness of Yahweh and the faith by which they served him.
The weekly day of rest (31:12-18)
People might have thought that, because the tabernacle was a sacred structure, they could work on it
on the Sabbath day. God reminded them to keep the weekly Sabbath as a holy day of rest. This rest was
part of God’s plan for preserving the holiness of his people (12-17).
God then gave Moses the ten basic commandments of the covenant engraved on stone as he had
promised (see 24:12; cf. Deut 10:4). Having received God’s instructions for his people, Moses went down
from the mountain to put them into practice (18).
32:1-34:35 COVENANT BROKEN AND RENEWED
The golden bull (32:1-35)
Although they were God’s people and had been delivered by his mighty power from slavery in Egypt,
the Israelites were still very much Egyptian in their feelings, thinking and habits. They made an animal
idol as a visible symbol of their unseen God, then developed a ritual to go with it, complete with priest,
altar, sacrifices and feasting. And, as often happened with the pagan religions, drunkenness and immoral
sex-play accompanied their idolatry (32:1-6).
This all happened while Moses was still on the mountain. God told Moses what was happening
during his absence, adding that the people, because of their sin, deserved to be wiped out. God could then
start afresh to build a people for himself, using Moses as the father of his new people just as previously he
had used Abraham and, through him, Jacob (7-10).
Moses, thinking more of God’s honour than his own, successfully pleaded with God not to destroy
Israel, for the Egyptians would surely misunderstand his actions and accuse him of deceiving his people.
Moses based his plea on God’s mighty acts of deliverance in the past and his promises to Israel’s
ancestors. God heard Moses’ prayer and as a result Israel was saved from destruction (11-14).
Reassured by God’s response but still angry with the people, Moses returned to the camp. By
breaking the stone tablets on which the law was engraved, he demonstrated graphically to the people that
they had broken God’s law. By grinding the idol to powder, mixing it with water and making the people
drink it, he forced them to admit their sin and accept its consequences (15-20). At the same time he held
Aaron responsible, because as leader of the people Aaron should have opposed the idolaters. Instead he
followed them (21-24).
God did not wipe out the nation, but neither could he overlook sin. Men of the tribe of Levi, who had
remained faithful to God amid the rebellion, carried out God’s judgment and for their zeal were rewarded.
Once the tabernacle was constructed and in use, only those of this tribe would be servants of God in the
general duties connected with it (25-29; cf. Num 1:47-53; Deut 33:8-11). Note: The family of Aaron was
one family within the tribe of Levi (see 4:14), and God had already given them the sole rights to the
specialized work of the priesthood (see 28:1; 29:9). The Israelite priesthood is therefore referred to
sometimes as the Aaronic priesthood, sometimes as the Levitical priesthood.
In a display of genuine love for the unbelieving people, Moses offered to die on their behalf and so be
punished for them. But God would not accept the death of one person for another, for all were sinners,
though the extent of their sin varied. God would hold each person responsible for his or her actions. He
would show mercy on the unfaithful nation, but he would punish individuals who rebelled against him
(30-35).
Assurance of God’s presence (33:1-23)
Because of his mercy God allowed the people to continue their journey to the land he had promised
their ancestors, but because of their sin he could not go with them lest he destroy them. However, he
promised to send a heavenly representative to go before them into Canaan. He also required the people to
give a clear outward sign of mourning for their past sin and the loss of fellowship with God that resulted
from it (33:1-6).
God’s refusal to go with Israel troubled Moses. He therefore came to God with yet another request on
behalf of the rebellious people. In introducing this prayer, the writer gives us a picture of how the people
of Israel worshipped during the time before they built the tabernacle. Moses met and talked with God in a
tent outside the main camp, while the people stood at their tent doors facing Moses’ tent and worshipping
in spirit with him. Moses’ chief assistant, Joshua, acted as guardian of this sacred meeting place (7-11; cf.
24:13).
 Moses then put his question to God. If God would not dwell among the people lest he destroy them,
and if his special representative was not to dwell among them but go ahead of them, who then would
dwell among them? The people may have been rebellious, but Moses did not want God to remove himself
from them completely. He asked God for some clear indication of his plans. God replied by promising
Moses his presence. This reassured Moses, for he saw no purpose in Israel’s entering Canaan as God’s
people if his presence was not among them (12-16).
God’s reply encouraged Moses to ask even more. He wanted a greater spiritual understanding of the
nature of God. In answer God revealed to Moses something more of his glory. The vision was not to
satisfy curiosity about God’s appearance, but to reveal the goodness, mercy and glory of him who was
Israel’s God, Yahweh (17-23). (This vision took place a little later, when Moses returned to the mountain;
see 34:4-7.)
The covenant re-established (34:1-35)
When the people first swore their faithfulness to the covenant, they promised to keep all its
requirements (see 24:3-8), but in practice they failed badly. God in his grace would renew the covenant,
and to this end he called Moses back up the mountain. His fresh revelation to Moses therefore
emphasized his love and mercy, but it also reminded the people of his righteous justice. Moses, painfully
aware of the Israelites’ weakness, appealed to the grace of God, asking that he would still dwell among
them and own them as his people in spite of their stubbornness (34:1-9).
God then renewed his covenant, promising Israel provision and protection. He would cause the world
to be amazed at the greatness of his power as he drove out nation after nation to give his people the land
he had promised them (10-11). He sternly warned his people against copying, or even tolerating, heathen
religious practices in their new land. This warning was particularly appropriate in view of recent events in
the worship of the golden idol. To forsake God and follow other religious ideas would be spiritual
adultery, compared to the unfaithfulness of a woman who leaves her husband for another man (12-17).
Accompanying the renewal of the covenant was a command to the people never to forget their
deliverance from Egypt. Therefore, they were to keep the Feast of Unleavened Bread and maintain the
practice of redeeming their firstborn (18-20; see 12:15-36; 13:1-16). Also specifically mentioned was the
obligation to keep the weekly Sabbath and the annual festivals (21-24; see 23:12-17). Additional
reminders concerned requirements for sacrifices and firstfruits (25-26; see 23:18-19).
God then made a declaration that the covenant Israel had broken was now re-established. Though the
account is brief, Moses was with God on the mountain for about six weeks, as on the previous occasion
(27-28; cf. 24:18).
Moses’ appearance was so changed through his meeting with God, that he covered his face with a
cloth when speaking to the people. The man who met God was unaware of his glory till others told him of
it; by contrast, the people who had easily fallen into sin were afraid when they met one who appeared to
them as a shining messenger from God (29-35; cf. 2 Cor 3:7-18).
35:1-40:38 CONSTRUCTION OF THE TABERNACLE
This section largely repeats the instruction given on the mountain in Chapters 25-31. It emphasizes
that the people had to do God’s work according to his covenant requirements. Therefore, they were to
keep the Sabbath (35:1-3; cf. 31:16). If they wanted God to accept their offerings for the building of the
tabernacle, they had to present those offerings in a spirit of joy and willingness (35:4-29). Though all
could give offerings, only those with the God-given ability and the right motivation were to do the work
(35:30-36:1). The people responded so generously in bringing materials for the work, that Moses asked
them to stop giving (36:2-7).
The workmen then started on the tabernacle, making the double layer of inner coverings and the double
layer outer tent (36:8-19), the wooden framework, the pillars and the curtains (36:20-38), the ark and the
mercy seat (37:1-9), and the table, lampstand and altar of incense (37:10-29). They also made the articles
for the court area, namely, the altar of burnt offering (38:1-7), the laver (38:8) and the fence that
surrounded the court (38:9-20). Then follows a list of the offerings (38:21-31) and an account of the
priests’ clothing (39:1-31).
With much satisfaction and thanks, Moses inspected the completed, but as yet unassembled, parts of
the tabernacle (39:32-43). He then supervised the erection of the entire complex, and dedicated the
tabernacle and the priests as God had instructed him (40:1-33).
Exactly one year after leaving Egypt, or nine months after arriving at Sinai, the Israelites set up the
newly made tabernacle (see 12:2; 19:1; 40:17). The cloud then rested on it as the visible evidence of
God’s dwelling among his people as the centre of their life and the object of their worship. This same
cloud guided them on their journey through the wilderness to Canaan. Whether they camped or travelled,
Yahweh, their covenant Redeemer, was with them (40:34-38).
Leviticus
BACKGROUND
In accordance with his promise to Abraham, God had brought the people of Israel out of Egypt and
set them on their way to Canaan. After three months they arrived at Mount Sinai, where they remained for
about a year while they organized themselves for the new life that lay ahead (Exod 19:1; Num 10:11).
The book of Leviticus contains some of the teaching God gave to his people during the year they were
camped at Sinai.
Religious system for a covenant people
The people of Israel knew that God had freely chosen them to be his people and in his grace had freed
them from slavery in Egypt. They therefore responded fittingly by promising to do whatever he required
of them (Gen 12:2; 15:7-21; Exod 2:24; 4:22; 6:6-8; 19:4-9; 20:2). God then joined himself to Israel in a
covenant ceremony in which he laid down certain basic principles and detailed commandments, and the
people in reply promised unconditional obedience (Exod 20:1-24:18).
God went on to show his people the plans he had for the religious life of the nation. He would
provide them with a central place of worship, a priesthood to officiate in religious matters, and a
sacrificial system by which they could demonstrate their faith towards him (Exod 25:1-Lev 7:38). To this
he added a body of laws to ensure that priests and people alike were holy and pure in their relations with
him and with one another (Lev 8:1-27:34).
This brief summary of the contents of Exodus and Leviticus shows that there is no break between the
two books (cf. Exod 40:17; Lev 1:1; 27:34). It shows also that readers need to be familiar with the
tabernacle and the priesthood in the second half of Exodus in order to understand the sacrificial system in
the opening chapters of Leviticus. (Concerning the artificial division that produced the first five books of
the Bible, see the introductory notes to Genesis, sub-heading ‘The Pentateuch’.)
Although the book is entitled Leviticus, it contains little instruction for the Levites as a whole. (This
instruction is given mainly in the next book, Numbers.) Almost the whole of the instruction in Leviticus
is for the priests, who were only one family (the family of Aaron) within the tribe of Levi (Exod 29:9;
Num 3:9-10). However, Israel’s religious system in general is commonly called the Levitical system, and
the Aaronic priesthood is sometimes called the Levitical priesthood.
Christianity is not part of the Israelite religious system, and Christians are not under Israel’s law
(Rom 6:14; Gal 5:1-4). But Christians can learn much from Leviticus as they understand those universal
and timeless principles that underlie the specific laws given to one nation for a particular period (Rom
8:3-4; Gal 5:14,18). Also, since the Bible repeatedly refers to the sacrifices, festivals, rituals and
ceremonies of the Levitical system, an understanding of Leviticus will help readers understand the rest of
the Bible better.
OUTLINE
1:1-7:38 The offerings
8:1-10:20 The priesthood established
11:1-15:33 Cleanness and uncleanness
16:1-17:16 The blood of atonement
18:1-22:33 Practical holiness
23:1-27:34 Special occasions
ISRAEL’S SACRIFICIAL SYSTEM
Offerers and their attitudes
From earliest times, offerings and sacrifices were a means by which people expressed their devotion to
God. Some sacrifices were like gifts, the worshippers offering the best of their crops or animals to God in
thanks for his goodness (Gen 4:4; 8:20). Other sacrifices emphasized fellowship, the offerers eating part
of the sacrifice in a meal with their relatives and friends in the presence of God (Gen 31:54). Others were
 for the forgiveness of sins, where a slaughtered animal bore the penalty that the offerers, because of
their sins, should have borne (Job 42:8). Features of these early sacrifices were later developed in the
sacrificial system of Israel.
In any era or nation, the heart attitude of the worshippers was more important than their gifts. Abel
offered the best of his flock in humble faith and God accepted his offering. Cain’s attitude was arrogant
and his life ungodly, and therefore God rejected his offering (Gen 4:2-5; Heb 11:4; 1 John 3:12). The
Bible does not say that Abel’s offering was more acceptable than Cain’s because it involved the shedding
of blood. Not till the time of Noah did God reveal the special significance of blood (Gen 9:3-6), and not
till the time of Moses did he show clearly the value of blood for atonement (Lev 17:11).
God progressively revealed his ways as people were able to understand them, but the acceptance of
offerings always depended on the spiritual condition of the offerers. The sacrificial system developed
under Moses in no way ignored this principle; on the contrary, it had this principle as its basis. But
troubles arose when people carried out the rituals mechanically, without genuine faith and uprightness.
The prophets of God condemned such religion, not because of any fault in the sacrificial system, but
because of the way people misused it (Isa 1:13-20; Amos 5:21-24; Micah 6:6-8).
Significance of blood
The Passover was an important event in the development of Israel’s sacrificial system, for there the
people saw the significance of blood more clearly. Since blood was a symbol of life, shed blood was a
symbol of death – not death through natural causes but death through killing (Gen 9:3-6; Num 35:19,33).
The blood of the Passover lamb was important not because of any special quality in the blood itself, but
because it represented the animal’s death, by which the firstborn was saved from judgment. The animal’s
death was the important thing; the blood sprinkled around the door was but a visible sign that the animal’s
life had been taken instead of the life of a person (Exod 12:13).
In Israel’s sacrificial system God gave this shed blood of animals to guilty sinners to make atonement
for their sin (Lev 17:11). All were guilty before God, and the penalty was death. They were cut off from
God and had no way of bringing themselves back to God. Sinners who sought God’s forgiveness realized
there could be no forgiveness for sin, no releasing them from its consequences, apart from death. God
therefore gave the blood of a guiltless substitute to bring cleansing and release from sin. Pardon was not
something people had to squeeze from an unwilling God, but was the merciful gift of a God who wanted
to forgive. The escaping of God’s punishment was not something they brought about, but was due to God
himself.
The animal that died in sacrifice suffered the penalty of sin so that sinners could be forgiven; for
without such shedding of blood there could be no forgiveness (Heb 9:22). The blood of these animal
sacrifices did not take away sins (Heb 10:4), but it did provide a way whereby people could see that God
was acting justly in dealing with their sins. The only blood able to cleanse sins is the blood of Jesus Christ
– his death on the cross – and in view of his death God could ‘pass over’, temporarily, the sins of
believers in former ages. They were forgiven, one might say, on credit, because sin could not be actually
removed till Christ died (Rom 3:25-26; Heb 9:15).
Sacrifice and salvation
It should always be remembered that the law, or the old covenant (to which the law belonged), was
never meant to be permanent. Its purpose was to prepare the way for Jesus Christ, whose death did all that
the Israelite sacrifices could not do. If, then, these sacrifices could not bring salvation, how, it may be
asked, could those who lived under the old covenant be saved?
The answer is that people living under the old covenant were saved the same way as people are today
– by the grace of God; and they received that salvation by faith (Eph 2:8). No people have ever been able
to boast that they have achieved God’s salvation by their own works (Eph 2:9).
Abraham lived hundreds of years before the introduction of the old covenant at Sinai, but he was
saved by faith (Rom 4:13,16,22; Gal 3:17-18). The law was given at Sinai not as a means of saving
people, but as a means of showing them the sort of life that a holy God required of them. In itself it was
good, and it was intended to benefit those who were under it (Lev 18:5; Rom 7:10,12). But sinful human
nature stirs people up to rebel against God, with the result that the law, though intended for people’s
good, in reality showed up their sin (Rom 7:7-13).
The benefit of the law in relation to salvation was that it showed people their sinfulness, so that they
could then turn in faith to God and ask for his mercy and forgiveness (Rom 3:19-20; Gal 3:19). The law
could teach, but it could not save. It could train, but it could not bring perfection. It could only prepare the
way for Christ, who did all that the law could not do (Rom 8:3-4; Gal 3:23-25).
Although God in his grace forgave those who in faith turned to him, the sacrificial system and other
religious practices detailed in the law were a God-given way by which people could express that faith.
The instructions for the rituals provided a way by which they could demonstrate their obedience. The
entire sacrificial system was a means by which God taught people what atonement involved. It was a
further stage in the development of his plan of salvation, a plan that reached its fulfilment in Jesus Christ
(Rom 3:21; Heb 9:23-26).
Whether people in Old Testament times knew it or not, Jesus Christ was the means by which God
forgave those who turned to him in faith (Rom 3:25-26). The basis of salvation was always faith, not
knowledge, and certainly not works (Rom 4:1-8).
Content of the sacrifices
The details of the sacrificial rituals taught the people that though God forgave sin freely, he did not
treat sin lightly. He was a just God, and the sacrifices helped to teach people the meaning of atonement.
Whatever animal a person offered, it had to be without defects, symbolizing perfection. It was not, so
to speak, under condemnation itself and so was fit to be the guiltless substitute for the guilty sinner (Lev
1:3,10). Normally the offerings, whether animal sacrifices such as bulls, goats, sheep, doves and pigeons,
or food offerings such as cereals, flour, oil and wine, had to be the property of those who offered them.
They were things that people had worked for and were in some way identified with personally. Wild
animals and fish, though they could be eaten, could not be offered as sacrifices. Whatever people offered
had to cost them something; they were things people sacrificed. They were offerings, things people gave
(cf. 2 Sam 24:24). God did not want to drive anyone into poverty, nor did he delight in the death of
animals; but he had to impress upon people that sin was a serious matter, and its removal was costly.
God’s consideration for the people is seen in the alternatives he provided. People could offer the
kinds of animals that they could afford and that were in keeping with their status in the community (Lev
1:3,10,14; 5:7-13).
No matter what status people enjoyed or what kinds of sacrifices they offered, the offerings always
had to be the best available. Animals usually had to be males, which were more costly than females. To
ensure that offerings were as near perfect as possible, salt was added to preserve them, and leaven (yeast)
was forbidden to avoid spoiling (Lev 2:11,13).
The procedure followed
Much detail is given concerning the preparation and offering of the sacrifices, again emphasizing the
orderly thoroughness that God required. The overall pattern was similar for most of the offerings. When
the offerer brought the animal he laid his hands on its head, indicating that it was bearing his guilt and
that he desired God to accept it on his behalf (Lev 1:4). He then killed it. He had to do this himself, an
action that impressed upon him the horror that had resulted from his sin (Lev 1:11).
The animal was killed not on the altar but in the court of the tabernacle on the north side of the altar.
The priest collected the blood in a basin to apply in various places, as a visible sign that a life had been
taken to bear the penalty of sin. In some cases the priest splashed the blood against the sides of the altar of
sacrifice; in others he took the blood into the tent to apply to the altar of incense or the mercy seat, then
returned and poured out the remainder on the ground beside the altar (Lev 1:11; 4:7; 16:14). In the case of
bird offerings, the amount of blood was not sufficient for all this ritual, and was usually drained out
beside the altar (Lev 1:15; cf. 14:15).
With each kind of sacrifice, some of it was burnt, though the amount that was burnt and the place in
which it was burnt varied. The portions that were not burnt were eaten, sometimes by the priests and
worshippers, sometimes by the priests and their families, and sometimes by the priests alone.
There were five main offerings. Directions concerning those who brought the offerings are given in
Leviticus 1:1-6:7, and further details of procedure for the priests are given in Leviticus 6:8-7:38. The
following notes combine details from the two sections to help towards a clearer understanding of the five
different offerings.
1:1-7:38 THE OFFERINGS
The burnt offering (1:1-17)
Of all the offerings, the burnt offering was the most ancient. It had been in general use among God’s
people long before Moses set out laws to regulate it. The offerings of Noah, Abraham and the Israelites in
Egypt were all earlier forms of this sacrifice (Gen 8:20; 22:2; Exod 10:25). It was called the burnt
offering because all the flesh was burnt upon the altar. None of it was eaten.
Thanksgiving, devotion and atonement were all in some way symbolized in this sacrifice, but by far
the outstanding characteristic was that of dedication or consecration. The burning of the whole animal on
the altar symbolized the complete devotion and dedication of the offerers (cf. Rom 12:1). Before the
burning, however, a blood ritual reminded the offerers that, without atonement, they could have no
relation with God. They had to deal with sin first (1:1-5). The washing of the animal’s internal organs
before burning may have suggested the need for inner cleansing before offering oneself to God. The
sacrifice went up to God as something specially pleasing to him (6-9).
The law did not specify a particular kind of animal for the burnt offering. The choice of animal
depended largely on the family circumstances and financial capacity of the offerers. Although the initial
regulations were for more expensive animals such as cattle, similar regulations were set out for less
expensive animals such as sheep and goats (10-13). There were even regulations for birds, which were the
only animals that some poor people could afford (14-17).
An additional point found in ‘the law of the burnt offering’ in Chapter 6 is that the fire on the altar
was never to go out. As a continual expression of devotion to God, an offering of consecration was kept
burning on the altar continually. It was renewed each morning and evening (cf. Exod 29:38-42). When
burning the evening sacrifice, the priests were to arrange the pieces of the sacrifice so that they fed the
fire all night. The priests tended the fire and removed the ashes at the time of the morning sacrifice. The
fire had little chance of going out during the day, because individuals would offer sacrifices constantly
(6:8-13).
The cereal offering (2:1-16)
Products offered in the cereal offering (GNB: grain offering) came from the common food of the
people. These offerings were the people’s acknowledgment to God that they received their daily
provisions from him. The products offered were therefore both a gift and a thanksgiving. The wine
offering, sometimes called the drink offering, had similar significance (see 23:13,18,37).
It seems that cereal offerings and wine offerings were never offered alone, but always with burnt
offerings and peace offerings (Num 15:1-10). This showed that consecration to God (as pictured in the
burnt offering) and fellowship with God (as pictured in the peace offering) were not separate from the
ordinary affairs of life. In the ritual of the cereal offering the priest burnt a handful of the food with the
sacrifice; in the wine offering he poured some of the wine over the sacrifice. Any food that remained
belonged to the priests (2:1-10).
Leaven and honey, because of their tendency to spoil, were not to be offered on the altar. However,
like grain and other fruit, they could be offered as firstfruits in thanks to God for his provision of the
produce of the land (11-16).
‘The law of the cereal offering’ emphasized that the priests had to be in a state of ceremonial holiness
when they ate the portion of the sacrifice that was not burnt on the altar (6:14-18). Just as there was a
continual burnt offering, so there was a continual cereal offering, which the priests took from their own
food and offered morning and evening. The priests, as well as the people, had to acknowledge that God
was their daily provider (6:19-23; Exod 29:38-42).
The peace offering (3:1-17)
Among Israelites in general, the most popular of the offerings was the peace offering (GNB: fellowship
offering). The characteristic feature of this offering was the feast for the worshippers that followed the
sacrifice (1 Sam 9:12-13). First, however, the animal was sacrificed with blood ritual the same as that
of the burnt offering. Then the Lord’s portion, consisting of the richest and most vital parts
of the animal, was burnt upon the altar, probably to indicate consecration, as in the burnt offering (3:1-5;
7:22-27). This procedure, which was outlined first for cattle, applied also to sheep and goats (6-17).
Only when the offerers had completed these two steps of atonement and dedication could they go
ahead with the feast. Even then they had first to provide the priest with his portion, which the priest,
before eating, symbolically offered to God by the ritual of waving it up and down (7:28-36; cf. Exod
29:26-28).
The offerers and their guests then joined in a joyous feast where they ate the remainder of the
sacrifice. No offerer could eat alone, because the offering was to express peace, and this was indicated in
the fellowship of people eating together. This in turn pictured the higher fellowship with God. The
offering also encouraged people to be generous and hospitable, for they were to share their meal not only
with friends and relatives, but also with the poor and needy (Deut 12:5-7,12-13).
Meat for the feast came from the sacrificial animal, but other food items, such as cakes and biscuits,
came from the daily food of the people. Though the host did not offer these additional food products on
the altar, he still had to present a portion to God. He did this by giving a portion to the priest together with
the priest’s portion of the sacrificial animal (7:11-14).
A time limit was set for this feast, possibly to ensure that the food did not spoil in the hot climate. If
the offering was a thanksgiving, a person would very likely invite a good number of friends to join and
celebrate with him; as a result the food could all be conveniently eaten in one day. But if the offering was
for a vow or was a personal freewill offering, the ceremony would be more private and the number of
people invited would be much smaller. The food could not all be eaten in one day, so the time limit was
extended to two days (7:15-18).
People had to remember at all times that the happiness of the feast did not lessen its holiness.
Therefore, all who joined in had to be ceremonially clean (7:19-21).
The sin offering: regulations (4:1-35)
Burnt offerings, cereal offerings and peace offerings were not compulsory; people made them
voluntarily to express their devotion. The sin offering, however, was compulsory whenever people
realized they had committed some (accidental) sin that broke their fellowship with God. In the other
offerings there was an element of atonement (for sin affects everything that people do), but in the sin
offering, atonement was the central issue.
The animal was killed in the usual manner and again the richest and most vital parts were burnt on
the altar as God’s portion. The special feature of the sin offering was the treatment of the blood and the
carcass. In the case of sin of the high priest (4:1-12) or of the whole nation (13-21), some blood from the
sacrifice was poured out on the altar and some was taken into the Holy Place, where it was sprinkled in
front of the veil and placed on the horns of the altar of incense. This was to show that approach to God,
previously hindered through sin, was possible again, because atonement had been made. After this the
carcass was burnt outside the camp. When people saw this being done, they knew that the ritual was over:
sin had been judged and fellowship with God was restored.
In the case of a private person (in contrast to the case of the high priest or the whole nation), the
animal’s blood and carcass were treated differently. The place where the priest met with God, and where
the nation met with God through him, was in the Holy Place at the veil that hung between the altar of
incense and the ark of the covenant. Therefore, the blood was applied there, to symbolize that through the
blood of atonement access to God was possible again (see v. 6-7). But for ordinary people, the place of
meeting with God was the altar in the court where they offered their sacrifices. The blood was therefore
applied to this altar, to symbolize atonement and renewal of fellowship with God (22-35).
No blood from the sin offering of a private person was taken into the Holy Place, and the carcass,
instead of being destroyed outside the camp, was eaten solemnly by the priests. The worshipper would
have assurance that God was satisfied and fellowship restored when he saw the same priest who offered
the sacrifice on his behalf eating part of it in the presence of God. The priest was allowed to eat the
sacrificial meat in this case, because the sin offering was not for his own sin. He could not do so when the
sin offering was for his own sin or for the sin of the nation of which he was a member (6:24-29).
A simple rule summarized the procedure for the treatment of the carcass and the blood. In those cases
where the blood was brought into the Holy Place, the carcass had to be burnt, not eaten. In those cases
where the blood was not brought into the Holy Place, the carcass had to be eaten, not burnt (6:30; 10:18).
The sin offering: its uses (5:1-13)
Sin offerings could be offered only for those sins that people committed unintentionally, such as
through carelessness, haste, accident or weakness. When people realized they were guilty of such sins,
they had to make confession and bring a sin offering (5:1-6; cf. 4:13,22,27). No sacrifice was available
for deliberate or premeditated sins (Num 15:30). The sin offering therefore showed up the weakness of
the sacrificial system. It provided only for those sins that people might have thought excusable, but
provided no way of dealing with the sins that troubled them most. (See further comment below:
‘Limitations of the offerings’.)
There were grades in the offerings made by various classes of people. The sin offering for a priest or
for the whole nation had to be a young bull (4:3,14); for a ruler, a male goat (4:23); and for the common
people, either a female goat (4:28), a female lamb (4:32), two birds (5:7), or cereal (5:11), depending on
the financial ability of the offerer. In each of the above cases there was a sin offering for atonement and
the miniature burnt offering, usually referred to as the Lord’s portion. In the case of the sin offering for a
private citizen, there was also a sacrificial meal for the priests.
In the special offering available for the poor, two birds were offered instead of one. The reason for
this was that one bird was not large enough to divide between the two parts of the ritual. The first bird
provided the blood for the atonement ritual (the sin offering), and the second was wholly burnt on the
altar (the Lord’s portion, or miniature burnt offering) (7-10).
A bloodless offering (flour) was available for those who were virtually destitute. It had to be offered
humbly and plainly, so that offerers might understand clearly that their atonement did not depend on any
trimmings they might add, but on the sacrificial blood with which the offering was mixed when placed on
the altar (11-13).
The guilt offering (5:14-6:7)
Regulations concerning the guilt offering (GNB: repayment offering) were similar to those for the sin
offering made by non-priestly individuals, except that no gradations were allowed (7:1-10; see notes on
4:22-35).
Like the sin offering, the guilt offering was offered when people realized they had committed sin
unknowingly. But the guilt offering differed from the sin offering in that it was offered in cases where the
wrongdoing involved money or things of monetary value and therefore could be measured. For example,
people may have forgotten to present firstlings or tithes, things that rightly belonged to God. In such cases
they had to pay the money or goods to the priests (God’s representatives) along with an additional twenty
percent as a fine, before presenting the guilt offering (5:14-19).
A similar rule applied in cases where people unintentionally caused others to suffer some loss of
money, goods or property. The full loss had to be paid back, along with a fine amounting to one fifth of
its value. This fine compensated the owner and punished the offender (6:1-7).
The law of the offerings (6:8-7:38)
In the section known as ‘the law of the offerings’, the additional regulations were mainly for the benefit
of the officiating priests. These regulations have already been dealt with in the discussion on the
preceding chapters. Although the present chapters list the offerings in a slightly different order from the
earlier chapters, the same five categories are dealt with: the burnt offering (6:8-13; see notes on 1:1-17),
the cereal offering (6:14-23; see notes on 2:1-16), the sin offering (6:24-30; see notes on 4:1-5:13), the
guilt offering (7:1-10; see notes on 5:14-6:7) and the peace offering (7:11-38; see notes on 3:1-17).
Limitations of the offerings
If the sin offering and the guilt offering were only for sins committed unknowingly, what were people
to do when they had knowingly done wrong and later been sorry for it? The sacrificial system showed up
sin in all its horror and taught people how serious a matter sin was, but it also showed that it had no
complete solution to the problem. None of the five categories of sacrifice was designed to provide a way
for wilful, guilty, yet repentant sinners to find acceptance with God. Guilty sinners had no right to
forgiveness. They were left with nowhere to turn except to God himself; they could do nothing but cast
themselves upon God’s mercy.
This does not mean that repentant sinners could ignore the sacrifices, as if they were of no use. The
sacrifices had been given by God and they all contained symbolic acts of atonement. In addition, a
sacrifice was offered on the Day of Atonement for the cleansing of all the sins of the people (see 16:30).
Repentant sinners could by faith cry out for mercy, realizing that God provided a way of approach to him
through these sacrifices. But the sacrifices would have defeated their purpose if people could use them to
gain automatic forgiveness without thinking of God or their own desperate spiritual need. The sacrifices
pointed beyond themselves to the mercy of God, which in every age is the only hope for sinners (Ps 51:1-
2,16-17).
Believers of Old Testament times may not have seen clearly that full cleansing could come only
through the perfect sacrifice of Jesus Christ, but they had no doubt that their salvation depended solely on
God’s grace. And on the basis of Christ’s sacrifice (which the Levitical sacrifices foreshadowed), God
exercised mercy while at the same time being righteous in forgiving those who had faith in him (Rom
3:21-26; Heb 9:23-10:4).
8:1-10:20 THE PRIESTHOOD ESTABLISHED
Ordination of the priests (8:1-36)
After giving instruction concerning the sacrifices, Moses put into practice God’s commands for the
ordination (or dedication) of the priests. (For the details and meaning of this ordination ceremony see
notes on Exodus 29:1-37.)
First Moses washed the priests, symbolizing cleansing, then clothed and anointed them, symbolizing
their appointment to office (8:1-13). (For the significance of the priests’ clothing see notes on Exodus
28:1-43.) Since the priests themselves were not free from sin, they had to carry out acts of atonement for
themselves before they could act on behalf of others. They offered a bull as a sin offering, according to
the laws laid down in the previous chapters (14-17). Once cleansed from sin, they offered a ram as a burnt
offering, dedicating themselves to God’s service (18-21).
The priests then offered a second ram in a special offering of ordination. This offering was not listed
in Chapters 1-7, as it was used only in the ceremony for ordination of the priests. Blood was applied to
the ears, hands, feet and clothing of the priests, to indicate the consecration to God of all that they were
and all that they did. They gave further demonstration of their dedication to God by taking the most
valued parts of the animal and other sacrificial food, waving them up and down in symbolic offering to
God, and then sacrificing them to him by burning them on the altar. Since Moses was acting as officiating
priest in this service, he also received his portion (22-30).
After the presentations to God and Moses, the priests received their portions, which they ate in holy
fellowship with one another and with God, as in the peace offering. The whole ceremony was repeated
seven days, giving time to think calmly and solemnly on its importance and on the life of priestly service
that lay ahead (31-36).
The priests begin their duties (9:1-24)
Immediately after the seven-day ordination period, Aaron and his sons began their duties. Before
acting as the representatives of others, they offered a sin offering for their own cleansing and a burnt
offering for their own dedication (9:1-14). After this they offered four sacrifices on behalf of Israel: a sin
offering, to indicate that the people were cleansed from sin; a burnt offering, to indicate that they were
dedicated to God; a cereal offering, to indicate that the people were thankful for his provision; and a
peace offering, to indicate that they were in close fellowship with him (15-21).
Moses then took Aaron into the tabernacle, probably to hand over to him the responsibility for the
duties to be carried on inside the tent. God showed publicly his approval of the dedication ceremony, and
the people responded by showing their humble submission to God (22-24).
Sin of Nadab and Abihu (10:1-20)
Although Aaron and his four sons had a special place in the Israelite community, they had no right to act
independently of God. When the two older sons offered fire upon the altar of incense contrary to the way
they had been instructed, they were punished with instant death (10:1-4). (Apparently the only fire
allowed on the altar of incense was that which came from the altar of burnt offering; see 16:12; Num
16:46.)
God demanded obedience and holiness in all matters connected with the service of the tabernacle.
This truth was impressed upon the people when they saw the two offenders, along with their priestly
clothes, buried outside the camp. Moses allowed no mourning for them by the other priests, as their death
was an act of God’s judgment (5-7).
Under no circumstances were God’s priests to carry out his service carelessly or in an unfit state of
mind, body or spirit (8-11). They were also to note carefully which parts of the offerings belonged to
them and how they were to eat them (12-15).
In view of these instructions, Moses was angry when he found that the portion of the people’s sin
offering that the priests should have eaten had been burnt instead (cf. 6:26; 9:3,15). Aaron replied that
because of the terrible happenings that day, his two younger sons thought it would be more acceptable to
God for them to burn their portion in sorrow than to eat it in joy. Their action was wrong but it came from
good motives. Moses, with great sympathy and understanding, saw this and said no more. No doubt God
also saw that the attitude of heart of these two brothers was vastly different from that of the former two.
They were therefore pardoned, whereas the former two were punished (16-20).
11:1-15:33 CLEANNESS AND UNCLEANNESS
Since Israel’s God was holy, Israel itself had to be holy (11:44-45). One duty of the priests was to
distinguish between what was holy and unholy, clean and unclean (10:10). This holiness was to extend to
every part of the people’s lives, including the food they ate and their bodily cleanliness. Those who broke
any of the laws of cleanliness were considered unclean and had to be ceremonially cleansed before they
could join again in the full religious life of the nation. The whole system of ritual cleanness and
uncleanness was an object lesson in sin, its results and its cleansing.
Besides having a religious purpose, the laws ensured that the nation as a whole would be as
physically healthy as possible. The laws prevented people from eating foods that could be harmful,
ensured that diseases received proper attention, and limited the chances of infectious diseases spreading
through the camp. The laws also prevented Israelites from mixing too freely with people of surrounding
nations, and thereby helped preserve the purity of Israel’s religion.
Concerning animals (11:1-47)
In reading these laws, we should remember that they were given to a people few in number, living in
a hot and very small country, in an age when scientific knowledge as we know it today was not possible.
The laws were not meant to govern the lives of all people in every country or every age (Acts 10:13-15;
Rom 14:14,20; 1 Cor 10:31; 1 Tim 4:4).
Groupings of animals as those that ‘chew the cud’, ‘have divided hoofs’, ‘have fins and scales’, etc.
were not intended to be scientific classifications. Rather they were a simple means of identifying the
various kinds of animals to be met in the region where Israel lived. Most of the animals here called
unclean lived in places or fed on foods likely to contain germs. They could easily pass diseases on to any
who ate their flesh (11:1-23).
Any person who touched the dead body of an animal was considered unclean till evening. In other
words the person was quarantined till cleansed of possible disease-carrying germs (24-28; cf. Num
19:11- 22).
In the case of lifeless objects that came in contact with anything dead, the treatment depended on how
readily those objects could be washed or otherwise cleansed. If full cleansing was not possible, such as
with earthenware pots, the object had to be destroyed (29-33). People had to be particularly careful
concerning drinking water that was kept in earthenware pots, but a spring or well was usually considered
safe since it had a constant supply of fresh water (34-40).
The section concludes with a reminder that these laws, though they brought obvious health benefits,
were concerned basically with keeping the people holy before God. The covenant people of God were to
be disciplined in what they ate and how they lived. They had to learn to choose the good and refuse the
bad, if they were to maintain their lives in a right relation with him (41-47).
Concerning childbirth (12:1-8)
One consequence of Eve’s sin that affected women in general was the trouble and pain of childbirth
(Gen 3:16). The process of conceiving and giving birth was affected by sin from the beginning (Ps 51:5),
which is probably the reason why Israelite law required the mother to be ceremonially cleansed after
childbirth.
If the child born was a boy, the mother was cut off from physical contact with members of her family
for seven days, and from all things religious for forty days. If the child born was a girl, the time of
uncleanness in each case was doubled. This also was probably related to the consequences of Eve’s sin on
those of her sex. Boys were circumcised when eight days old (12:1-5; for the significance of circumcision
see Gen 17:9-14).
When the time of her ceremonial uncleanness was over, the mother indicated her dedication to God
by offering a burnt offering, and her cleansing and restoration by offering a sin offering. If she could not
afford the animal that was normally required for the burnt offering, she could offer a bird instead (6-8; cf.
Luke 2:21-24).
Detection of leprosy (13:1-59)
Biblical scholars and medical scientists alike have shown that the leprosy the Old Testament speaks
of was not always the disease that we know as leprosy today. The word had a broad meaning that covered
a number of infectious skin diseases, some of which were curable. It applied even to fungus or mildew on
clothes and buildings.
 Laws laid down in these chapters concerned two main things. Firstly, because such disease was
symbolic of sin, it made people ceremonially unclean and unable to join in the religious activities of the
community till they were healed and ceremonially cleansed. Secondly, the public health had to be
protected by separating infected people from the camp and destroying anything that might carry the
disease to others.
These chapters are not concerned with the treatment of the disease. Instructions outlined here were
for priests, not for doctors. Priests had the responsibility to see that holiness was maintained in the camp,
and this holiness was inseparable from ordinary health and cleanliness. These laws helped the priests
detect the disease in its early stages and so prevent infection from spreading.
People were to report any suspicious looking skin infection to the priests, who then quarantined the
patient till they were sure whether the disease was dangerous. If it proved to be leprosy, the person was
not merely quarantined but was put out of the camp (13:1-11; see v. 45-46). Cases may have arisen where
a person could have appeared to be getting leprosy, but the suspected disease later proved to be something
else. In fact, it may even have healed itself (12-17). Any boil or inflammation had to be investigated (18-
28); also any itches, skin spots or falling out of the hair (29-44). If someone was found to be carrying an
infectious disease, the person was excluded from the camp (45-46).
Mildew was often a problem in damp or humid weather, and the law of Moses set out regulations to
counter its harmful effects. Any clothing found to contain mildew had to be brought to the priests for
examination (47-49). Affected clothing had to be washed, and if that did not remove the problem, it had
to be destroyed (50-59).
Restoration after healing (14:1-32)
A lengthy ritual was laid down for the restoration of a cleansed leper or any other person who had
been healed of an infectious skin disease. The ritual lasted more than a week, and began at the place
where the person was temporarily living outside the camp (14:1-3; cf. v. 10).
The cleansed person, previously ‘dead’ through his disease, symbolized his ‘death’ by killing a bird,
symbolized his cleansing by draining the bird’s blood into a bowl of pure water, and symbolized his new
life of freedom by releasing a second bird, which had been stained with the blood of the first. The priest
then sprinkled some of the blood seven times on the cleansed person, using a brush made of hyssop
bound to a cedarwood handle with red cord. One reason why the bird’s blood was dropped into the bowl
of water was to ‘expand’ it, because the amount of blood from one bird was not by itself enough for all
the ritual (4-7).
Washing and shaving completed the cleansing ritual for the first day. The person was then allowed to
return to the camp, but not yet to visit his own tent (8-9).
After waiting outside his tent for a week, the cleansed person offered sacrifices at the tabernacle and
was re-admitted to the full fellowship of Israel. Since he had not been able to fulfil his religious
responsibilities during the time of his isolation from from the tabernacle, he first offered a guilt offering
in repayment. The priest then applied some of the sacrificial blood, along with holy oil, to the person’s
head, hand and foot, symbolizing the person’s total rededication to the service of God (10-18). This was
followed by the presentation of a sin offering, a burnt offering and a cereal offering (19-20). The person
who was too poor to afford animals for the sin offering and burnt offering could offer birds instead,
though the cleansing ritual itself followed the usual pattern (21-32).
Mildew in houses (14:33-57)
Instructions were also given concerning what people were to do when, upon settling in Canaan, they
lived in houses where mildew and fungus on the walls attracted disease-carrying germs. First they were to
arrange for the priest to make a thorough inspection (33-36). If, after a week’s quarantine, the trouble
persisted, the owners of the house were to remove and replace infected plaster and stones (37-42). If this
did not cure the trouble, they had to demolish the house (43-47). The ritual for the rededication of a
cleansed house was similar to that for the rededication of a cleansed person (48-57).
Discharges from sexual organs (15:1-33)
Strict precautions were to be taken when a man was found to have venereal disease or some other
infection connected with his sexual organs, to prevent the infection spreading to others (15:1-12). After
apparent healing, the man had to wait a further week to ensure he was fully healed. He then carried out
cleansing rites, offering a sin offering and a burnt offering (13-15).
After sexual intercourse, ceremonial uncleanness remained only till evening and was removed by
bathing (16-18). A woman was ceremonially unclean for seven days during her normal menstruation, and
again it seems that the uncleanness was removed by bathing (19-24). If she suffered from abnormal or
lengthy discharge, she was not ceremonially clean till seven days after her return to normal health. In this
case a sin offering and a burnt offering were also required (25-33).
16:1-17:16 THE BLOOD OF ATONEMENT
Day of Atonement: introduction (16:1-10)
God’s dramatic judgment on Aaron’s two sons (see 10:1-7) showed clearly that the priests needed to
act with care and reverence in everything they did, especially inside the tabernacle (that is, in the Holy
Place). This chapter goes on to explain that only the high priest could enter the inner sanctuary (the Most
Holy Place), and then only once a year, on the Day of Atonement.
Although the regular rituals dealt with sin in various ways, the people were still not perfect and their
sacrifices not fully effective. Even the best offerings did not enable the offerers to come into the presence
of their God, not even through their representative, the high priest. Therefore, on this one day of the year
when entrance into God’s presence was available, all the sins of the previous year were brought before
God for his forgiveness and removal, so that the people, through their priestly representative, could enter
his presence unhindered.
But the priests also were sinners, and had to make atonement for themselves before they could make
it on behalf of others (cf. Heb 9:7). The regulations for the day’s proceedings begin by specifying the
animals needed (16:1-5) and outlining the main offerings, namely, a sin offering for the priests (6;
explained in detail in v. 11-14), and a two-part sin offering for the people (7-10; explained in detail in v.
15-22).
Day of Atonement: sacrifices (16:11-22)
Aaron sacrificed the priests’ sin offering at the altar in the tabernacle courtyard, then took fire from this
altar along with blood from the sacrifice into the tabernacle (that is, into the tent). He used the fire to
burn incense on the golden altar that stood in the Holy Place against the curtain dividing the Holy Place
from the Most Holy Place. As he drew back this curtain to enter the Most Holy Place, incense from the
altar floated through the open curtain and covered the mercy seat (the lid of the ark, the covenant box),
the symbolic dwelling place of God. Aaron then sprinkled the blood of the sacrificial animal on and in
front of the mercy seat (11-14).
This sprinkling of the blood on the mercy seat reminded the Israelites that mercy, God’s mercy, was
their only hope for salvation. In spite of all their sacrifices and other rituals, when they at last reached the
climax of their highest religious exercise, they could do nothing but acknowledge that they were helpless
sinners, dependent entirely on God’s mercy for their forgiveness.
After completing the ritual for the priests’ sin offering, Aaron came out of the tabernacle-tent into the
open courtyard. He offered the people’s sin offering on the altar of sacrifice, and returned into the Most
Holy Place with the sacrificial blood to repeat the ritual at the mercy seat. Since everything that human
beings have contact with is affected by their sin, the blood of the people’s sin offering was used also to
make atonement for all parts of the tabernacle that any person had touched (15-19; cf. Heb 9:21-22).
The people’s sin offering consisted of not one goat but two. After sacrificing the first goat and applying
its blood inside the tabernacle-tent, Aaron returned to the courtyard to carry out the ritual with the
second goat. He laid his hands on its head, confessed over it the sins of the people, and sent it far away
into the wilderness to a place from which it could not return. This was apparently a further picture to
the people that their sins had been laid on an innocent victim and taken far away from them (20-22).
Although the blood ritual of the annual Day of Atonement had meaning to the Israelite people of Old
Testament times, it was still only a shadow or outline of the reality that was to come through Jesus Christ
(Heb 7:19; 10:1). For the way in which it pictured the sacrificial death of Christ, and for the contrast
between its limitations and the perfection of the atoning work of Christ, see Hebrews 9:6-14,23-28.
Day of Atonement: other details (16:23-34)
Until now the high priest was clothed in the plain white clothes of the ordinary priests (see v. 4). This
may have been to emphasize to him the need for humility and the importance of purity in all his
representative actions in the ritual of sin-cleansing. Now that atonement for sin had been made, he bathed
himself, put on his normal high priestly clothes and offered burnt offerings of consecration, first for the
priests, then for the people. All others whose duties brought them into contact with the sin offering during
the ritual had likewise to cleanse themselves (23-28).
As for the Israelite people as a whole, they were to participate in this solemn act of confession and
atonement in a fitting spirit of shame and humility. It seems that on that day they were to do no work and
eat no food (29-34).
Sacredness of blood (17:1-16)
The blood ritual of the Day of Atonement shows the importance of animal blood in God’s sight. The
blood of the animal signified the death of the animal. Therefore, when Israelites wanted to kill animals
from their flocks or herds to obtain meat, they were not to slaughter the animals thoughtlessly, but bring
them to the tabernacle altar and kill them as peace offering. Thus, besides getting their meat, they
acknowledged God in an act of worship. An additional benefit of this regulation was that it prevented the
killing of animals in the open fields, where the Israelites might be tempted to follow the Egyptian custom
of offering animals to satyrs (goat-like demons) (17:1-7).
When Israelites killed animals not for meat but solely as religious sacrifices, they could carry out the
killing only at the tabernacle altar (8-9). Later, when they settled in Canaan, the laws concerning killing
animals for meat were adjusted to suit the new circumstances (see notes on Deut 12:15-28).
God gave animal flesh to humankind as food, but in taking animal life people had to acknowledge
God as the rightful owner of that life. Because an animal’s shed blood represented its life that had been
taken, people were not to eat or drink it (cf. Gen 9:3-4). They were to pour the blood out either at the altar
(in the case of animals suitable for sacrifice) or on the ground (in the case of animals not suitable for
sacrifice). This was an act of sacrificial thanks to God for the benefit he allowed at the cost of the
animal’s life. Yet so amazing is the grace of God that, having forbidden people to use the shed blood of
animals in any way for their own benefit, God gave that blood to them as a means of making atonement
for their sins (10-14).
On occasions people may have eaten, perhaps unknowingly, of flesh from which the blood had not
been properly drained. In such cases they were considered unclean for the rest of the day, but they
suffered no other penalty, provided they carried out the required cleansing ritual (15-16).
18:1-22:33 PRACTICAL HOLINESS
Sexual relationships (18:1-30)
Moral standards in the ancient world were low, a fact well illustrated by the list of sexual perversions
given in this chapter. In Egypt the Israelites had seen these things practised all around them, and in
Canaan, to which they were travelling, the moral filth was even greater; so great, in fact, that it was
incurable. As at the time of the Flood, God saw that the only solution was to destroy the entire population
(18:1-5).
The sexual unions (RSV: ‘the uncovering of the nakedness’) forbidden here are contrary to the decent
relationships expected in a family. Sexual unions between parents and children, brothers and sisters, in
laws and in-laws, could result only from unnatural and uncontrolled lust. If allowed to go unchecked,
such behaviour would eventually ruin marriage, family and society (6-18).
Other perversions were also forbidden, such as homosexuality, sexual unions between humans and
animals, and the offering of one’s children either as burnt sacrifices or as religious prostitutes (19-23).
(Molech was an Ammonite god to whom people sometimes offered children as burnt sacrifices; see 1
Kings 11:5-7; 2 Chron 28:1-3; Jer 7:31; 32:35.) The opening warning concerning the destruction of all
who practise such things is repeated, with an added reminder to the Israelites that they would suffer the
fate of the Canaanites if they ignored God’s moral instruction (24-30).
Miscellaneous matters (19:1-37)
Probably the miscellaneous laws collected here were decisions or warnings given by Moses in cases
where there was some doubt about what was right or wrong. Often all that was needed was a reminder of
existing laws; for example, those concerning respect for parents, Sabbath-keeping, worship of idols and
eating of sacrificial food (19:1-8).
When harvesting, farmers were always to leave something for the poor (9-10). Employers had to pay
wages promptly, and judges had to be impartial and free of corruption. People in general were to avoid
stealing, lying, and exploiting the disadvantaged (11-15). They were to love each other, avoid gossip and
exercise forgiveness (16-18).
 Israelites were warned not to copy superstitious customs concerning cattle-breeding, farming and
weaving that the heathen believed would increase productivity. They were to follow God and trust his
ordering of nature (19). A man could not treat a slave-girl as if she had no rights, and if he took advantage
of her he was to be punished (20-22). Farmers were to use wise farming methods to obtain the best
possible results, but they were still required to offer the firstfruits to God before enjoying the produce
themselves (23-25).
Another short list outlaws further superstitious practices that the heathen thought brought good luck.
These included the cutting of the hair or beard into certain shapes and the making of cuttings or tattoos on
the body (26-28; cf. 1 Kings 18:28). All forms of prostitution, fortune-telling and witchcraft were
forbidden (29-31; cf. 2 Kings 21:6). People were to respect the elderly, help foreign travellers and
refugees, and be honest in all their business dealings (32-37; cf. Amos 8:4-6).
Penalties for wrongdoing (20:1-27)
The law now sets out penalties for the more serious offences outlined in Chapters 18 and 19. People
who offered their children to the gods were to be stoned to death (20:1-5; for Molech see note on 18:21).
Those who looked for guidance through witchcraft were guilty of rebellion against God and were to be
punished by being cut off from the life of the community. A person who consulted the spirits of the dead
was to be killed (6-9,27).
Most of the perverse sexual unions mentioned in Chapter 18 were also punishable by death (10-21).
The Israelites had to be holy before God, and this meant they had to separate themselves from the sinful
practices of the Canaanites. If they failed in this, God would destroy them as he would the Canaanites
(22-27).
Rules concerning priests (21:1-22:16)
Priests carried a heavy responsibility in acting on the people’s behalf in offering their sacrifices, and
therefore they had to guard against ceremonial uncleanness. They were to have nothing to do with the
burial of the dead, except in the case of close relatives, and were not to make public show of their sorrow
by disfiguring themselves. They and their families were to be blameless in all things moral (21:1-9).
Rules for the high priest were even stricter than those for the ordinary priests. He was not to touch
any dead body at all, nor to show the most ordinary signs of mourning. In fact, he was not even to cease
his duties temporarily to show respect for the dead (10-15).
A priest with any physical defects could not act as the people’s representative in offering sacrifices.
However, since the defects were not the result of his own doing, he was still allowed to enjoy the benefits
of the sacrifices (16-24).
If a priest became ceremonially unclean by any means whatever, he was not to have contact with the
holy things of God till he had been ceremonially cleansed (22:1-9). The part of the sacrificial food that
became the priest’s portion was to be eaten only by the priest’s immediate family and those slaves who
were considered permanent members of his household. Visitors, neighbours, hired workers and any of his
children who married and set up house elsewhere were not allowed to eat the sacrificial food. Should a
person eat such food unknowingly, he had to replace it, adding a fifth to it as a fine for his mistake (10-
16).
Animals for sacrifice (22:17-33)
All animals offered in sacrifice to God had to be the best available. The only exception concerned the
freewill offering, for in that case the state of the animal was an indication of the offerer’s state of heart
(17-25).
Sacrificial animals had to be at least a week old, to ensure that they were normal and healthy. When
people made sacrifices, they were to have sympathy for the innocent animals that lost their lives. For this
reason a mother animal was not to be killed on the same day as her young (26-30). As always, the
Israelites’ behaviour was to reflect the holiness of the God who had redeemed them and now dwelt among
them (31-33).
23:1-27:34 SPECIAL OCCASIONS
God’s holy days (23:1-3)
There were three main feasts, or festivals, of the Israelite religious year: Passover-Unleavened Bread
and Pentecost-Harvest Firstfruits at the beginning of the year, and Tabernacles-Ingathering half way
through the year. On these three occasions all the men of Israel were to assemble at the central place of
worship (Exod 23:14-17). People participated in these feasts with a mixture of solemnity and joy. They
were humbled before God, yet thankful to him for his merciful salvation and never-failing provision
(23:1-2).
Before God gave his people the details of these festivals, he reminded them that the most basic of all
their special religious days was the weekly Sabbath of holy rest. In the excitement of the annual festivals,
the people were not to forget their regular weekly obligations (3).
Feasts at the beginning of the year (23:4-22)
The Israelite religious year began with the month that celebrated the Passover and the escape from
Egypt (Exod 12:2). This was the season of spring in Israel and corresponds with March-April on our
calendar. (It seems that Israelites also had a secular calendar, which differed from the religious calendar
by six months. This means that the first month of the religious calendar was the seventh month of the
secular calendar, and the beginning of the seventh month of the religious calendar was New Year on the
secular calendar.)
On the fourteenth day of the first month was the Passover, which commemorated God’s act of ‘passing
over’ the houses of Israel when the firstborn throughout Egypt were killed (4-5; see notes on Exod 12:1-
14). Immediately after the Passover was the seven-day Feast of Unleavened Bread. This was in
remembrance of the people’s hurried departure from Egypt, when they had no time to bake their bread
leavened but carried their dough and baking pans with them, baking as they went (6-8; see notes on Exod
12:15-36).
At this time the barley was ripe and ready to harvest. (The wheat was not ready till a few weeks later.)
Therefore, on the day after the first day of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, a sheaf of the firstfruits of the
barley harvest was presented to the priests and waved up and down in offering to God. This was the
people’s acknowledgment to God that he had given the harvest that they were about to reap (9-11).
On the same day as they presented the sheaf offering, the people also presented animal sacrifices.
They sought forgiveness for their sins through a sin offering, and in gratitude to God for his gifts they
consecrated themselves to him afresh through a burnt offering. They also acknowledged his care and
provision in general by presenting a cereal offering and a wine offering taken from their daily household
food (12-13; Num 28:16-25). Only after they acknowledged the whole harvest as belonging to God were
they allowed to gain benefit from it for themselves (14).
During the next six weeks people were busy harvesting, first the barley and then the wheat. At the
end of the wheat harvest they offered to God two loaves of bread such as they ate in their normal meals,
as an expression of gratitude to him for their daily food. They also sacrificed a sin offering and a burnt
offering as at the time of the barley firstfruits, and, in addition, a peace offering. Because this was a
harvest festival, the holy worship was accompanied by much rejoicing (15-21; Num 28:26-31).
This festival was known by different names. Falling as it did on the fiftieth day after Passover, it was
sometimes called the Feast of Pentecost (‘pentecost’ meaning ‘fiftieth’). It was also called the Feast of
Weeks (being a week of weeks after the offering of the barley firstfruits), the Feast of Firstfruits and the
Feast of Harvest.
Since this festival marked the end of the harvest season, a reminder was given not to be selfish when
reaping, but to leave some grain for the poor (22; cf. Deut 16:9-12).
Mid-year festival season (23:23-44)
The first day of the seventh month (somewhere during September-October on our calendar) was the
Day of Trumpets. On this occasion the people were called together for a religious ceremony by the
blowing of trumpets, the purpose of the ceremony being to prepare the people for the solemn cleansing of
sin that followed ten days later on the Day of Atonement (23-32; see notes on 16:1-34).
A further five days later, on the fifteenth day of the month, was the start of the week-long Feast of
Tabernacles (RSV: Feast of Booths; GNB: Festival of Shelters). On this occasion the people lived in
booths (huts or shelters) made of branches of trees and palm leaves in memory of their time in the
wilderness. This feast was also called the Feast of Ingathering, for it marked the end of the agricultural
year, when all the grapes, olives, dates, figs and other produce of the land had been gathered in. It was a
joyous festival, as all Israel rejoiced in thanksgiving before God for his blessing on all their farming
activity (33-44; Deut 16:13-15; for details see Num 29:12-38).
 The people were now well stocked with food for the winter months that lay ahead. During winter the
rains came, and soon the people began sowing and planting for the next annual cycle.
Reverence for God (24:1-23)
Further instructions are given to remind the Israelites of their daily and weekly responsibilities in
relation to the Holy Place. To begin with the people had to supply the oil so that the priests could keep the
lamp burning continually (24:1-4). The priests also had to make sure that twelve cakes of ‘presence
bread’, renewed weekly, were on the table before the Lord continually. This was possibly to symbolize
that the nation Israel, which consisted of twelve tribes, lived continually in the presence of God and
received its provision from him (5-9; cf. Exod 25:23-30).
A quarrel that arose in the camp resulted in one of the parties cursing the holy name of God. This was
not merely bad language, but speech that showed an irreverent and rebellious spirit towards God, possibly
influenced by attitudes brought from Egypt. Moses did not act hastily in punishing the offender, but
waited for God to show him what to do (10-12).
God’s judgment was that any person, regardless of nationality, who was heard cursing his name should
be stoned to death. The public participation of the accusers in the execution would impress upon
them that they could not make accusations lightly. They had to be absolutely certain that the person was
guilty (13-16).
The principle that God laid down as the basis of judgment, in civil as in religious offences, was that
the punishment had to be in proportion to the crime. It was never to take the form of revenge and was
never to be in excess of the wrong that had been done (17-23; see notes on Exod 21:22-27).
Sabbatical and jubilee years (25:1-34)
When the Israelites conquered Canaan and divided it among their tribes and families, they were not to
be selfish or greedy in their use of the land. Just as people and their working animals were to rest one day
in seven, so the land was to rest one year in seven. The lack of cultivation during this seventh or
sabbatical year gave people the opportunity to recognize in a special way that God was the rightful owner
of the land. At the same time it gave the land the opportunity to renew its powers of reproduction (25:1-7;
cf. Exod 23:10-11).
After seven lots of seven years there was an additional sabbath year called the jubilee, or fiftieth year
(GNB: the Year of Restoration). In this year all land that had been sold or otherwise changed hands
during the previous fifty years returned to the original owner. This helped maintain the fairness of the
original distribution of the land. It prevented the poor from losing their family property permanently, and
prevented the rich from gaining control of the whole land (8-12).
In view of the return of all land to the original owner in the fiftieth year, the sale price had to be
reduced from its original value, so that it was proportionate to the number of years that remained till the
fiftieth year. People were to be honest in their buying and selling of land, and not cheat each other (13-
17).
People had no reason to fear a shortage of food during the sabbatical and jubilee years. Whatever grew of
itself during the ‘rest’ years was sufficient for the poor and for the flocks and herds (see v. 6,7,12; Exod
23:10-11). In addition God would bless every sixth year with double, and the forty-eighth year with
triple, the normal produce. This would ensure enough food throughout the sabbatical and jubilee years
(18-22). The people were not to act as if they owned the land and could do as they liked with it. God was
the owner; they were merely tenants (23-24).
If people needed money they could sell their land, but as soon as possible either they or a close
relative had to buy it back (redeem it). The price again depended on how many years remained till the
next jubilee, when normally they would receive all their land back free (25-28).
These laws for the return of land in the year of jubilee applied to all land in the country regions, such
as farm and pastoral land, country villages, and districts where the Levites lived and kept their flocks. The
only place where they did not apply was in the walled cities, where houses were close together and
occupied very little land. The interests of such people were usually commercial and had nothing to do
with the cultivation of the land and its ‘rest’ years (29-34; cf. v. 15-16).
Sympathetic treatment of others (25:35-55)
Because all Israel existed in a special relation to God, Israelites were not to take advantage of each
other. They could lend money to those in need, but were not to charge interest (35-38). They could give
employment to those who wished to work for them to repay debts, but they could not make such people
permanent slaves as they could foreigners (39-46).
When Israelites sold themselves as slaves to resident foreigners to repay debts, their relatives had to
make every effort to buy them back. They were to do so fairly by paying the equivalent of a labourer’s
wages for the period from the day of the transaction to the year of jubilee, when normally slaves would be
released. Masters were to consider their slaves’ well-being and not treat them harshly (47-55).
Promises and warnings (26:1-46)
God reminded the people to put into practice all they had been taught concerning him, his sabbaths
and his sanctuary (26:1-2). Obedience would bring agricultural prosperity, social contentment, victory
over enemies, and a comforting sense of God’s presence (3-13). Disobedience would bring widespread
disease, defeat by enemies, drought and destruction, till they awoke to their sin and turned again to God
(14-20).
If the people failed to respond, God would increase their disasters, sending against them fierce
enemies who would starve them to death, butcher them with the sword, devastate their cities and take
them captive into other countries (21-33). If the people refused to rest the land every seventh year, God
would force them to rest it by allowing foreign invaders to carry them into exile. Their land would then
lie desolate and waste (34-39; cf. 2 Chron 36:20-21; Jer 34:13-22). When finally they turned in
confession to God, he would bring them back to their land according to the covenant he made with them
(40-46).
Valuations for things vowed (27:1-34)
People often vowed things to God out of gratitude for his goodness to them, usually in some crisis
they had met. If the offering vowed was a person, this person was not to be offered in sacrifice but was to
be redeemed, or bought back, by the payment of money to the sanctuary. The amount to be paid was
estimated by the priests according to the usefulness of the person offered. The priests were to give special
consideration to a poor person who could not pay the amount estimated (27:1-8).
Concerning the vowing of animals to God, if a person vowed a clean animal (that is, an animal
eligible for sacrifice), he could not redeem it. He had either to offer the animal in sacrifice or give it to the
priests, who could either keep it or sell it. All money from sales went into the sanctuary treasury. If any
person, after vowing one thing, tried to offer something else instead, he lost both (9-10).
When a person vowed an unclean animal (that is, an animal not eligible for sacrifice, such as a camel
or an ass), he had to give it to the priests, who again could either put it to work or sell it. Alternatively, the
person who vowed it could buy it back at an estimated price, but he had to add a fine of one fifth of the
animal’s value, because he kept for himself something he had vowed to God (11-13). Similar laws
applied in the case of a vowed house (14-15).
Arrangements for a person who vowed land were much the same. If he wished to buy it back, the value
depended on the number of years to the year of jubilee, when normally all land would return to the
original owner. If the person who vowed the land did not buy it back, or if he sold it after vowing it, it did
not return to him in the year of jubilee. It became the permanent property of the sanctuary (16-21). If the
land a person vowed was not his originally and was not bought back by him after he vowed it, it returned
to the original owner at the year of jubilee (22-25).
Firstlings of clean animals could not be vowed to God, since they were his already (Exod 13:2).
Firstlings of unclean animals could be vowed, then either bought back by the offerer or sold by the priests
as in normal cases (26-27). Anything that was devoted to God for destruction could not be vowed,
redeemed or sold (28-29).
The tithe (i.e. one tenth) of all produce and animals belonged to God. It could be kept for personal
use only by payment of its value to the sanctuary, along with the usual fine (30-34).
Numbers
BACKGROUND
At the point where the book of Numbers opens, the people of Israel had been camped at Mount Sinai
almost one year. During that time God had been preparing them for the life ahead by instructing them in
the kind of religious, moral and social order he required of them as his covenant people. (For details see
 introductory notes to Leviticus.) The time had now come for the people to leave Sinai and head for the
promised land, Canaan. The book of Numbers details the preparations for the journey, outlines certain
regulations that the people had to follow, and describes significant events that occurred along the way.
A nation in the wilderness
On two occasions between the people of Israel’s departure from Egypt and entrance into Canaan,
Moses conducted an official counting, or census, of the nation. These two census are recorded in the book
of Numbers, and from them the book takes its name.
The first census, at the beginning of the book, helped Israel prepare an army for the conquest of
Canaan. Although the journey to Canaan should have taken only a few weeks, it actually took about forty
years. The reason for this was that the people rebelled against God by refusing to trust him for victory,
whereupon God left them in the wilderness till that generation died off and a new generation grew up.
The second census, which is towards the end of the book, was therefore forty years after the first, its
purpose being to organize the new generation for the conquest of Canaan.
Since the two census represent only a small portion of the book, the English title ‘Numbers’ does not
give a true indication of the book’s contents. The Hebrew title ‘In the Wilderness’ is probably more
suitable, as the book covers the journey from Sinai to the borders of Canaan, and much of this journey
was through wilderness country. Most of the stories recorded in Numbers are concerned with this journey.
The book gives very little information concerning the forty wasted years when Israel was not journeying,
but ‘wandering’, in the wilderness (Num 32:13).
OUTLINE
1:1-10:10 Preparations for the journey
10:11-14:45 From Sinai to Kadesh
15:1-19:22 Lessons at Kadesh
20:1-22:1 From Kadesh to the plains of Moab
22:2-32:42 Events on the plains of Moab
33:1-36:13 Preparation for entrance into Canaan
1:1-10:10 PREPARATIONS FOR THE JOURNEY
A military census (1:1-54)
Before leaving Sinai, Moses took a census of the number of men available for military service, so that
he could plan and prepare for the battles that lay ahead. Twelve of Israel’s leading men, one from each
tribe, helped him carry out the work (1:1-16). The census was no doubt carried out over several weeks,
and was finished twenty days before the people left Sinai (17-46; cf. 10:11).
The Levites were not included in this census, as they were not required for military service. Their
duty was to transport and look after the tabernacle, setting it up when the people camped and taking it
down when they were ready to move on. For this reason, the Levites camped around the tabernacle, and
the other twelve tribes camped farther out according to the plan described in the following chapters (47-
54).
Plans for camping and marching (2:1-34)
In setting up a camp, the Israelites arranged themselves in four groups of three, one group on each of
the four sides of the tabernacle. Each of these four groups had a flag bearing the name of the senior tribe
in the group. The group on the eastern side was under the flag of Judah, and when the people journeyed
this group went first (2:1-9). The group on the southern side was under the flag of Reuben, and this group
had second place in the procession (10-16).
Next in the march came Levi, carrying the tabernacle. The tabernacle and the tribe that looked after it
were therefore central in the march just as they were central in the camp, emphasizing that God was
always in the midst of his people (17). The group under Ephraim, which camped on the west side of the
tabernacle, came behind the tabernacle in the procession (18-24), and the group under Dan, which
camped on the north side of the tabernacle, came last (25-31). There were special arrangements for the
Levites (32-34; see 3:14-39).
The importance of the Levites (3:1-51)
Details are now given concerning the position of the Levites in the camp and the duties given to them.
Although all Levites were God’s special servants, the only Levites who were priests were those
 descended from Aaron. The writer therefore gives details of Aaron’s family (3:1-4). The Levites
maintained the tabernacle and helped the priests in the religious ceremonies, but only Aaron and his sons
did the priestly work itself (5-10; cf. 1 Chron 23:3-
5,24-32).
Because God preserved Israel’s firstborn during
the Passover judgment in Egypt, those firstborn
became his special possession. But for the service of
the tabernacle, God took the whole tribe of Levi as
his special possession instead of those who had
been spared in the Passover judgment (11-13).
In counting the Levites, Moses divided them
into three sections according to the three families
descended from Levi’s three sons, Gershon, Kohath
and Merari (14-20; cf. Exod 6:16). The Levites
camped on the four sides of the tabernacle in the
area between the tabernacle and the other tribes (see
1:53).
The Gershon group camped on the west side of
the tabernacle and looked after most of the curtains
and hangings (21-26). The Kohath group camped on
the south side and had care of the tabernacle’s most
sacred objects – the furniture, the vessels and the
curtain (or veil) that separated the Holy Place from
the Most Holy Place (27-32). The Merari group
camped on the north side and had responsibility for
all the timber and metal parts belonging to the
tabernacle framework and the fence that surrounded
the court (33-37). Moses, Aaron and the priests
camped on the east side of the tabernacle in front of
the entrance and had responsibility for all the
ceremonies (38-39).
From the census Moses learnt that there were 22,273 firstborn but only 22,000 Levites. Since the
firstborn were replaced by Levites on a one-for-one basis, this meant that 273 firstborn still had not been
replaced. They still belonged to God. They therefore had to be bought back from God, or redeemed, by a
payment of money to God’s representatives, the priests (40-51).
Some duties of the Levites (4:1-49)
Moses then took a special census of Levites, but this time counted only those aged between thirty and
fifty, for only those in this age group did the actual work (4:1-3). The work detailed here concerned
taking down the tabernacle and packing it for transport. (Further details are given in 7:1-11.)
The priests themselves packed the furniture and other sacred articles, for not even the Kohathites who
carried them were allowed to see or touch them. A covering of soft cloth protected the articles from
scratching, and a further covering of animal skin protected them from the weather. All articles were
carried on either poles or boards. The ark had a special outer covering of blue so that all could see it
prominently in the procession (4-20).
After the furniture and vessels were removed from the tabernacle, the curtains and hangings were
taken down. These were carried by the Gershonites (21-28). The framework and foundations were then
taken apart and packed ready for carrying by the Merarites (29-33).
Aaron’s eldest surviving son Eleazar, who was in charge of all the Levites, supervised the whole
work. He took direct control of the Kohathites, since they carried the most holy things. His younger
brother Ithamar controlled the Gershonites and Merarites (see 3:32; 4:16,28,33). The writer then records
the number of working men in the three Levitical groups (34-49).
Laws for uncleanness and repayment (5:1-10)
The laws grouped together in Chapter 5 deal with problems likely to arise where people lived close to
each other in a community such as Israel’s. People who were ceremonially unclean, whether through
disease or any other cause, were put outside the camp. The religious significance of this was that it
demonstrated that defilement could not be tolerated in a community where the holy God dwelt. The
practical benefit was that it helped prevent the spread of infectious disease (5:1-4; see notes on Lev 13:1-
15:33).
When people through carelessness caused harm or loss to others, they had to confess their wrong,
present a sin offering and pay back the loss, together with a fine amounting to one fifth of its value. If the
wronged person or a near relative could not be found, the offender had to make the repayment and the
fine to the priests instead (5-10; see notes on Lev 5:14-6:7).
Suspicion of adultery (5:11-31)
If a man suspected his wife of having sexual relations with another man but he had no evidence, he
had to bring her to the priest, along with a small sin offering, to determine whether she was guilty (11-15;
cf. Lev 5:11). The test that the priest conducted was known as a trial by ordeal.
The priest announced the curse that rested on an unfaithful wife, wrote this curse down in ink, then
washed the ink into a bowl of holy water that also contained dust taken from the tabernacle floor. The
woman acknowledged the curse by taking the sin offering in her hands and swearing an oath. Then the
priest offered the offering, after which the woman drank the water (16-26).
Such a ritual must have had great emotional effect, for by drinking the water the woman was taking
into herself symbols of God’s holy presence (dust from the tabernacle floor) and his curse on sin (the ink).
But the innocent had nothing to fear, because the water was only slightly dirty and would not normally
cause any illness. If, however, the woman was suddenly attacked by violent pains, it showed she was
guilty (27-31).
Many ancient peoples (including, it seems, Israel) used trials by ordeal to determine guilt or
innocence for a variety of offences. God took this well known custom, purified it from the idolatry and
injustice that usually characterized it, and used it to impress upon his people the purity and faithfulness he
required in the marriage bond. Heathen trials by ordeal were mostly cruel and certain to bring a verdict of
guilt unless the most unlikely happened. By contrast, the Israelite trial described here was physically
harmless and in no way biased against the accused.
Nazirite vows (6:1-21)
The name Nazirite is not to be confused with Nazarene (the name for a citizen of Nazareth). It comes
from the Hebrew word nazir, whose meaning indicates that a Nazirite vow was one of separation. People
could make such a vow if they wanted to declare openly that they had set themselves apart to God for a
certain period to do some particular service (6:1-2).
Nazirites expressed their commitment to their vow by submitting to three specific requirements. By
refusing wine and anything likely to produce it, they showed their temporary refusal of the enjoyments of
life. At the same time they ensured they would not lose control of themselves through drunkenness. By
letting their hair grow, they made it clear to the general public that they were living under the conditions
of the vow. By not touching anything dead, they emphasized to themselves and others the holiness that
their service for God required (3-8).
No remedy was available for those who broke a vow deliberately. If they accidentally touched a dead
body they could ask forgiveness through a ceremony in which they offered two birds (the usual offering
for ceremonial uncleanness; Lev 15:13-15) and a lamb (an additional guilt offering; Lev 5:6). But the
time they had observed the vow was lost and they had to begin all over again (9-12).
At the end of the period of their vow, Nazirites offered sacrifices and shaved all hair from the head.
They were no longer bound by the three specific conditions of the Nazirite vow (13-20). As for the thing
vowed, they must have done what they had promised. Their sincerity would be indicated by the voluntary
offering of any additional sacrifices they could afford (21).
The priestly blessing (6:22-27)
When the priests blessed the people, the blessing they pronounced was a reminder that God alone
provided Israel with health, prosperity, protection and safety. In his grace and mercy he would be patient
with their failures, correct their weaknesses and give them the full enjoyment of his unlimited blessings.
They were God’s own people (22-27).
Offerings from Israel’s leaders (7:1-88)
The story returns briefly to the ceremony of the dedication of the tabernacle that had taken place a
month or so previously (7:1; see Exod 40:17; Num 1:1). At this ceremony the leaders of the twelve tribes
brought their gifts to the altar and offered them to God. The event is recorded here probably because it
gives information about the wagons and oxen to be used in transporting the tabernacle. Two wagons and
four oxen were for the Gershonites, who carried the tabernacle’s curtains and hangings. Four wagons and
eight oxen were for the Merarites, who carried the larger and heavier load of the frames and foundation
materials. The Kohathites, who carried the furniture and sacred vessels, received no wagons or oxen,
because they carried their loads on shoulder poles (2-11).
All twelve tribal leaders donated the same amount. They shared the cost of the wagons and oxen
equally, and brought identical offerings of vessels, cereals, oil, incense and animals required for the
sacrificial rituals of the tabernacle. The writer’s purpose in repeating the details of the identical offerings
is perhaps to emphasize that all tribes had an equal share in the maintenance of the tabernacle and its
services (12-88).
More about the tabernacle (7:89-8:4)
A short note mentions how Moses received God’s messages in the Most Holy Place. Normally, no
one except the high priest could enter the Most Holy Place, but Moses’ position was unique (89; cf.
12:7- 8; Deut 34:10-12). Moses passed on instructions to Aaron to ensure that when the lamps were
placed on the lampstand, they were positioned to throw light forward towards the opposite wall, and so
give good light in the Holy Place (8:1-4).
Dedication of the Levites (8:5-26)
The ceremony described here parallels that for the dedication of the priests that has already been
described in Leviticus 8:1-36. The washing, shaving, and offering of a sin offering indicated cleansing
from sin; the offering of a burnt offering indicated dedication to God’s service. The action of the twelve
tribal leaders (acting on behalf of the whole people) in laying their hands on the heads of the Levites was
the people’s acknowledgment of the Levites as their representatives. By the symbolic action of waving
his arms up and down, Aaron presented the Levites to God for his service (5-13). God then gave them
back to Aaron to help him and the other priests in their work (14-19). Everything was done according to
God’s instructions (20-22).
Twenty-five is given here as the minimum age for Levitical service, compared with thirty stated
earlier (see 4:3). Perhaps there was an initial training period of five years. Levites ceased from their main
duties when they became fifty years of age, but could still help in various ways (23-26).
Feast of Passover (9:1-14)
Before leaving Sinai, Israel kept the Passover in remembrance of the deliverance from Egypt. (For
details of the Passover feast see notes on Exodus 12:1-36.) All Israelites were to keep the Passover, but a
problem arose when some men thought they should not, because they were ceremonially unclean through
handling a dead body. They asked Moses what to do and Moses asked God (9:1-8).
God’s instruction was that a second Passover feast was to be held, a month after the first, for those who
missed the official feast through being either ceremonially unclean or away on a journey at the time.
But all others had to join in the regular feast, and any who broke this law were to be expelled from the
camp. Even non-Israelites who lived among them were to keep the Passover, provided they were
circumcised (9-14; cf. Exod 12:43-49).
God’s guidance (9:15-10:10)
From the Red Sea to Sinai a cloud had guided Israel as a visible sign that God dwelt among and led
his people (Exod 13:21-22). This cloud covered the completed tabernacle, indicating clearly to all that
God accepted it. God was the centre of their life and the object of their worship (Exod 40:34-38).
Through the cloud God would continue to guide them, and they had to respond to his commands with
prompt obedience (15-23).
When Moses wanted to pass God’s commands on to the people, he called a meeting by blowing two
trumpets. If he blew only one trumpet, it meant he was calling only the tribal leaders. If the movement of
the cloud showed that the time had come to break camp, a series of distinctive short blasts (called alarms)
told the various tribes when to begin marching (10:1-8). Once Israel settled in Canaan, the trumpets were
to be blown in times of war and at the annual feasts, as a symbolic request to God to remember his people
(9-10).
10:11-14:45 FROM SINAI TO KADESH
The procession moves off (10:11-36)
Almost one year after they arrived at Mount Sinai, the people of Israel, led by Judah, moved off on
the journey to Canaan (11-16; see Exod 19:1). The Gershonites and Merarites went in advance of the
Kohathites, probably so that they could set up the tabernacle, ready for placement of the furniture when
the Kohathites arrived (17-28).
Although the cloud guided Israel, the leaders still needed to know local conditions. For this reason
Moses asked his brother-in-law Hobab to go with them, as Hobab had grown up in the region (29-32).
Apparently the ark went in front of the whole procession, symbolizing, as Moses’ prayer indicated, the
leadership of God in overcoming obstacles and making a way for his people. When the people set up a
new camp (in this case, after three days’ journey) Moses prayed again, inviting God to dwell among them
(33-36).
Moses’ heavy burden (11:1-35)
The people had travelled only a short time when they began to complain against God, with the result
that God punished them (11:1-3). Among those who journeyed with the Israelites from Egypt were some
foreigners who had mixed with the Israelites in Egypt (Exod 12:38). These people complained that they
were tired of having the same food every day, even though it was miraculously supplied by God. They
wanted some of the food they had been used to in Egypt (4-9). (For the origin of manna see Exodus 16:1-
36.)
Soon the discontent spread throughout the camp. Moses complained to God that the responsibility of
looking after this complaining multitude was a burden greater than he could bear. In addition he knew of
no way to provide such a crowd of people with the food they wanted (10-15).
God did not rebuke Moses for his outburst. He understood Moses’ troubles and helped him through
them. God commanded Moses to bring seventy of the leading elders of Israel to the tabernacle, where he
gave them a share of the same spirit as he had given Moses, so that they could help Moses in the
government of the people. God responded to Moses’ second complaint by promising a supply of meat that
would give the people more than they asked for. In their greed for meat they would eat so much that they
would become sick (16-23).
When the seventy leaders received this spirit from God they prophesied. Two of their number for
some reason had not attended the ceremony at the tabernacle, but the spirit came upon them where they
were in the camp and they prophesied there. Joshua, one of Moses’ assistants, was concerned about this
and asked Moses to silence the men. He apparently felt that if the people saw these men doing what
previously only Moses did, they might give them the sort of respect that previously they gave solely to
Moses. Moses rebuked Joshua. He was not jealous if others became more honoured in the eyes of the
people; in fact, he wished that all the people might have God’s Spirit upon them (24-30).
God gave the people the meat they wanted, but it brought an outbreak of disease that caused many
deaths. The meat came from countless birds which, being tired after a long flight where they battled
heavy winds, were easily caught only a few feet above the ground (31-35).
Miriam and Aaron’s jealousy (12:1-16)
Apparently Moses’ first wife had died and he had remarried. His new wife was not an Israelite, and
Miriam and Aaron used this as an excuse to criticize him. The real reason for their attack, however, was
their jealousy of Moses’ status as supreme leader of Israel. Moses, being a humble man, did not defend
himself, because he knew that God was the only true judge; and God’s judgment was that although
Aaron, Miriam and the seventy had a part in the leadership of Israel, Moses’ position was unique. God
spoke with him directly and entrusted him with supreme authority over his people (12:1-8).
Miriam apparently had taken the lead against Moses and so was the more severely punished, though
Aaron shared her shame and sorrow. Moses’ humble spirit was again shown when he asked God to
forgive Miriam. God did, but just as a daughter who had been publicly rebuked by her father had to spend
seven days in shame, so did Miriam. She had been rebuked by God with leprosy and, though now
cleansed, she still had to spend seven days in isolation the same as other cleansed lepers (9-16; cf. Lev
14:8).
The twelve spies (13:1-33)
 Israel pushed on towards the promised land. The long and tiresome journey through the wilderness of
Paran was relieved by stoppages at various points where the people set up camp for a few days (see
10:12; 11:35; 12:16; 13:3). As they moved nearer to Canaan, Moses sent twelve spies, one from each
tribe, to see what they could find out about the country – its terrain, its people, its defences and its
productivity (13:1-20). The spies probably split up, going in different directions to search out the required
information. They covered the land from south to north, west to east (21-24).
Meanwhile the people had journeyed closer to Canaan and set up camp at Kadesh, in the north of the
wilderness of Paran. There the spies rejoined the camp after their forty days fact-finding mission (25-26).
In brief, their report was that the land was very fruitful but its inhabitants were fearsome. For ten of the
spies, this observation about the local inhabitants was sufficient reason to cancel all plans for the invasion
of Canaan, and they persuaded the people to agree with them. Only two spies, Joshua and Caleb,
suggested Israel go ahead as planned and occupy the land (27-33; 14:6).
Israel’s refusal to enter Canaan (14:1-45)
Only a year earlier the Israelites had experienced the power of God in giving them victory over the
mighty Egyptians, but now they had no faith to believe that he would lead them to victory over the less
powerful Canaanites. They rebelled against God and his leaders by deciding to appoint a new leader
instead of Moses and go back to Egypt. God therefore told Moses that he would destroy Israel and build a
new nation for himself through Moses (14:1-12).
Again the humility of Moses showed itself. He asked God not to destroy his rebellious people, lest
other nations mock him, saying he was weak, unable to finish what he began. Moses appealed to God to
be merciful to his people and forgive them as he had done in the past (13-19).
God answered Moses’ prayer and did not destroy the people, but neither did he ignore their rebellion.
Although they had experienced God’s mighty power in the past, they now said they would rather die in
the wilderness than trust him for victory over the Canaanites. God’s punishment was that they would have
their wish: they would die in the wilderness (20-25; see v. 2).
The people had complained that they were concerned about the future of their children (v. 3). God
assured them he would look after the children and bring them into Canaan, but the rebellious adults would
die in the wilderness. All who were at that time twenty years of age or over (except Joshua and Caleb)
would die during the next forty years. Only when they were dead and a new generation had grown up
would Israel enter the promised land. The ten rebellious spies died immediately (26-38).
Because the people feared the enemy and refused to enter the promised land, God turned them back into
the wilderness (v. 25). But on hearing of their punishment, they then tried to attack the enemies whom
previously they feared. This again was a rebellion against God. They had lost their opportunity to enter
Canaan, and God’s will for them now was to remain in the wilderness for the next forty years. But
the people stubbornly persisted. Earlier they refused to go into Canaan with God; now they tried to
conquer the land without him. They were defeated, as they themselves had forecast when they heard the
spies’ report. With God there would be victory, without him defeat (39-45; cf. 13:31-33).
15:1-19:22 LESSONS AT KADESH
Miscellaneous regulations (15:1-41)
Animal sacrifices that were wholly or partly burnt on the altar had to be accompanied by cereal
offerings and drink offerings. The amounts of flour, oil and wine to be offered increased with the size of
the animal (15:1-16; for details see notes on Lev 2:1-16). Another sort of offering was a cake made from
the first lot of grain threshed after harvest. It was an acknowledgment that all grain came from God
(17- 21).
Should the people as a whole be guilty of sin through carelessness, they could ask God’s forgiveness
by offering the required sacrifices (22-26). A similar provision was available for the individual who
sinned through carelessness, but no provision was available for the person who sinned deliberately in bold
defiance of God (27-31; for details see notes on Lev. 4:1-5:13).
An example is then given of a person who defied God by deliberately breaking his law. The man was
swiftly punished (32-36). Moses told the people that in future they were to wear cords and tassels on the
corners of their clothes to remind them to keep God’s law (37-41; cf. Matt 9:20; 23:5).
Korah, Dathan and Abiram (16:1-50)
 In the events recorded in this chapter, two groups combined to rebel against the leadership of Moses
and Aaron. One was a group of 250 prominent Levites under the leadership of Korah, who were envious
that only Aaron and his family were allowed to be priests. The other was a group headed by two
Reubenites, Dathan and Abiram, who were envious and critical of Moses’ leadership of the nation (16:1-
3).
Moses again allowed God to be the judge. He asked both groups to appear before God with him to
see who was right. The Reubenites refused but the Levites went, taking a crowd from the camp with them
in support (4-15). The Levites were to burn incense in firepans, or censers (which, as a rule, only Aaron
and his sons were allowed to do), so that God might show his approval or otherwise (16-19).
God threatened to destroy the whole camp, and although Moses and Aaron knew he had the right to
do so, they begged him not to (20-24). He responded to their prayer by destroying only those who
actually took part in the rebellion. Korah, Dathan, Abiram and some of their chief supporters were
swallowed up by the earth in the sight of the camp, but the 250 Levites suffered a different fate. They had
wanted to burn incense before God; now they were burnt by fire from God (25-35).
Neither the fire nor the firepans used by the rebellious Levites could be used again. Eleazar the priest
emptied the firepans and had them beaten into a bronze plate to cover the altar, where it was a constant
reminder that only the family of Aaron could burn incense before God (36-40).
The people blamed Moses and Aaron for the death of the rebels and gathered at the tabernacle in a
hostile demonstration against the leaders (41). Again God threatened to destroy the people (42-45), and
again Moses and Aaron begged him not to. But God’s judgment in the form of a deadly plague had
already begun, and it was stopped only when Aaron made atonement for them by burning incense. This
emphasized once more that only the priests could take fire from the altar and offer it with incense before
the Lord (46-50).
Aaron’s rod (17:1-13)
The two Reubenites, Dathan and Abiram, had challenged the right of Moses (a Levite) to lead the
country; the Levite, Korah, had challenged the right of Aaron’s family to be the sole priestly family in the
Levitical tribe. Having destroyed the rebels, God now gave clear proof that the tribe of Levi was his
specially chosen tribe, and the family of Aaron his specially chosen family within that tribe. He did this
by miraculously changing the rod identified with the tribe Levi and the priest Aaron (17:1-8).
From that time on, Moses was to keep Aaron’s rod in front of the ark, as a reminder of the divinely
chosen positions of Levi and Aaron in Israel (9-11). (The rod was later placed inside the ark; Heb 9:4.)
The people understood God’s message and feared even to go near the tabernacle (12-13).
Support of priests and Levites (18:1-32)
In view of the recent rebellion, God gave further instruction concerning the separate responsibilities
of priests and Levites. The Levites were to help the priests and were under their direction, but they were
not to do any priestly work in the sanctuary (i.e. the tabernacle-tent). Only the priests could enter the
sanctuary, and in so doing they took the risks on behalf of the people for any wrongdoing in relation to
God’s holy dwelling (18:1-7).
Since the priests had no time to earn a living like others, they had to be supported in other ways. Their
food supplies – meat, oil, wine, grain, fruit, etc. – came partly from offerings that required a portion to be
set aside for the priests, and partly from firstfruits and other offerings given to the tabernacle (8-14).
When the firstborn of all living things were offered to God, they became, in part, the property of the
priests, God’s representatives. When people or animals were redeemed, the priests received the payment
(the redemption price). When a firstborn animal was sacrificed, the priest received a portion. The
contributions from all these offerings helped compensate the priests for not being allowed to own land
(15-20).
Details are then given for the support of the Levites. Like the priests they did religious service for the
people, on whose behalf they ran the risk of doing wrong in matters relating to the tabernacle and its
ceremonies. In return for this they received the people’s tithes. This constant income from the tithes was
also compensation for their not receiving a separate tribal area in Canaan (21-24).
Having received tithes, the Levites themselves then paid tithes. Though the tithe of their income was
the produce of other people’s fields and vineyards, God accepted it as being their own. Likewise what
remained was reckoned to be their own, and they were free to use it accordingly. The tithes of the Levites
helped support the priests (25-32).
More laws about cleansing (19:1-22)
God had told the people earlier that any who came in contact with a dead body were to be considered
ceremonially unclean. They had to be ceremonially cleansed with water before they could again mix in
the community or join in public worship. (For the significance of the laws of cleansing see introductory
notes to Leviticus 11:1-15:33.)
Israel now received instructions concerning the preparation of the water to be used in the cleansing
ritual. First of all a healthy young cow was killed, after which its blood was ritually sprinkled. The
meaning was that the animal, symbolically perfect, bore the consequences of sin and uncleanness. Its
carcass was then burnt and its ashes were kept in a special place to be mixed with pure water (v. 17) to
form the water of cleansing. All who took part in the killing and burning of the animal were themselves
ceremonially unclean for the remainder of the day (19:1-10).
The water of cleansing gained its symbolic power from the ashes of the sacrificial animal mixed with
it. The ashes were proof of the animal’s death, by which the curse of sin was removed. In the cleansing
ritual, the priest sprinkled the water over the person being cleansed (11-13). The tent of a dead person,
along with its contents, was unclean, and the cleansing ritual again included sprinkling with the water of
cleansing. Objects likely to contain some impurity, such as uncovered containers and even graves, made
any person who contacted them unclean (14-19).
Uncleanness spread to anyone or anything that the unclean person touched. This was further reason
for people to make sure they obeyed all the laws relating to cleanness and uncleanness (20-22).
The cleansing ritual may have been useful in teaching that sin and death kept people from God’s
presence, but it was unable to bring more than ceremonial cleansing. It cleansed externally in the sense
that it removed the results of physical contact with unclean things, but it could not cleanse the conscience
or remove the results of sin. Only the death of Jesus Christ could do that (Heb 9:13-14; 10:22; 1 Peter
1:2).
20:1-22:1 FROM KADESH TO THE PLAINS OF MOAB
Moses’ sin at Meribah (20:1-13)
Kadesh-barnea, or Kadesh, on the northern edge of the wilderness of Paran, appears to have been the
Israelites’ centre during their years of wandering in the wilderness. On one occasion just after the people
returned to Kadesh, Miriam died (20:1).
Again there was a shortage of water and again the people complained. (See Exodus 17:1-7 for a
similar story.) When Moses and Aaron told God of the people’s complaint, God told Moses to speak to
the rocky hill beside which they were camped, and water would flow out (2-9).
Moses was angry with the people for their rebellious spirit. Instead of humbly doing as God told him
and showing them that God was providing for them, Moses disobeyed God’s command and
misrepresented him before the people. Instead of accepting God’s directions in faith and speaking to the
rock, Moses acted according to his own feelings. In anger he struck the rock, called the people rebels, and
rebuked them for their constant demands on him as their leader. In so doing, he disobeyed God, spoke
rashly to the people, and took personal credit for the miracle instead of giving honour to God. God’s
punishment was to prevent Moses (and Aaron who
had supported him) from entering the promised land
(10-13; cf. 20:24; 27:12-14; Deut 3:26-27; Ps
106:32-33).
The long detour (20:14-21:20)
A well used trade route called the King’s
Highway ran from Ezion-geber on the Red Sea
through the kingdoms of Edom and Moab into
Syria. Moses decided to use this route for Israel’s
entrance into Canaan. He therefore asked the
Edomite king for permission to pass through his
territory, promising not to damage Edom’s fields or
use its water. If, in an emergency, the Israelites
needed to use Edom’s water, they would pay for it.
Moses expected a favourable reply, because Israel
and Edom were brother nations (Edom being
descended from Esau, Israel from Jacob), but the
king of Edom refused (14-21).
Israel changed route and soon came to Mount
Hor. There Aaron died, his death being God’s
judgment for his sin at Meribah. God announced
his death in advance, so that a ceremony could be
held to appoint Eleazar, Aaron’s oldest surviving
son, as the replacement high priest before Aaron
died (22-29).
When one of the Canaanite kings heard that
Israel was heading towards Canaan, he launched an
attack and took some of the people captive. Israel
responded promptly, and with God’s help
destroyed the attackers. It was the first step towards
Israel’s conquest of Canaan (21:1-3; cf. Deut
20:16-18).
The long detour that the Edomites forced upon
the Israelites caused the people to become
impatient and complaining again. God punished
them with a plague of snakes whose bite produced
burning pains and even death. Moses prayed for the
people, and God replied by promising to heal all
who stopped complaining and trusted in him (4-9).
Moving forward again, the Israelites journeyed around the fortified areas of Moab, crossed the Zered
River, and headed north across the tableland region east of the Dead Sea. The writer mentions two
significant events in the brief account of the journey across the tableland. One was the crossing of the
Arnon River, which marked the boundary between Moabite and Amorite territory; the other was the
discovery of water in one particularly dry region. The people celebrated the events by singing well known
songs (10-20).
Territory seized east of Jordan (21:21-22:1)
Although Israel had not attacked its brother nation Edom when the king of Edom refused a request to
pass through his territory, it did not hesitate to go to war with the Amorite king Sihon who refused a
similar request. The Amorites started the fighting, but Israel crushed their army, conquered their chief city
Heshbon, and overran their territory (21-25). The victory was especially pleasing to Israel, because the
Amorites had only recently gained this territory from the Moabites. The Amorites had written a victory
song to celebrate their conquest of Moab (along with its national god Chemosh), but now they themselves
were conquered (26-30). As a result of this victory, Israel now controlled an area on Canaan’s eastern
border that extended from the Arnon River north to the Jabbok River (31-32).
Israel expanded even farther north with its conquest of Og, another Amorite king, who ruled over the
rich pasture land of Bashan. This gave Israel control of the whole region east of the Jordan River (33-35).
The Israelites set up their main camp on the plains of Moab, east of Jordan opposite Jericho (22:1).
22:2-32:42 EVENTS ON THE PLAINS OF MOAB
Balak sends for Balaam (22:2-35)
The victories of the advancing Israelites put fear into the Moabite king, Balak. After gaining the
assurance of Midianite support, he sent for Balaam, a non-Israelite soothsayer who knew something of
Israel’s God. Balak believed that Balaam had supernatural power, by which he could put a curse on Israel
that would ensure its defeat (2-6).
Although the messengers from Moab and Midian promised to reward Balaam richly, Balaam refused
to go, for God had shown him that Israel was not to be cursed. But Balaam weakened when the
messengers returned with a renewed request and a more tempting offer. Balaam clearly knew God’s will,
but he sent to ask God again. He was tempted by the offered reward and hoped that somehow God would
allow him to go. In the end God allowed him to go so that he might teach him a lesson (7-20; cf. 2 Peter
2:15; Jude 11).
God was angry with Balaam for his stubbornness in going to Balak and showed him that only divine
mercy had stopped him from being destroyed. Then, when Balaam offered to turn back, God forced him
to go on, though he would not get the reward he wanted and would speak only what God wanted him to
speak (21-35).
Balaam’s announcements (22:36-24:25)
Balak welcomed Balaam and took him to a high place where he could see the vastness of the Israelite
camp. Balak no doubt hoped that Balaam, on seeing this, would be convinced that the Israelites were a
serious threat and would put a destructive curse upon them (36-41). But Balaam announced God’s
approval of the Israelites. Their vast number, their place in history and their present migration were
according to God’s will. Balaam comforted himself with the thought that if Balak killed him for giving a
blessing instead of a curse, he would at least die for doing right (23:1-12).
Not giving in easily, Balak tried again to get Balaam to curse Israel, hoping that a change of place
might bring a different result. As on the previous occasion, Balaam foresaw no misfortune or trouble for
Israel, because God was on Israel’s side. God had saved the people from Egypt and he would give them
victory over other enemies (13-24).
Angrily, Balak told Balaam that even if he would not curse the Israelites, he had no need to bless them
(25-26)! For a third time Balak looked for a way to make Balaam curse them. This time, apparently in an
effort to please Balak, Balaam did not look for omens as he had done previously, but just looked out
over Israel and waited to see what words came to him. But God’s Spirit came upon him. The sight of
Israel’s vast camp spreading over the countryside prompted Balaam to prophesy a prosperous and
victorious future for the nation (23:27-24:9).
In bitterness Balak dismissed Balaam, saying that if Balaam was disappointed at not receiving the
offered reward, he had only God to blame (10-11). Balaam replied with his fourth and final
announcement, prophesying Israel’s conquest of Moab. In addition the Edomites, Amalekites, Kenites
and Assyrians (Asshur) would be destroyed, but Israel would progress (12-25).
Balaam makes Israel sin (25:1-18)
The failure of Balaam to curse Israel meant he did not receive the reward Balak offered. Apparently
he still wanted to please Balak and gain the reward, so he decided on a plan of his own that had nothing to
do with prophesying good or evil but might succeed in destroying Israel. Balaam encouraged the people
of Israel to mix with the people of Moab and Midian, and encouraged the Moabite and Midianite women
to seduce the Israelite men and invite them to join in the heathen festivals. Balaam thought his plan was
succeeding when God sent a plague that killed thousands in Israel because of their immoral and idolatrous
behaviour (see 31:16; 2 Peter 2:14-15; Rev 2:14).
Only swift action by Moses and Phinehas saved Israel from destruction. Moses punished the leaders
of the rebellion in a mass public execution (25:1-5). Then, while the people were gathering at the
tabernacle to express their sorrow and repentance, a leader of the tribe of Simeon openly defied Moses by
taking a Midianite woman into his tent. The young priest Phinehas, interested only in the honour of God
and the preservation of God’s people, killed the man and the woman. For this he was rewarded with the
promise that his descendants would be Israel’s chief priestly family (6-18).
Another census (26:1-27:11)
About forty years previously Moses had taken a census of those available for military service (see
1:1-54). But all who at the time of that census were twenty years of age or older had since died (except
Joshua and Caleb) and a new generation had grown up. A new census was now taken for the double
purpose of determining the military strength for the attack on Canaan and making arrangements for the
division of the land (26:1-51).
The area of land to be given to each tribe was to be in proportion to the population of the tribe, but
the locality of each tribe within Canaan was to be decided by drawing lots (52-56). The Levites were
numbered separately. Males were counted from one month old, not from twenty years old as in the case
of the other tribes, because the Levites did not do military service and did not have a tribal area as the
other tribes (57-62). The new census confirmed that all the adults whose names were listed in the first
census were now dead (63-65).
Each tribal area was divided among the families of the tribe according to the male descendants. A
case arose where five sisters were left with no family inheritance (i.e. portion of land), because their
father had died and they had no brothers whose inheritance they could share (27:1-4). Moses brought the
case to God and received the instruction that where a man had no son, his inheritance could pass to his
daughters. If he had no children at all, it could pass to his nearest living relative (5-11).
Joshua chosen as Moses’ successor (27:12-23)
Although God would not allow Moses to enter the promised land, he would allow him to see it from a
mountain on the other side of the river before he died (12-14). (The place of his death would be Mount
Nebo in the Moabite hill country of Abarim; Deut 32:49-50.) Moses showed no bitterness when reminded
of this divine judgment upon him; he was concerned only that Israel have the leader of God’s choice to
replace him. God’s choice was Joshua, though Joshua would not have the absolute authority that Moses
had. Moses spoke to God face to face, but from now on the civil leadership and the religious leadership
would be separated. Joshua would receive God’s instructions through the high priest (15-23).
It was, in fact, some weeks before Moses died (see Deut 32:48-52; 34:1-8), and in the meantime he
had much instruction to pass on to Israel. This is recorded in the remaining chapters of Numbers and in
Deuteronomy.
Amounts for the yearly offerings (28:1-29:40)
As the time drew near for the Israelites to settle in their new land, Moses stressed the need for
constant devotion to God through the various sacrifices and festivals. First there were to be daily burnt
offerings and cereal offerings, morning and evening. The fire on the altar was never to go out (28:1-8; see
notes on Lev 6:8-13,19-23).
Besides this daily offering there was an identical weekly offering every Sabbath (9-10). Also there was
an offering at the beginning of each month, when a sin offering was added to the usual burnt offering and
cereal offering (11-15). These daily, weekly and monthly sacrifices emphasized the importance of
regular communication with God, in whose presence the people dwelt. They were not to restrict their
religious exercises to the annual festivals.
Even in the annual festivals, sacrifices had a prominent place. (For details of the annual festivals see
Leviticus 23:1-44.) Again, these sacrifices were in addition to the usual daily, weekly and monthly
sacrifices. The new year festival of Passover, since it had its own sacrificial ritual, did not include any of
the standard sacrifices, but the Feast of Unleavened Bread that followed had daily sacrifices (16-25).
Identical sacrifices were offered at the Feast of Harvest Firstfruits seven weeks later (26-31).
Quantities are then given for the sacrifices offered at the mid-year festivals. First came the Day of
Trumpets (29:1-6). Ten days later was the Day of Atonement (7-11), and a further five days later the
Feast of Tabernacles (GNB: Festival of Shelters). The number of sacrifices at this feast was greater than
at any other, though the number decreased a little each day (12-38).
All these requirements were concerned solely with the official religious services. Individuals could
voluntarily make additional sacrifices as expressions of their devotion (39-40).
Concerning vows (30:1-16)
A vow was a pledge that a person made, whether to God or to a fellow human being, to carry out
some specifically stated action. The vow usually involved swearing an oath in the name of God.
When a man made a vow, he could not change his vow once he had sworn it (30:1-2). But when a
woman made a vow it could be cancelled by her father (in the case of a single woman) (3-5), or by her
husband (in the case of a married woman) (6-9), provided the man expressed his disapproval on the day
he heard her vow. Silence meant approval. If he at first allowed the vow but later changed his mind and
stopped the woman fulfilling it, then he, not the woman, was held guilty for the broken vow (10-16).
Judgment on Midian (31:1-54)
God now sent Israel to carry out his judgment on the Midianites (and Balaam with them) for the evil
they did to Israel at Peor (see 25:1-9,14-17). Since it was a ‘holy’ war, the person who led the Israelite
forces was not the army general Joshua, but the priest Phinehas (see 25:10-13). The Israelites were to
destroy the Midianite fighting forces and burn their settlements. All captives and goods seized in battle
were to be given to God, represented by the high priest, Eleazar (31:1-12). When Moses saw that the
Israelites spared the Midianite women he was angry, for these women were the ones who caused Israel to
sin. He therefore gave orders to execute all the women except the virgins (13-18).
Since the war was a holy judgment by God, the Israelites had to remove whatever uncleanness had
resulted from their contact with the enemy. Those who handled dead bodies needed to be ceremonially
cleansed (as detailed in Chapter 19). Articles of clothing were purified by washing. Metal articles were
purified by passing them through fire and then washing them (19-24).
The goods seized in battle were divided equally between soldiers and non-soldiers. But whereas the
soldiers gave only one five-hundredth of their goods to share among the priests, the non-soldiers gave one
fiftieth of their goods to share among the Levites (who were far more numerous than priests) (25-47).
When the soldiers found they had not lost one man in battle, they made an additional offering to express
their thanks to God. The offering was placed in the tabernacle treasury (48-54).
Land for two and a half tribes (32:1-42)
Two and a half tribes (Reuben, Gad and half of Manasseh) asked permission not to cross Jordan and
settle in Canaan with the rest of Israel, but to settle in the good pasture lands that Israel had taken control
of east of Jordan (32:1-5,33; see notes on 21:21-22:1). Moses replied that the loss of two and a half tribes
from Israel’s fighting force might discourage the people from attacking Canaan. It would be a repetition
of what happened almost forty years previously. On that occasion lack of faith prevented Israel from
taking the promised land, with the result that the whole adult population was destroyed in the wilderness
(6-15).
The two and a half tribes responded by putting a compromise plan to Moses. They would leave their
families and flocks east of Jordan, but their fighting men would go with the rest of Israel to conquer
Canaan. When the conquest was over, they would return to settle east of Jordan (16-19). Moses agreed to
the plan, but warned of the consequences if they did not keep their promise (20-32). Some of the
Manasseh group seized additional territory to that which Israel had already won (33-42).
Later, when the time arrived to cross Jordan and conquer Canaan, the two and a half tribes kept their
promise (Josh 22:1-34). Their land was one of the finest parts of the region and was an enrichment to
Israel (Song of Songs 4:1; Jer 8:22; Micah 7:14). But it was without natural frontiers, and the other tribes
often had to rescue it from enemy invaders (1 Sam 11:1-11; 1 Kings 22:1-4; 2 Kings 8:28). When Israel
was eventually conquered by Assyria, the territories of the eastern tribes were among the first to fall, and
their inhabitants among the first to be taken into captivity (2 Kings 15:29).
33:1-36:13 PREPARATION FOR ENTRANCE INTO CANAAN
Summary of the journey from Egypt (33:1-49)
Moses kept a record of places where Israel set up camps on the journey from Egypt to the plains of
Moab. He records eleven camps between Egypt and Mount Sinai (33:1-15). After the year-long camp at
Sinai, the people moved through twenty camps to Ezion-geber. From there they came to Kadesh-barnea,
from where their long wanderings of almost forty years began. The book records no movements during
this time (16-36). In the fortieth year Israel left Kadesh-barnea and moved through nine camps to the
plains of Moab (37-49).
Plans for the division of Canaan (33:50-34:29)
As Canaan was to become the land of Yahweh’s people, all the former inhabitants and all trace of
their religion had to be removed. Failure to do this would bring trouble for Israel (50-56).
Moses then gave the boundaries of the land that Israel was to occupy. The southern boundary went
from the Dead Sea through Kadesh-barnea to the Brook of Egypt, which it followed to the coast. The
western boundary followed the coast along the Mediterranean Sea. The northern boundary went from the
coast through Mount Hor (not the Mount Hor where Aaron died) to Hazarenan, a place somewhere near
the source of the Jordan River. The eastern boundary went from there down through the Sea of
Chinnereth (the Lake of Galilee) along the Jordan River to the Dead Sea (34:1-12).
Representatives were appointed to divide this area among nine and a half tribes. (The other two and a
half tribes had already been allotted their territory east of Jordan.) Everything was to be under the
direction of Joshua and Eleazar (13-29).
Israel under Joshua conquered Canaan, and some of Israel’s kings spread their power over
neighbouring countries, but Israel never enjoyed sole possession of Canaan and never fully occupied the
area marked out here.
Cities for the Levites (35:1-34)
Levi had no tribal area of its own, but received cities, with surrounding pasture lands, in each of the
other tribes. There were forty-eight Levitical cities, the number in each tribe being in proportion to the
size of the tribe. This ensured that those responsible for teaching God’s law to the people were evenly
scattered throughout Israel (35:1-8).
Among these forty-eight cities were six cities of refuge, three west of Jordan and three east. These
were cities where a person who killed another could flee for safety till he was lawfully judged (9-15). If
he was guilty of murder he was executed, but if he had caused the death by accident, he could live in the
city of refuge under the chief priest’s protection as long as that priest lived. This placed a restriction on
his freedom, but at least he was safe from the revenge of the dead man’s family (16-28).
A person could not be condemned to death for murder unless at least two people had witnessed his
crime, but once found guilty he had to die. No one could buy his freedom. His murderous deed made the
land unclean, and that uncleanness could be removed only by his own death (29-34).
A question about tribal land (36:1-13)
Concerning the issue raised earlier by the daughters of Zelophehad, the decision was that where a
man died without sons, his inheritance could pass to his daughters (see 27:1-11). Leaders of Manasseh,
the tribe to which these women belonged, feared that the land they had just won (see 32:39-42) might be
lost to other tribes if the daughters of Zelophehad married men from other tribes (36:1-4). To prevent
such a transfer of land, Moses introduced a law to ensure that if, in such a case, a woman married, she had
to marry within her own tribe (5-13).
Deuteronomy
BACKGROUND
After receiving the law at Mount Sinai, Israel spent about forty years in the wilderness region
between Sinai and Canaan. During this time those who were adults when Israel left Sinai died and a new
generation grew up (Num 14:28-35). Moses therefore repeated and explained the law for the people of
this new generation before they entered Canaan. This instruction was given during the last two weeks of
Moses’ life, while Israel was camped on the plains of Moab making preparations to conquer Canaan
(Num 22:1; 35:1; Deut 1:1-5).
Because this instruction involved a repetition of the law given at Sinai, the book that records it is
known as Deuteronomy (from two Greek words, deuteros, meaning ‘second’, and nomos, meaning ‘law’).
This was not the original title, but was given by the translators of the Septuagint, the first Greek version
of the Old Testament. Also Deuteronomy was not originally an individual book, but was part of one long
book that has for convenience been divided into five parts, together known as the Pentateuch.
(Concerning the Pentateuch and the Septuagint see introductory notes to Genesis.)
Restating the law; renewing the covenant
The book of Deuteronomy is, however, much more than a mere repetition of the law; it is also an
exposition. It restates the commandments of the law but with a different emphasis. The laws recorded in
Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers gave the clearcut legal requirements; Deuteronomy, though it does not
lessen those requirements, adds that Israel’s religion must have more than legal correctness. It must have
spiritual warmth.
Deuteronomy’s style is that of the preacher rather than the lawgiver, and its audience the people as a
whole rather than the priests and judges (Deut 8:5-6; 10:12-13). Its emphasis is that the people should
keep God’s law because they want to know and love him better, not merely because they are required to
do so by the covenant (Deut 6:3,5-9; 7:7-8,11).
The covenant is the basis of Deuteronomy, but the relationship between God and his people within
that covenant should be one of love. The sovereign love of God towards his people should produce a
response of obedient love towards him (Deut 5:6-7; 6:1-3). (For the meaning of the word ‘covenant’ see
notes on Genesis 9:8-17. For the specific meaning of the covenant between Yahweh and Israel see notes
on Exodus 19:1-9.)
In his grace God chose Israel to be his people and promised to give them Canaan as their national
homeland (Deut 7:6-7; 8:1; 9:4-5). But if the people were to enjoy the blessings of the covenant in loving
fellowship with God, they had to know his law and keep it. The previous generation swore covenant
loyalty to God at Sinai (Exod 24:7-8), but failed him badly. Now that the new generation was about to
enter Canaan, the covenant was renewed. Moses repeated the law and the people gave a fresh pledge of
obedience (Deut 26:17-18).
Ancient covenant documents
The form of Deuteronomy is similar to that of the usual covenant document of the ancient Near East,
by which a sovereign overlord made a covenant, or treaty, with his subject peoples. Such a treaty was not
a negotiated agreement, but a statement by the overlord declaring his sovereignty over the people and
laying down the order of life he required of them. The people had no alternative but to accept the
overlord’s terms.
Usually the document began with an historical introduction where the overlord announced himself
and recounted all he had done for his people. Then followed a list of covenant obligations that he placed
on the people. Their underlying duty at all times was to be loyal to him and not to act treacherously by
forming alliances with foreign powers. After the basic requirements came detailed laws that dealt with
specific local issues.
The treaty usually named witnesses. It also contained details of the benefits that would follow the
people’s obedience and the punishments that would follow their disobedience. The document was then
lodged for safekeeping in the sanctuary of the subject people. It provided, however, for periodic public
readings and for updating of the details from time to time. It may have concluded with a summary of the
covenant’s main requirements or a guarantee to continue the covenant as long as the people remained
faithful to their obligations.
In relation to the covenant between God and Israel, most of these features can be seen in the accounts
given in Exodus, Deuteronomy and Joshua. In the case of Deuteronomy, not only are the above features
obvious, but the entire book seems to have been written in the form of a treaty document.
OUTLINE
1:1-4:43 Historical introduction
4:44-11:32 Basic requirements of the covenant
12:1-26:19 Detailed regulations
27:1-30:20 Conditions of the covenant
31:1-34:12 Moses’ last days
1:1-4:43 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION
In style similar to that of ancient treaty documents, Deuteronomy opens by recounting all that
Yahweh, Israel’s covenant God, has done for his people. It reminds them of his gracious acts on their
behalf and calls from them a fitting response of covenant loyalty. The section summarizes events
recorded in greater detail in Numbers 10:11-32:42.
From Sinai to Kadesh (1:1-46)
It was only eleven days’ journey from Mount Sinai to Kadesh-barnea, and about the same from
Kadesh to the plains of Moab where the people now were, but they had taken forty years to get there.
Moses began his recollections of the journey by reminding the people that their coming possession of
Canaan was solely because of God’s grace, not because of any virtue in them (1:1-8).
Only through God’s mercy had they grown into a strong and contented people who enjoyed the
blessing (rare among ancient races) of just, impartial and humanitarian government (9-18). They would
have further proof of God’s unfailing goodness when they saw the rich land God was giving them. God
had cared for them throughout the long and weary journey from Mount Sinai (Horeb), ‘carrying’ them as
a father carries his young son who has become too tired to walk. Yet they complained against him and
refused to go with him into the land he had chosen for them (19-33).
The constant stubbornness of the people was the reason why they were not allowed to enter Canaan.
More than that, it was the cause of Moses’ not being allowed. He lost patience with them and in so doing
brought God’s punishment upon himself (34-40; see Num 20:2-13). Still stubborn and disobedient, the
people who would not go into Canaan with God then tried to conquer the country without him. Not
surprisingly, they were defeated and driven back into the wilderness (41-46).
From Kadesh to Jordan (2:1-3:29)
God told the Israelites that if they went through the land of Edom, they were not to seize any
territory. This was partly because Edom was Israel’s brother nation (being descended from Esau), and
partly because the Edomites’ territory, formerly possessed by the Horites, had been given them by God
(2:1-7). Similar restrictions applied to Israel’s relations with the nations of Moab and Ammon, both of
which were also related to Israel (being descended from Lot). Their territories, formerly the possession of
the Rephaim, had also been given them by God (8-23). In like manner the land of the Amorites would be
given Israel by God (24-25).
Although the kings of Edom and Moab refused to sell food or water to the Israelites and denied them
passage through their lands (Num 20:14-21; 21:10-20), some of the Edomites and Moabites in outlying
regions apparently did sell to them as they detoured around the boundaries. But the Amorite king Sihon
not only refused all aid, he brought out his army against Israel (26-32). Israel responded by destroying his
army and taking possession of his land (33-37). Moving further north, the Israelites conquered Og,
another Amorite king, and took possession of the rich pasture land of Bashan that Og formerly controlled
(3:1-11).
All the region east of the Jordan River was now under the control of Israel. It was divided between the
tribes of Reuben, Gad and half-Manasseh (12-17), but these tribes had to help the other tribes conquer the
region west of Jordan (i.e. Canaan) before they could settle down in their newly won territory (18-22). As
the great day drew near when Israel would occupy the land that God had centuries before promised to
Abraham, Moses longed to cross Jordan and see it. God refused him permission, but allowed him to view
the land from a mountain near Israel’s camp (23-29).
Warning to be obedient (4:1-43)
The reason Moses outlined Israel’s history was to show on the one hand that God’s promises did not fail,
and on the other that his judgment on disobedience was certain. In view of this, the people were to keep
all God’s laws and commandments without altering them to suit themselves. If they modelled their
national life in Canaan on these laws, they would benefit themselves and be an example to others (4:1-8).
In order that Israel might not forget his laws, God had written them down and commanded Moses to
teach them. Moses now passed this command on to the new generation by instructing the people to teach
these same laws to their children, and to make sure that the children passed them on to future generations.
These laws represented Israel’s obligations under the covenant. Moses reminded the people also of the
holiness of God and of the reverence that sinful people must exercise when approaching him (9-14).
Since they had not seen any form of God, the people could not make an image of him. Neither were
they to use natural objects such as the sun, moon or stars as visible substitutes for him. To worship any of
these things would be idolatry and would break one of the basic laws of the covenant (15-24). Such
idolatry would bring national disaster, but God would be faithful to his covenant and save those who were
sorry for their sin and returned to him (25-31).
Not only was Yahweh the invisible God, he was the only God. He chose Israel as his people and
saved them by his miraculous power, not because of anything they had done but solely because of his
love for them. Moses therefore urged the people to love him in return. This would guarantee a long and
satisfying occupancy of the land that they were about to enter (32-40).
Moses then established three cities of refuge in the area already settled east of Jordan. Three more
cities would later be established west of Jordan, after the conquest of Canaan (41-43; see notes on Num
35:9-34).
4:44-11:32 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE COVENANT
In the address just concluded, Moses outlined God’s dealings with Israel in the past, and on the basis
of this urged Israel to be obedient in the future. He now called a second meeting, this time to ‘renew’ the
covenant, not in the ceremonial sense but in the practical sense. That is, he reawakened the people to their
responsibilities under the covenant. He recalled the events when the covenant was made at Sinai (4:44-
5:5), he repeated the basic covenant commandments, which were the principles by which the nation was
to live (5:6-11:32), and he gave detailed applications of those principles as they affected the daily lives
and religious exercises of the people (12:1-26:19).
According to ancient custom, when covenants were renewed, adjustments could be made to bring the
laws up to date. On this occasion Moses made frequent adjustments and explanations in view of the new
way of life that the Israelites were about to enter. They were no longer a vast crowd of travellers moving
through the wilderness, but were about to become a nation of permanent settlers in an agriculturally
prosperous country.
 These amendments to Israel’s laws did not mean that the religion given to them at Sinai was in any
way changed. The principles remained the same, but their application was adjusted to suit the different
conditions of Canaan.
Ten commandments (4:44-5:33)
The renewal of the covenant began in the style of ancient covenant documents by naming the two
parties to the covenant and outlining the relation between them. It also stated the location and time of
Moses’ announcement. Many of the people gathered there were youths when the covenant was made at
Sinai, and could recall the terrifying events of that time (4:44-5:5).
Moses then repeated the ten commandments that Israel had promised to keep as their part of the
covenant. These commandments were the basis of all Israel’s subsequent laws (6-22; see notes on Exod
20:1-17). Ten short commandments were enough to convince the people that they were sinners who could
not remain in the presence of a holy God and live. They therefore asked Moses to receive God’s
instructions on their behalf, and promised that they would do all that God said (23-33).
The power of love (6:1-25)
No matter how strong their determination to do right, the people would be unable to keep God’s law
unless they first had a strong and genuine love for God himself. Love for him would give them the inner
power to walk in his ways (6:1-5). As well as keeping God’s commandments themselves, they had to
teach their children to do likewise. Their family life was to be guided by the knowledge of God’s law.
Their house was to be known as a place where people loved God’s law and lived by it (6-9).
Yahweh was the only God. He loved Israel as his specially chosen people and he wanted them to love
him in return. God, on his part, would feel pain and grief if in their prosperity they forgot him or if they
turned away from him to follow other gods. The people, on their part, would find their full satisfaction
through walking humbly before their God and keeping his law (10-19). God’s mighty acts on behalf of
the Israelite people in the past were for their good, and his desire for them to keep his law in the future
was likewise for their good (20-25).
The promised land (7:1-8:20)
Israel’s responsibility was to destroy the people of Canaan along with everything connected with
their religion, so that nothing would remain in the land that might corrupt God’s people (7:1-5). Israel’s
favoured place as God’s chosen people was not an excuse for them to do as they liked, but a reason for
them to avoid corruption and be holy. If they were disobedient, they would surely be punished (6-11). But
if they were obedient, they would enjoy the blessings of national growth, agricultural prosperity and good
health (12-16).
God would lead his people to victory over enemies in the future as he had in the past (17-21), but for
the present he would give them only that amount of territory that they could capably control. As their
numbers and needs increased, he would lead them to further conquest and expansion. But at all times they
had to conduct their wars according to God’s laws of holiness (22-26).
The varied experiences of life in the wilderness had taught Israel that life depends on more than the
food people eat. It depends upon spiritual forces that are found only in God (8:1-4). The Israelites were to
keep this in mind when they settled in Canaan, a land they would find to be rich in natural resources.
They were to fear God and thank him for his gifts, not take everything for granted (5-10). If in their
prosperity they forgot God and ignored his law, he would punish them as he had punished the Canaanites
before them (11-20).
Warning against stubbornness (9:1-10:11)
Moses warned the Israelites not to boast about their coming victories. The conquest of Canaan was by
God’s power, not theirs. It was because of the wickedness of the Canaanites, not because of any goodness
in the Israelites (9:1-5).
Israel, in fact, was a stubborn people, who deserved none of God’s good gifts. Moses reminded them
of their rebellion at Sinai, how they promised to obey God’s law, but broke it before it was even written
down (6-21; see notes on Exod 32:1-35). There were other occasions when they rebelled against God’s
commands (22-24; see Exod 17:1-7; Num 11:1-3,31-34; 14:1-12), but the rebellion at Sinai was a
defiance of the freshly made covenant. Only Moses’ prayers saved the nation from being wiped out (25-
29; see Exod 32:7-14).
God in his grace renewed the covenant (10:1-5; see Exod 34:1-35). He showed his forgiveness of
Aaron by allowing his son to be high priest after him (6-7; see Num 20:22-29), rewarded the Levites for
opposing idolatry at the time of the golden calf (8-9; see Exod 32:25-29), and forgave the people,
allowing them to journey on to the land he had promised them (10-11; see Exod 34:1-11).
What God demands of Israel (10:12-11:32)
In summary, Moses’ instruction to Israel as a people was that they were to fear, obey, love and serve
God, in the assurance that he desired only their good (12-13). He had chosen them in mercy, and he
wanted them likewise to show mercy to others. They were to have humble purity of heart and genuine
love, both in their relations with him and in their relations with others (14-20). They were not to be
arrogant or boastful, but were to remember their humble beginnings as a group of aliens in Egypt (21-22).