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 Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 91-99 (2012)
Journal of Agricultural Physics
ISSN 0973-032X
http://www.agrophysics.in

Commentary

A New Theory of Cloud Formation and Climate Change on the Earth

A.V. MOHARIR
A-408, Vasundhara Apartments, Sector-6, Plot-16, Dwarka, New Delhi-110 075

What are clouds in the sky? on the Earth are formed as a result of vertical
motion of evaporated moisture from oceans,
Powerful land and space based telescopes
lakes, rivers, respiration by animals and
have revealed that planets like Venus, Mars,
transpiration from forest trees, crop canopies and
Jupiter and Saturn from our own solar system or
sea algae, leading to condensation and freezing
from such systems located in distant galaxies,
which have either abundant water on them or of evaporated molecules of water, their
some kind of atmosphere, are known to form crystallization into fine crystals of 20-60 microns
clouds surrounding the planetary surface subject in size and their subsequent aggregation into
to being located at a suitable distance from their opaque, pervious, massive bodies called clouds.
respective star. Clouds are essentially linked to Clouds assume shapes of most ineffable,
the presence of water and water molecules, their spectacular and prodigal forms. The vertical
enigmatic molecular structure, properties and the movement of water above sea level is aided by
three distinct states in which water is known to low pressure atmospheric systems, thermal
exist. Peculiar variations in structure, shape, convections, mechanical turbulence and ascent
symmetry and extent of frozen ice crystals, over mountainous, terrains and geographical
crystallized from water from different locations landmass as a result of funnel effect. Clouds have
across the world have been beautifully been observed to reach heights of about 16 km
demonstrated experimentally by Masaru Emoto and the World Meteorological Organization
(Masaru, 2001) and these experimentally (WMO) has grouped them into four A, B, C, and
demonstrated results are not only mind-boggling D categories on the basis of height above sea
and mysterious but so far beyond scientific logic. level, following classification first proposed by
Although difficult to say, perhaps such Luke Howard, an unknown, young English
differences may possibly be linked to or arising pharmacist in 1802 and gradually modified from
out of the location specific variations of the time to time. Luke Howard is remembered today
morphogenetic fields proposed by Rupert for giving cloud types their names in 1803 and is
Sheldrake (Sheldrake, 1995) (my intuitive guess). frequently identified as the father of modern
Massive presence in quantity of gases such as meteorology. Science of meteorology finds its
carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia etc. observed origin from atmospheric moisture, clouds,
in circulation over the surfaces of some planets precipitation, climate and weather. On a planet
have been indiscriminately described in the devoided of water and atmosphere, a
literature as gaseous clouds although they are not meteorologist as a specialist, may have no role to
strictly clouds but blanket layers of gaseous play. Howard divided clouds into three groups:
masses. Traditional knowledge tells us that clouds stratus for the layered clouds; cumulus for the
fluffy ones (meaning heaped in Latin) and cirrus
*Email: amoharir@rediffmail.com (meaning curled) for the high thin feathery
92 Journal of Agricultural Physics [Vol. 12

formations which are generally identified with on the Earth, it automatically got connected to
colder weather and the fourth one as nimbus the mental and survival strategies of all life forms.
(meaning cloud in Latin) identified as the rain No wonder! Societies of amateur ‘Cloud
producing clouds. These names could be Watchers’ have sprung up in all parts of the
combined to describe almost all kinds of world. Life on Earth without clouds would have
combination forms and features of cloud become unimaginably monotonous, boring and
formations e.g. stratocumulus, cirrostratus, perhaps impossible. Innumerable passionate
cumulonimbus etc. Today, the WMO has poetic compositions and prose in all languages of
classified clouds into 10 types, which are further the world have been inspired by clouds. They
sub-divided into 14 species on the basis of their have served as messengers of ensuing change of
shape, structure and formative peculiarities. In climate, weather and seasons. Animals,
fact, the science of formation of clouds called particularly in river-ecosystems, ponds, lakes,
‘Nephology’ had its beginning in the sixth century jungles, forests and farmers in the dry-land rain-
BC and it was more than evident from the fed agricultural fields across the world, eagerly
beginning itself that their variety and diversity wait for the clouds in their skies for relief from
was intimately connected with different states of heat, quenching thirst and satiating hunger besides
the atmosphere and weather conditions at any revitalization of emotional and physiological
particular place. Richard Hamblyn (Hamblyn, vitality and vigour (Foster and Kreitzman, 1996).
2001) has described an excellent, brief and yet a Clouds foretell weather, present a continual show
comprehensive account of the history of the study of sunshine or shade, storm or calm, rain or snow,
of clouds and pictorially displayed the thunder or lightening without identically repeating
extraordinary range in their formation, from the the scenes for a second time. In their most
most beautiful to the most bizarre patterns and monstrous form they roar with strikes of
shapes in his other book (Hamblyn, 2010). lightening, pulling down buildings, burning
prairies and kill animals instantaneously. Clouds
Sky without clouds are indeed the most spectacular visible
To a keen, inquisitive and curious observer, demonstration of the Earth’s fascinating, dynamic
the patterns and shapes of cloud formation from and vibrant atmosphere at work with regular
mountainous, the Tropical and the South Atlantic rhythmic periodicity and precision.
regions of the world, present an awful spectacle
Theories of formation, form and types of
both from looking up the ground and perhaps in a
more exciting way by looking down at them from
clouds their nomenclature and artificial rains
the top during air travel (Clegg, 2011). Advent of Conventionally clouds are believed to be
satellite technology and advances in image formed when moisture saturated air comes in
recording and transmission capability in different contact with cool air or relatively colder land
wavelength bands of the electromagnetic surface. So also when water vapours get cooled
spectrum has added a new dimension to the into micro-droplets during movement along rising
science of ‘Nephology’ by providing means to slopes of mountains, clouds are formed. Such
look and study clouds at very high resolution and sights of rising cloud formations lifting to the
in glorious details. Ever since the evolution of skies are very common in the hills, valleys and
man on the planet Earth, clouds in white, grey, mountains. Alternately, clouds are also formed
black and all other shades, during different times when warm air, saturated with moisture blows
of day and night cycles and seasons, have held a over cooler surface and condense moisture into
special fascination to him and intimately got micro-droplets. The four basic ways by which air,
connected with his psyche, psychology, emotions, laded with water vapor, rises up in the atmosphere
hope for food, anticipation, health, hygiene, and form clouds are known in meteorological
despair, comfort and survival. And since the terms as; orographic lifting, convective lifting,
Moon sustains the atmosphere and all life forms widespread ascent and mechanical (or frictional)
2012] New Theory of Cloud Formation and Climate Change on the Earth 93

turbulence. The classification system of clouds was the starting point for initiating experiments
uses Latin words to describe their appearance in in attempting to produce artificial rains in the
the sky and therefore; clouds with a prefix- ‘cir’ event of drought. Post World War-II experiments
are the higher altitude clouds, whereas, those with identified micron-size colloidal particles of silver
prefix- ‘alto’ are the lower altitude level clouds. iodide, solid carbon dioxide and sodium chloride
It has been estimated that only 3% of total Earth’s to be capable of initiating nucleation in clouds
fresh water exists in ice sheets and not more than when dispersed through aircrafts. Rain drop
0.036 percent in lakes, rivers, ponds and formation begins within 10-20 minutes from the
reservoirs and just a mere 0.001 percent exists in time of seeding clouds. Actually speaking, the
clouds, as vapours or their minor variants such as kind of nuclei used depends upon the type of
mist, haze, dew or fog at any moment of time cloud and their altitude above ground (Gadgil,
(Bryson, 2004). More surprisingly, a walk of 90- 1974). For high altitude clouds beyond freezing
100 meters through a typical fog gets a mere 16 level and yet containing ice crystals, nuclei such
cubic centimeters of water in contact with our as silver iodide that facilitate sublimation of water
person. vapours to ice are used. Other materials that can
also help nucleation to some extent but not
Sometimes clouds do not rain because either
without consequent other problems, being talcum
all the water drops formed by condensation
powder, fine soils, clays, dust, insects, fungal
evaporate before reaching the ground or there was
spores, pollen grains and liquid propane. The
not enough condensation. The rate of evaporation
Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology Pune,
is proportional to the surface area of the drop
has been popularly using ionic, hygroscopic
whereas the amount of water in the drop is
sodium chloride salt for cloud seeding because
proportional to its volume. Therefore, smaller the
the clouds over the sub-tropical Indian peninsular
surface to volume ratio, the less the evaporation
sub-continent are essentially warm in the sense
and this ratio decrease with the size of the drop.
that they neither reach freezing levels nor contain
The larger drops are thus less likely to evaporate.
ice crystals and are best induced to seeding by
Therefore, in the presence of condensation nuclei,
hygroscopic common salt (Gadgil, 1974).
condensation occurs more easily and larger drops
However, the much talked about process of
produced sustain evaporation. Dry clouds that do
artificial rain making today is due to Debriddhi
not rain for lack of condensation can be made to
Deva Kul from Thailand, using alternate aerial
rain by the introduction of adequate quantities of
spray of calcium carbide and ammonium nitrate
condensation nuclei in the clouds. Mist, haze, fog
to change clouds into towering cumuli and
or clouds are known to be aggregates of
forming rain drops at their base. Despite these
crystalline matrix of billions of micro-crystals of
successful experiments and continued use in
ice formed when water vapours get cooled to -5
several countries under demanding circumstances,
to -15 0 C. Growing clusters of ice around
cloud seeding and artificial rain making have their
hygroscopic nucleating substrates such as aerosol
own uncertainties, limitations and drawbacks.
particles to form rain drops in the atmosphere
Such attempts have also raised issues about the
leads to precipitation. Presence of hygroscopic
ethics and morality of conducting such
nuclei to induce condensation into rain drops was
experiments and modify weather which is a
discovered to be an essential precondition for the
common heritage of entire humanity irrespective
incidence of rain despite presence of heavy clouds
of geographical borders between countries
in the sky and the process of forming rain drops
demarcated by the man.
was shown in 1930 by Harold Percival Bergeron
a Norwegian meteorologist, to begin at
Heavenly linkages to the Earth’s atmo-
temperatures below -15 0 C. This realization that
sphere, solar eruptions and drought
rainfall can be made to occur even in relatively
dry clouds by introducing suitable hygroscopic Complete understanding of the physics behind
nuclei to accelerate the process of ice formation cloud seeding under natural environmental
94 Journal of Agricultural Physics [Vol. 12

conditions and occurrence of rains under normal afresh and elaborated by Jack Eddy and this
atmospheric conditions is not fully known as yet period (1645-1715 AD) is now known as the
despite intelligent guesses and experimentation. ‘Maunder Minimum’. Other such periods of
It is only now, after the advent of space minimum solar sunspot activity and
technology and satellite imagery coming into corresponding high cosmic ray incidences have
routine use and application, a holistic view of the also been identified from 1300-1360; 1450-1540
involvement, role, implication and significance of and 1790- 1820 AD. The characteristic severity
hitherto unknown factors such as positions of the features, associated with these solar enfeeblement
drifting continents, ocean currents, the evolving periods such as; heavy glacier movements, brief
dynamic composition of the atmosphere, the and brisk summers, drought and famine
gradual evolutionary brightening of the Sun, conditions and narrowest compact rings of annual
precision of the spin axis of the Earth combined growth of Spruce, Sequoia and other kinds of
with the eccentricity of its orbit around the Sun trees etc. have been very well documented. For
and movement of the entire solar system as a the entire life of a tree, a year-by-year record of
whole within the spiral arm of the Milky way
the climatic conditions during its growth is
galaxy besides role of highly energetic visitors
created in that a wet summer and long growing
from outer space in the formation of clouds and
season results in a wider annular growth ring,
modification of the weather are being gradually
whereas a drought year results into a narrow ring.
understood. How this understanding has been
By matching tree rings of known years to rainfall
ingeniously unfolded from unexpected quarters
data at a particular place, we can easily deduce
makes an interesting story demolishing borders
drawn between seemingly unconnected how much rain each ring width size represents.
disciplines. This example also brings out a Similarly, by studying rocks, trees, glacial strata
cardinal message for researchers (irrespective of known as varves, ocean sediments, ice layers and
the subject of their pursuit) not to study any coral formations in association with radiometric
problem in isolation and within the frame-work techniques, a picture of the seasonal variations of
of any one single discipline but to connect it to climatic conditions undergone for decades or
knowledge from other disciplines in a holistic centuries can be reconstructed. Such swings
way, because the entire material creation in the between warm and cold observed in last few
universe is but one continuum. centuries in correlative association with data on
solar magnetic activity and intensity of cosmic
It has been almost established that
ray showers reaching the Earth’s surface is almost
contemporary climate on the Earth responds
driving the point to a certainty. It was at the
compassionately with the magnetic activity of the
suggestion of Eugene Parker, a Physicist from
Sun and to the solar flares blasted off all around
Chicago, Jack Eddy critically examined and
from its surface but particularly in the direction
studied the work of Edward Walter Maunder and
of the Earth. And it all started from the critical
contributed to such an important discovery. Parker
observation by a British astronomer Edward
had himself authored the theory of the solar winds
Walter Maunder (1851-1928), who in an attempt
to carefully summarize the collected archival by which the Sun creates its magnetic barrier
observatory records by Gustav Sporer on against the high energy cosmic rays and radiations
sunspots, discovered in 1894 that the solar from outer galaxies from reaching the Earth.
latitudes at which sunspots occur varies in a ‘Maunder Minimum’ has fascinated
regular basis over a course of 11 year cycle. His astrophysicists and climate scientists so much that
study of sunspots and the associated solar every Sun-like star critically observed routinely
magnetic cycles also led to the identification of for the last three decades have revealed their
an unusually long period from 1645 to 1715 AD capacity to modify magnetic activity in the
when sunspot activity was almost completely heliosphere as did the Sun during the ‘Maunder-
absent. This observation has since been confirmed Minimum’ period.
2012] New Theory of Cloud Formation and Climate Change on the Earth 95

Cosmic rays of secondary cosmic ray shower from the

interaction of primary cosmic particles (very high
Cosmic rays are very high-energy, extremely
energy protons) with molecules of gases at the
penetrating charged particles, predominantly
top of the atmosphere. Almost all primary cosmic
protons, electrons (muons), neutrinos and gamma
ray particles are absorbed by the Earth’s
radiations which find their origin in the extra-
atmosphere and 98% of those that reach the sea
terrestrial galactic sources such as the remnants
level are the harmless muons besides protons and
of dying / exploding stars and supernova in distant
neutrons. Moreover since muons are ones that
Galaxies of the Universe. Our Sun also emits non-
cross through the blanket of atmosphere to reach
stop streams of relatively low energy electrically
the surface, they are primarily the cosmic ray
charged cosmic radiations consisting of positively
particles that affect the climate most by
charged atoms of several elements, electrons, X-
influencing the low-level clouds which cool the
rays and gamma rays, hurling them at periodic
Earth. What needs to be carefully understood from
bursts with speeds ranging from 350–750 km per
the discussion here being the fact that the cosmic
second, during sunspot and solar flare activity.
radiations are the perpetual, massive,
Such solar flares constitute the material link from
uninterrupted and in-exhaustive primary source
the Sun to the Earth’s atmosphere. Solar flares
and cause of ionization in the three upper, middle
are now known to affect the atmosphere and life
and lower strata of atmosphere on a global scale?
on the Earth in many ways and particularly
reflected in phenomena like disruption of power Recently, Henrik Svensmark and his
grids, computer networks, satellite transmission colleagues (Ditlevsen, Sevenskarm and Sigfus,
black-outs, navigation instruments besides Aurora 1996; Svensmark and Christensen, 1997;
borealis and Aurora australis (Northern and Svensmark, 1998; Nigel and Svensmark, 2000;
Southern lights respectively) resulting from the Nigel and Svensmark, 2000b; Svensmark, 2003;
excitation and ionization of gases in the upper Svensmark, Pedersen, Nigel, Enghoff and
atmosphere over the magnetic poles of the Earth. Uggerhoj, 2007) made a remarkable observation
Until recently, the source of the origin of very in that individual water droplets that make up a
high-energy cosmic radiations was a matter of cloud are formed mostly when electrically
controversy but a special group of four telescopes charged ions have been released in the vicinity
installed in 2003 near Windhoek in Namibia have by passing cosmic ray particles. This observation
finally confirmed that high-energy cosmic rays almost instantaneously provided a vital clue and
come from the remnants of exploded stars. linked the process of cloud formation to varying
Cosmic rays being charged particles constitute intensity of cosmic rays and solar plasma flux to
electric currents and therefore are deflected back control the powerful cloud cover and
into space by the magnetic fields of not only the consequently the heating of the Earth’s
galaxy of their origin but also by that of the Sun. atmosphere. These workers have not only been
As a result, cosmic rays swerve around in spiral able to further confirm the role of cosmic
circular trajectories several times along their radiations in formation of clouds in Earth’s
course of journey and produce secondary cosmic atmosphere but also establish its direct correlative
ray showers and ionization of atoms colliding in connection to the solar eruptions and magnetic
their way. At the surface of the Earth, about field intensities of the Sun. Greater influx of
10,000 million neutrinos pass through an area of cosmic rays during the minimum solar sunspot
1 sq. cm per second. Fortunately, these neutrinos activity brings a significant increase in global
do not interact at all and simply pass through our cloudiness, increased direct reflectance of the
bodies without any health hazard. More harmful incident solar radiations and light from over the
of the components of cosmic rays being the clouds resulting in a much larger cooling on the
muons which are particles like heavy electrons. surface of the Earth. Despite spectacular success
One muon passes through one square centimeter in establishing the connection between the
per minute at sea level and is created as a product Sunspots, magnetic field activity, cosmic ray
96 Journal of Agricultural Physics [Vol. 12

penetration through the Heliosphere and global matter much and scientists from Russia even
cloud cover, Svensmark had to fight a persistent favoured the opposite idea that cosmic rays reduce
criticism from those orthodox, who agreed to the cloudiness.
role of Sun but disagreed about cosmic radiations
and vice versa. A detailed convincing experiment Experiments at the Danish National Space
was still needed to clinch the issue and therefore Research Centre
it was ingeniously decided to make use of the
Since 1868, scientists have been regularly
High Energy Particle Accelerators to target
mapping the intensity of the solar winds and
cosmic ray like charged energetic particle beams
keeping an invaluable record of the connection
from the giant particle accelerators on atmosphere
between the Earth and the Sun. It had been
like conditions and composition of gaseous
observed that when a large Coronal Mass Ejection
mixture maintained inside a cloud chamber for
(CME) from the Sun passes by the Earth, it
initiating the process of ionization and their role
virtually acts like a magnetic shield for the Earth
in cloud formation.
because the cosmic ray intensity at the sea level
The International Satellite Cloud Climatology drops by almost 25% within a day. Ground
Project since 1983 pooled the data (1983-1994) Station records of cosmic ray intensity from
received from the civilian weather satellites of all across the world also indicated that the count rate
countries and produced monthly charts of average decreased by about 20-25% with periodic high of
cloud cover divided into square grids distributed the sunspot activity with a time delay of
over 250 Km wide belt of surface area across the approximately one year from the maximum
Earth. These charts prepared under the leadership sunspot activity to the drop in cosmic ray
of William Rossow not only depicted the intensity. Against this background, Henrik
changing seasons, monsoons, across the world but Svensmark collected data from all available
also the large scale changes taking place in sources about the monthly average of neutron
distribution of clouds and cloud patterns over the counts at the sea level. The data for the period
tropical Pacific and South American land masses, 1984 to 1987, indicated that the Sun was very
revealing thereby a strong connection between quiet during this period of time but more cosmic
global cloudiness and the rhythmic movements rays reached the Earth and correspondingly
of the Sun and the influence of solar variability cloudiness increased by about 3-4% globally.
to be strongest in low altitude clouds. Henrik Then from 1987-1990, when the cosmic ray count
Svensmark in Copenhagen immediately seized the reaching sea level declined, cloudiness also
opportunity to experimentally show how the Sun declined by 4% with a perfect match. The
influences the Earth’s climate and at almost the conclusion drawn being that clouds strictly obey
same time, Eigil Friis-Christensen and Knud
and follow the cosmic rays.
Lassen from Greenland announced in 1991, a
close match between the observed rise in Henrik Svensmark and his colleagues in the
temperatures during the 20 th century in the year 2000 organized an experiment to study the
Northern Hemisphere and cycles of the sunspot effect of natural cosmic radiations on cloud
activity. These results indirectly corroborated the formation, erected in the basement of their
empirical observation made some 200 years laboratory a container box made of Mylar plastic
earlier by Sir William Herschel in England that and with an inner lining of Teflon. This box called
the price of wheat in the market was higher when the ‘reaction chamber’ had a capacity to hold
sunspots were scarce. Apparently, bringing out about seven cubic metres of purified ordinary air
the then unknown relationship between the or pure bottled oxygen, argon or nitrogen mixed
sunspot activity, cosmic ray intensity and cloudy in right natural atmospheric proportion. Changing
and cold conditions on the Earth. Despite these gases or their proportions in the mixture did not
ideas already afloat, several scientists by 1990s make any difference to the results in inducing
were almost deciding that Sun actually did not ionization in the reaction chamber. This ruled out
2012] New Theory of Cloud Formation and Climate Change on the Earth 97

the possibility of the involvement of nitrogen and number of charged particles released in the air
a large number of positively charged ions as a and productivity goes with square root of the
contributor and led to focusing attention on the density of ions. Therefore, any variation in cosmic
negatively charged ions i.e. electrons. Under ray intensity was likely to affect speck production.
controlled temperature and humidity conditions, As Svensmark and his team realized that
traces of sulphur dioxide and ozone were Electrons are the key players which acting as
introduced into the reaction chamber fitted with catalyst, promote the ongoing chemistry in the
seven ultraviolet lamps running continuously or process of nucleation without being consumed
intermittently for ten minutes. A sensitive detector themselves. The process of nucleation of specks
kept a watch on the ensuing chemistry and is generally very fast and is accelerated with
products released into the box. Analyses of the increase in the number of electrons averaging
results obtained from all sorts of combinations about a million per litre.
tried, indicated that the primary role in the A summary of the conclusions of
chemical drama that was unfolding in the reaction Svensmark’s experiments and collected data bring
chamber was being played by the cosmic rays out that the weather satellites show clearly the
coming through the ceiling and exiting through Earth’s cloud cover varying rhythmically over the
the floor and leaving charged particles behind years in relation with the varying effects of the
their trails. In order to see and verify if the ions solar winds and coronal mass ejections (CME)
produced by the cosmic rays were really seeding which regulate the number and intensity of cosmic
the specks, a powerful electric field was switched rays reaching the Earth’s surface. The
on to sweep all the charged particles from the experiments in atmospheric chemistry revealed
box and such fields removed them in a second how electrons set free by the cosmic rays catalyze
but reappeared soon and even application of the clubbing of sulphuric acid molecules in the
electric field made no difference. Svensmark atmosphere which constitute the most important
intuitively thought that negatively charged source of cloud condensation nuclei. The Danish
electrons knocked out during ionization of air experiment is however, still open to the more
molecules by cosmic rays might be doing their elaborate experiments involving the use of very
seeding work faster provided the electrons merrily high energy particle accelerators at the CERN,
jumped from one embryonic sulphuric acid Geneva and probing real atmosphere by aircrafts.
droplet to initiate other and electrons could build Nevertheless, it has established the fact beyond
up a large effect before the applied electric field doubt that variations of cosmic ray intensities
could remove all ions. Svensmark and his team reaching the Earth’s surface produce clear
therefore decided to increase the concentration of changes in cloudiness at the lower altitude levels
ions instead of removing them from the box to of atmospheric conditions and the ever-changing
see if there was any effect on the increase or cosmic rays produce sympathetic changes in the
decrease in the number of specks. A Gamma ray climate of the Earth. A beautiful comprehensive
source when introduced into the chamber through story of the Danish Experiments in efforts to
a tube, suddenly provoked a dramatic increase in establish relationship between cosmic rays and
the nucleation of specks and this was very cloudiness in correlation and corroboration with
encouraging. Not very long after this observation, evidence gathered from other seemingly un-
Martin Enghoff and Joseph Polny noticed that connected but amazingly inter-connected areas
the number of counts in their ultra-fine speck such as; radio carbon dating, geological history,
detector suddenly showed large increase as soon geomagnetic theories, paleontology, Antarctic
as they introduced radio-active source in the box glaciology, space science and cosmology, cosmic
even without switching on the ultra violet lamps. ray physics, meteorology and atmospheric
Subsequent experiments using better and strong chemistry and physics, stellar nuclear chemistry
sources of Gamma rays showed that production and all such related disciplines has been described
of ultra-fine specks increased in proportion to the in the form of a highly readable book by Henrik
98 Journal of Agricultural Physics [Vol. 12

Svensmark and Nigel Calder (Svensmark and cold that they radiate much less heat than what is
Calder, 2007). blocked from below. Thick middle altitude clouds
by far are the best coolers but they account for a
A Word about Global Warming mere 7% of the Earth covering at any given time.
It is now certain that cosmic rays are the key
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