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GEOGRAPHY THE PHILOSOPHIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL

IN DEPTH DETERMINISM AND POSSIBILISM
CHAPTER 3
eograpy seeks to explain locational pat- confronted him with difficulties that have
G terns and explores spatial associations,

along with possible cause-and-effect rela-
tionships. Periodically through the more
than 2,000 year history of the discipline, a misdi-
strengthened his body and sharpened his wits,
given him his problems of navigation or irriga-
tion, and at the same time whispered hints for
their solution. She has entered into his bone and
rected passion for precise and uncomplicated an- tissue, into his mind and soul.
swers has resulted in a deterministic view of the
complex relationships among physical and cul- All those active verbs! In the determinists’ view,
tural geographic phenomena. people respond to the actions and initiatives of
Determinism implies that people do not have nature. Many environmental determinists identi-
freedom of decision making, that their actions and fied climate as the most powerful factor of the
decisions are determined by some force or influ- physical world. As Ellsworth Huntington asserted
ence other than human will. American geography in his conclusions to Civilization and Climate:
evolved as an offshoot of geology, and so the first
generation of American geographers was trained We are slowly realizing that character in the
mainly as physical geographers. Their interests broad sense of all that pertains to industry, hon-
lay in the study of landforms, climate, and natural esty, purity, intelligence, and strength of will is
vegetation. Ultimately, they began to study cul- closely dependent upon the condition of the body.
tural geography—the distribution patterns of the Each influences the other. Neither can be at its
human population, settlement, land use, resource best while its companion is dragged down. The
exploitation, and levels of economic development. climate of many countries seems to be one of the
While seeking explanations for cultural geo- great reasons why idleness, dishonesty, immoral-
graphic patterns strictly within the physical world, ity, stupidity, and weakness of will prevail.
they attempted to show a direct causal connection
between physical environmental factors and hu- At the other extreme from environmental de-
man activities. The first president of the Associa- terminism is cultural determinism, or possibilism.
tion of American Geographers, William Morris In this view, people can do anything, anywhere
Davis, attempted to explain the organizational that they choose. Humans do things not because
viewpoint of geography in 1906 by stating that it they are restrained by the environment, but despite
showed the relationship between “an element of the physical environment. The role of people is to
inorganic control and one of organic response.” conquer the environment, changing wilderness
Control from the nonliving elements of the natural into productive landscape. Technology level is
world was assumed to be imposed on all living the main consideration, not the environment itself.
organisms, including people. Contemporary geographers would avoid sub-
The central concepts of environmental deter- scribing to either of these two extreme viewpoints.
minists were forcefully, if poetically, stated by Physical environment is seen as passive; it does
geographer Ellen Churchill Semple. Her 1911 not dictate responses from people. People do in-
book, The Influences of Geographic Environment, deed consider physical factors in making their
opens: decisions about land use and resource develop-
ment, but they make these decisions within the
Man is a product of the earth’s surface. This framework of a culture. They consider available
means not merely that he is a child of the earth, technology: prevailing costs of labor, energy, and
dust of her dust, but that the earth has mothered capital.
him, fed him, set him tasks, directed his thoughts,
SECTION 2
The Atmosphere
Earth is surrounded by a mixture of gases known as the Objectives

atmosphere. Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other gases
왘 Describe the composition of the
are all parts of this mixture. Earth’s atmosphere changes con- Earth’s atmosphere.
stantly as these gases are added and removed. For example, ani-
왘 Describe the layers of the Earth’s
mals remove oxygen when they breathe in and add carbon atmosphere.
dioxide when they breathe out. Plants take in carbon dioxide and 왘 Explain three mechanisms of heat
add oxygen to the atmosphere when they produce food. Gases transfer in Earth’s atmosphere.
can be added to and removed from the atmosphere in ways other 왘 Explain the greenhouse effect.
than through living organisms. A volcanic eruption adds gases. A
vehicle both adds and removes gases. Key Terms
The atmosphere also insulates Earth’s surface. This insulation
atmosphere
slows the rate at which heat from the sun is lost. The atmosphere
troposphere
keeps Earth at temperatures at which living things can survive. stratosphere
ozone
radiation
Composition of the Atmosphere conduction
Figure 10 shows the percentages of gases that make up Earth’s convection
atmosphere. Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of the Earth’s atmo- greenhouse effect
sphere. It enters the atmosphere when volcanoes erupt and when
dead plants and animals decay. Oxygen, the second most abun-
dant gas in Earth’s atmosphere, is primarily produced by plants.
Gases including argon, carbon dioxide, methane, and water
vapor make up the rest of the atmosphere.
Nitrogen 78%
In addition to gases, the atmosphere contains many types of
tiny, solid particles, or atmospheric dust. Atmospheric dust is
mainly soil but includes salt, ash from fires, volcanic ash, particu- Oxygen
late matter from combustion, skin, hair, bits of clothing, pollen, 21%
bacteria and viruses, and tiny, liquid droplets called aerosols.
Other 1%
Figure 10 왘 Ninety-nine percent of

the air we breathe is made up of
nitrogen and oxygen.
Figure 11 왘 This sunrise scene that

was taken from space captures the
tropopause, the transitional zone that
separates the troposphere (yellow
layer) from the stratosphere (white
layer). The tropopause is the illumi-
nated brown layer.
Section 2 The Atmosphere 67
Copyright© by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Air Pressure Earth’s atmosphere is pulled toward Earth’s surface
by gravity. As a result of the pull of gravity, the atmosphere is
www.scilinks.org
Topic: Layers of the
denser near Earth’s surface. Almost the entire mass of Earth’s
Atmosphere atmospheric gases is located within 30 km of our planet’s surface.
SciLinks code: HE4061 Fewer gas molecules are found at altitudes above 30 km; there-
fore, less pressure at these altitudes pushes downward on atmo-
spheric gases. The air also becomes less dense as elevation
increases, so breathing at higher elevations is more difficult.
Layers of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is divided into four layers based on temperature
changes that occur at different distances above the Earth’s sur-
face. Figure 12 shows the four layers of Earth’s atmosphere.
The Troposphere The atmospheric layer nearest Earth’s surface
is the troposphere. The troposphere extends to 18 km above
Earth’s surface. Almost all of the weather occurs in this layer, as
Geofact shown in Figure 13. The troposphere is Earth’s densest atmo-
spheric layer. Temperature decreases as altitude increases in the
The Mesosphere In geology, the troposphere.
term mesosphere, which means
“middle sphere,” refers to the Pressure (Pa)
2,550 km thick compositional layer
0 2.0 쎹 104 6.0 쎹 104 1.0 쎹 105
of the Earth that lies below the
asthenosphere. The mesosphere is
also the name of the atmospheric
layer that extends from 50 to 80 600
km above Earth's surface.
500
Thermosphere
100
90
80
Altitude (km)
Temperature
70
Mesosphere
60
50
40
Ozone layer
30 Stratosphere
Figure 12 왘 The layers of the atmo-
sphere are defined by changes in tem- Pressure
perature and pressure. The red line 20
indicates temperature, and the green
line indicates pressure in pascals. 10
Troposphere
0
–80 –70 –60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20
Temperature (˚C)
68 Chapter 3 The Dynamic Earth

Figure 13 왘 Scientists on board a
The Stratosphere Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. The research plane from the National
stratosphere extends from 18 km to an altitude of about 50 km. Oceanic and Atmospheric Admini-
Temperatures rise as altitude increases in the stratosphere. This stration (NOAA) are making measure-
change happens because ozone in the stratosphere absorbs the ments of temperature, humidity,
barometric pressure, and wind speed
sun’s ultraviolet (UV) energy and warms the air. Ozone, O3, is a as they fly over the eye of a hurricane.
molecule that is made up of three oxygen atoms. Almost all the
ozone in the atmosphere is concentrated in the ozone layer in the
stratosphere. Because ozone absorbs UV radiation, it reduces the
amount of UV radiation that reaches the Earth. UV radiation that Figure 14 왘 The aurora borealis, or
reaches Earth can damage living cells. Northern Lights, can be seen in the
skies around Earth’s North Pole.
The Mesosphere The layer above the stratosphere is the meso-
sphere. This layer extends to an altitude of about 80 km. The
mesosphere is the coldest layer of the atmosphere, and its temper-
atures have been measured as low as –93°C.
The Thermosphere The atmospheric layer located farthest from
Earth’s surface is the thermosphere. In the thermosphere, nitrogen
and oxygen absorb solar radiation, which results in temperatures
that have been measured above 2,000°C. Even though air tem-
peratures in this layer are very high, the thermosphere would not
feel hot to us. Air particles that strike one another transfer heat.
The air in the thermosphere is so thin that air particles rarely col-
lide, so little heat is transferred.
Nitrogen and oxygen atoms in the lower region of the ther-
mosphere (about 80 km to 550 km above Earth’s surface) absorb
harmful solar radiation, such as X rays and gamma rays. This
absorption causes atoms to become electrically charged. Electri-
cally charged atoms are called ions. The lower thermosphere is
called the ionosphere. Sometimes ions radiate energy as light.
These lights often glow in spectacular colors in the night skies
near the Earth’s North and South Poles, as shown in Figure 14.

Energy in the Atmosphere
QuickLAB As shown in Figure 15, energy from the sun is transferred in
The Heat Earth’s atmosphere by three mechanisms: radiation, convection,
Is On! and conduction. Radiation is the transfer of energy across space
and in the atmosphere. When you stand before a fire or a bed of
Procedure
coals, the heat you feel has reached you by radiation. Conduction
1. Fill two 250 mL beakers with
water. Use a thermometer to is the flow of heat from a warmer object to a colder object when
record the initial temperature of the objects are placed in direct physical contact. Convection is
the water in both beakers. The the transfer of heat by air currents. Hot air rises and cold air
temperature of the water should sinks. Thus, if you hold your hand above a hot iron, you will feel
be the same for both beakers. the heat because a current of hot air rises up to your hand.
2. Wrap one beaker with white
paper, and wrap one with Heating of the Atmosphere Solar energy reaches the Earth as
black paper. Secure the paper electromagnetic radiation, which includes visible light, infrared
with a piece of tape. radiation, and ultraviolet light. The sun releases a vast amount of
3. Place a 150 W floodlight 50 radiation, but our planet only receives about two-billionths of
cm away from the beakers, and this energy. This seemingly small amount of radiation contains a
turn the light on.
tremendous amount of energy, however. As shown in Figure 15,
4. Record the temperature of the
about half of the solar energy that enters the atmosphere passes
water in both beakers at 1 min,
5 min, and 10 min. through the atmosphere and reaches Earth’s surface. The rest of
Analysis the energy is absorbed or reflected in the atmosphere by clouds,
1. By what mechanism is energy gases, and dust, or it is reflected by the Earth’s surface. On a
being transferred to the sunny day, rocks may become too hot to touch. If the Earth’s
beakers? Explain your answer.
Figure 15 왘 Thermal Radiation

Three important mechanisms
responsible for transferring heat
in the atmosphere are radiation,
conduction, and convection.
70
surface continually absorbed energy, the Earth would get hotter
and hotter. The Earth does not continue to get warmer, because
the oceans and the land radiate the energy they have absorbed
back into the atmosphere. Ecofact
You may have noticed that dark-colored objects become much Lost Weekend Have you ever
hotter in the sun than light-colored objects. Dark-colored objects complained about how it always
absorb more solar radiation than light-colored objects, so dark- seems to rain on the weekends? If
colored objects have more energy to release as heat. This is one you live on the East Coast, you
reason the temperature in cities is higher than the temperature in might actually have a point.
Researchers recently found that the
the surrounding countryside.
mid-Atlantic states have a 30 to 40
The Movement of Energy in the Atmosphere Air that is con- percent greater chance of rain on
stantly moving upward, downward, or sideways causes Earth’s the weekends. Why? Researchers
suggest that the automobile
weather. In the troposphere, currents of less dense air, warmed by
exhaust that accumulates in the
the Earth’s surface, rise into the atmosphere and currents of denser atmosphere over the course of the
cold air sink toward the ground. As a current of air rises into the work week has actually caused
atmosphere, it begins to cool. Eventually, the air current becomes weather patterns in this area to
more dense than the air around it and sinks instead of continuing shift. By Friday, the exhaust levels
to rise. So, the air current moves back toward Earth’s surface until are high enough to trigger rain
over the weekend, which cleanses
it is heated by the Earth and becomes less dense. Then, the air cur-
the atmosphere for another week.
rent begins to rise again. The continual process of warm air rising
and cool air sinking moves air in a circular motion, called a con-
vection current. A convection current is shown in Figure 15.
20% absorbed by
ozone, clouds, and
5% reflected by atmospheric gases
the Earth’s surface
25% scattered
50% absorbed by and reflected by
the Earth’s surface clouds and air

The Greenhouse Effect
The gases in Earth’s atmosphere act like the glass in the car
FIELD ACTIVITY shown in Figure 16. Sunlight that penetrates Earth’s atmosphere
Exploring the Greenhouse heats the surface of the Earth. The Earth’s surface radiates heat
Effect Some of your classmates back to the atmosphere, where some of the heat escapes into
and teachers probably drive to space. The remainder of the heat is absorbed by greenhouse
school. Given what you know gases, which warms the air. Heat is then radiated back toward
about the reflection and absorp- the surface of the Earth. This process, in which gases trap heat
tion of heat, go to the parking lot
near the Earth, is known as the greenhouse effect. Without the
on a sunny day and hypothesize
which cars will have the hottest greenhouse effect, the Earth would be too cold for life to exist.
interiors. Base your hypothesis on The gases in our atmosphere that trap and radiate heat are
such variables as the color of car called greenhouse gases. None of the greenhouse gases have a
interiors and whether the win- high concentration in Earth’s atmosphere. The most abundant
dows are tinted or untinted. greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and
Record your observations in
nitrous oxide. The quantities of carbon dioxide and methane
your Ecolog.
in the atmosphere vary considerably as a result of natural
and industrial processes, and the amount of water
varies because of natural processes.
Figure 16 왘 The gases in the atmo-

sphere act like a layer of glass. Both
glass and the gases in the atmosphere
allow solar energy to pass through.
But glass and some of the gases in the
atmosphere absorb heat and stop the
heat from escaping to space.
SECTION 2 Review
1. Describe the composition of Earth’s atmosphere. CRITICAL THINKING
2. Describe a characteristic of each layer of the 5. Analyzing Processes Read about the density of
atmosphere. Earth’s atmosphere under the heading “Air Pressure.”
Write a paragraph that explains why Earth’s atmos-
3. Explain the three mechanisms of heat transfer in phere becomes less dense with increasing altitude
Earth’s atmosphere. above Earth. WRITING SKILLS
4. Describe the role of greenhouse gases in Earth’s 6. Analyzing Processes How does human activity
atmosphere. change some greenhouse-gas levels?
72 Chapter 3 The Dynamic Earth

BIOSPHERE
Introduction
The biosphere is defined as the part of earth which is habituated. The atmosphere consists of both
the biotic and abiotic components. The biosphere is also known as living mantle. This idea came into
function 100 year ago. It was rejected than and its importance was come to known recently. The
Austrian geologist Eduar Suess played a vital role in this regard. The thickness of biosphere is around
22 and half a kilometer from the bottom of ocean and extends till the top of mountains. Some part of
the biosphere are occupied more and some are less. The maximum density of the organisms occurs in
the tropical rain forests along with the coral reef. The life on the live volcanoes does not exist. There
are very few organisms which occur on the tundra region, in snowcapped Himalayas, deserts and the
hot springs.
There are different subdivisions of biosphere. These are known as:-

a) Hydrosphere
b) Lithosphere
c) Atmosphere.
They interact with each other and do not occur alone. They provide a crucial role in the existence of
organisms. The lithosphere is the solid part of earth. It forms the continents and the land masses. It is
mainly composed of the rocks and soil. It is rich in minerals. It is about 20 kilometer in the thickness.
The area which is uncovered is the area which provides the exchange of minerals with the living world.
The hydrosphere is the liquid part of earth. It forms the oceans, sea, lakes, rivers and ponds etc. The
survival of aquatic animals depends on water. The seas and oceans occupy nearly ¾ th area of earth.
Their salt content is high. There is a little salt content in the fresh water. The atmosphere is the gaseous
part of earth. It form the gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other few gases along
with the dust and water particles. They cover the lithosphere and hydrosphere. The nitrogen is the
most abundant gas which is followed by the other gases. The atmosphere extends many kilometers
and is divided into many parts. It consists of the troposphere, stratosphere, ozonosphere and
ionosphere. The troposphere is important to biosphere and the rest of layers act as an ozone layer
which remove the U.V rays and other harmful waves. These subdivisions are essential for the survival
of living beings.
Closed and Open System of Biosphere

The closed system is defined as the system which does not have any inputs and does not send any
signals outside. The open system is defined as the system which does have inputs and does send
signals outside. The earth is included under it in respect to energy. The earth receives energy and
sends to the atmosphere. The sun is the main source of energy to earth. The ability of sun to produce
energy is related to the process of nuclear fusion. It occurs by the help of hydrogen atoms. The matter
is transformed to energy. The high energy radiations are removed. Out of the total energy only a few
amount of energy is picked by the autotrophs and the rest is dissipated as a heat. This amount of
energy is used to manufacture to their own food as well as food for the other organisms. The trapped
energy is also dissipated. So, the earth receives the energy and releases the infra-red waves as energy
waves. The earth can also acts as a closed system with respect to the materials. The meteors which
come to the earth have a very little amount of material. So, the earth neither gets the material from
outside and nor it gives the material outside. The earth forms the atmosphere and it neither receives
the gases and nor it gives the gases to outside environment.
1
Matter and Energy of Biosphere
The matter is defined as something which has weight and occupies some space. They may be plant,
animals, stone, brick, pond, river etc. The objects with matter are referred as materials. The matter
exists almost everywhere in this world. They are composed of atoms and molecules. They are not
static and depending upon their mobility they can be solid, liquid or in gas form. They change in
different forms depending upon the changes in temperature and pressure. The water is in solid state
when the temperature is below 0 degree Celsius. It changes into the liquid form when the temperature
rises above 0 degree Celsius. When the conditions do not change the matter cannot be formed and
neither be destroyed. They can be changed by the process of fusion and fission. These changes occur
in the nuclear bomb and nuclear reactor. The matter and energy are interchangeable. They occur in
aggregated form. The energy is defined as the ability to do some work. Almost all the daily activities
of humans require energy. The energy occurs in multiple forms and the one form of energy can be
converted into the other form. The eyes and ear can also felt some form of energy as light and sound
respectively. The receptors present in skin can also feel the heat.
There are a lot of differences between the matter and energy. The matter has a mass and volume. It
occupies space and can give rise to multiple structures. It can be seen, smelled or tasted. On the other
hand the energy has no mass and volume. It does not occupy a space and cannot give rise to multiple
structures. It cannot be seen, smelled or tasted. It can be only felt.
Foundation of Life of Biosphere

The matter and energy play a vital role in the foundation of life. They play a crucial role in the
formation of structure and function. The biosphere gets its energy from the sun. The green plants are
also known as the autotrophs. They capture the energy and make the food. The food they make is
used for themselves as well as for the other animals. They change the solar energy into chemical
energy. This is used in the synthesis of food. The heterotrophs are not able to make their own food. It
includes the zooplankton, larvae, bugs, higher animals and invertebrates. They are also known as the
consumers. They are of different types. Basically, they are of herbivores and carnivores type. The
herbivores are known as the first order consumers and they feed on plants. The carnivores are known
as the second order consumers and they feed on animals. The food energy is lost in the form of heat.
The energy does not return. There is a need of constant flow of energy from the sun to earth. The flow
is unidirectional. It occurs from the sun to plants and from the plants to animals leading to the
microbes with the dissipation of heat. The matter forms the material organization. The inorganic
states of producer picked the matter and change into the organic state. It occurs in the process of
photosynthesis. In the organic state the matter is transferred to the heterotrophs. It may lose in the
process of excretion and wastes. The inorganic matter is liberated when the organism dies and is
reused by the other organisms. So, a cycle is formed between the biotic and abiotic components of
biosphere.
Production Ecology of Biosphere

It is defined as the branch of biology which deals with the rate of production of biomass. It deals with
all the trophic levels. It also deals with the whole of ecosystem. It includes the gross primary
productivity, net primary productivity, community and secondary productivity. The highest
productivity is seen in the coral reef. This is followed by the tropical rain forest and sugar fields. The
desert has the lowest productivity. The gross primary productivity is defined as the branch of biology
which deals with the rate of organic matter synthesis by the producers in per unit time and area. The
net primary productivity is defined as the branch of biology which deals with the rate of organic matter
stored by the producers in per unit time and area. It is equal to the gross primary productivity minus
2
the loss due to the process of respiration. The community productivity is defined as the branch of
biology which deals with the rate of net manufacture of organic matter by the community in per unit
time and area. The secondary productivity is defined as the branch of biology which deals with the
rate of increase in the energy rich biomass by heterotrophs in per unit time and area.
Recycling of Materials of Biosphere

The recycling of materials is also known as the cycles of matter. It is also referred as a biogeochemical
cycle. There are nearly 100 elements which are present on our planet. A less than 20 elements play a
vital role in the formation of living matter. This is also known as the protoplasm. These elements are
referred as the essential nutrients. The earth is an important source for these elements. These are
required by the living organisms to build their body and to show the metabolism. These are known as
the biogeochemical. All the subdivisions of biosphere help to make these elements. They may occur
in the form of compounds. As the earth is a closed system for materials the supply of nutrients is
limited. The amount of living matter which is present in all the organisms is much more than the total
weight of our planet. This is feasible as these nutrients are not bound permanently and are released
when the organism dies. This comes back into the nonliving world. The circulation of nutrients
between the living and nonliving world is known as the cycles of matter. The nutrients are not present
always and they keep on changing. They occur mainly in two forms that are as reservoir pool and the
cycling pool. The reservoir pool is defined as the reservoir of nutrients which get transfer to the cyclic
pool. They include phosphates and the nitrogen gas. The cyclic pool is defined as the cyclic of nutrients
between living and nonliving components of the biosphere.
Flow of Energy of Biosphere

The branch of science which deals with the flow of energy into the ecosystem and its transformation
into the living organisms is referred as a bio-energetics. The energy is essential for the existence of
organisms. It helps to overcome entropy and to perform various life activities. The energy occurs in
multiple forms and the one form of energy can be converted into the other form. Sun is the main
source of energy. There is a need of constant flow of energy from the sun to earth. The flow is
unidirectional. It occurs from the sun to plants and from the plants to animals leading to the microbes
with the dissipation of heat. The radiations from the sun can be short wave or long wave. The short
wavelength radiations include the gamma rays, U.V rays and cosmic rays. The long wavelength
radiations include the infrared waves. The very short wavelengths are very harmful to the organisms.
They cause the breakdown of inorganic components. The harmful radiations are filtered by the
ionosphere and ozonosphere. The ionosphere is formed of the gamma rays, x rays and cosmic rays.
The ozonosphere is formed by the U.V radiations. Almost half of the radiations which enter into the
atmosphere are reflected back and are absorbed by the clouds and gases. The reflected radiations are
rich in the infra-red rays. The earth receives only 50 percent of the radiations from the sun. It includes
the visible light, UV light and heat waves. The energy received in the Varanasi of India is three times
more than the energy received in the Britain. Some part of the energy is used by the producers and
the rest is dissipated.
The energy regulates the humidity of atmosphere and forms the air currents. It determines the
different types of climates like the tropical, temperate, subtropics and arctic. The heating effect of the
solar radiations determines the atmosphere and soil temperature. They are dependent on the angle
of radiations which play an important role in the determination of season. The energy forms the water
vapors, clouds and rain.
3
The amount of living matter present in an organism presents the biomass. It does occur in community
also. The autotrophs are also known as the producers. They make the food by the process of
photosynthesis from the inorganic materials. They not only make their food but also for the other
organisms. They absorb the energy from sun and convert into the chemical energy. They release
oxygen. The organic compounds release energy during respiration. They are also referred as the
transducers as they can convert one form of energy to the other form. The organic compounds which
are formed play an important role in the building of bodies and help in the release of energy. This
energy is used to overcome the entropy and helps to work. The amount of biomass can be calculated
with the help of energy.
There is a ten percent law which is also known as the lindmans law of trophic efficiency. This law was
given by Lindeman. It was given in the year 1942. It states that when the organic food is transferred
from one trophic level to the other around one tenth of the food is stored. The storage is in the form
of flesh. The remaining nine tenth of the food is broken down in the process of respiration. So, one
can say that the net productivity of the higher trophic level is around one tenth of the previous one.
Biogeochemical Cycles of Biosphere

The bio geochemical cycles are of two types mainly. They can be gaseous or sedimentary. In the
gaseous cycles the bio genetic materials involved are the gases. They can be nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide and water vapor. The water forms the reservoir pool. These are quick cycles and take very less
time to complete. In the sedimentary cycles the bio genetic materials involved are the nongaseous.
These are not quick cycles and take a long time to complete. The lithosphere forms the reservoir pool.
It includes the phosphorus and sulphur. It takes place through the food chain. This process can take
million years to complete in some cases. There are some important bio geochemical cycles which are
discussed below.
Sulphur Cycle of Biosphere
The sulphur forms an integral part of the amino acids and proteins. It is also present in the enzymes
and vitamins. It occurs in the element form as sulphides and sulphates. The gaseous form is almost
nonexistent. The lakes, marshes and the water rich soils release a hydrogen bi sulphide which is
changed into the sulphur dioxide. The fossil fuels also release a sulphur dioxide. It comes back to soil
when it is dissolved in the rain water. The plants take sulphur in the form of sulphate which is changed
into the organic compound. They enter the food chain from the plants and enter the soil through the
dead bodies and excretions. The decomposers release hydrogen bi sulphide in the anaerobic
respiration. It forms sulphates under the aerobic conditions. They also occur as sulphur. There are
some bacteria and fungi which can change the hydrogen bi sulphide to sulphate and vice a versa. The
sulphur can be transferred from the circulating pool to reservoir pool by the process of leaching and
precipitation.
There are other minerals which are also very important. These are calcium, magnesium, zinc etc. They
are an important segment of lithosphere and they are released when the rocks are exposed to the
weather conditions. They are also found in the mining. They do occur as in the form of air or dust.
They settle down to the soil or may enter into the water. They go into the plants and also involve the
other organisms. The decomposers play a crucial role in the recycling. They break the organic matter
and release energy in the form of minerals in the soil. They can be used by the organisms. There is a
nonstop exchange of the materials between the surroundings and the organisms. The removals of
nutrients have an adverse impact on the mineral cycles. They are deposited in the shells of skeleton
and in the bottom of sea. A good amount of calcium is seen in the shells of corals and mollusks. There
are certain shells and skeletons which are present on the land which release calcium. They degenerate
4
at the lower rate. The organisms which are present at the bottom of sea return to the cycling pool
after a large number of years. They become rock due to the disturbances in the earth.
Phosphorous Cycle of Biosphere

The phosphorous is a vital component of nucleic acids, bones, ATP and teeth. It is inorganic in nature
and it plays an important role in the metabolic reactions. It releases the energy and is utilized in the
various functions of body. It mainly occurs as a phosphate and is utilized in the industries as well as
detergents. It occurs in the nature, soil, rocks or in combination with the other metals like iron and
aluminum. They have no gaseous cycle. The phosphates circulate in the lithosphere and hydrosphere.
The phosphorous is also present in the aquatic areas. When it is present in the soil it is in the insoluble
form and becomes soluble by the chemicals secreted by organisms and plants. It is absorbed by the
plants which change into the organic form and they are added to the soils which increase their fertility.
The soil from guano and ocean bed is a good source of phosphorous. The phosphorous move to
animals from the plants. The decomposers act on the dead bodies of organisms and the animal
excretions. They release the phosphorous which is again used by the plants. The phosphorous is lost
through the process of leaching. It combines with the other metals and becomes insoluble. It settles
down. The bones and teeth also contain the insoluble form of phosphates. They are an important
segment of lithosphere and this type of phosphorous is released when the rocks are exposed to the
weather conditions.
Water Cycle of Biosphere

The water cycle is also known as the hydrological cycle. The water is an indispensable source of energy.
They form around 80 percent of the body weight. It helps to make macro molecules, transport of
materials, solubilize the chemicals and involve in chemical reactions. The photosynthesis is the process
which liberates oxygen with the photolysis of water. There are different types of water cycles. They
can be global or biological water cycle. The global water cycle is larger as compared to the biological
water cycle. In the global water cycle there occurs a process of evaporation and precipitation. All the
oceans, rivers, ponds and lakes lose water through the process of evaporation. The atmosphere has
0.13 multiply by 10 raise to power 20 G of water vapors. The clouds are formed by the higher altitudes,
cool and condense water vapors. The clouds move and precipitate later on. The precipitation occurs
in many forms. It occurs as snow, rain and hail. The total precipitation present in the world is 4.46
multiply by 10 raise to power 20 G of water vapor. The atmosphere must be filled with the water vapor
multiple times in a year. The snow form is deposited in the polar and alpine areas. In the summer
season the ice melts. The rainfall occurs everywhere on the earth. The rivers are formed by the melting
of snow. The water goes into the soil and becomes underground. The rivers take excess of water into
oceans. The underground water is used by humans in the agriculture. The plants are dependent on
the water which is present in the soil. The underground water also moves into the ocean. The whole
of water does not move to ocean. The large proportion of water is formed by the polar ice, snow and
the underground water. The biological water cycle is relatively smaller. The water enters into the
human beings and it is returned back to the environment. The plants and animals which reside in the
water absorb the water from nearby areas. Some of the water is excreted out and the rest of water is
released when the organism dies. The plants which occur on land absorb the water from the roots.
They loss the water mainly through the process of transpiration and makes the climate cool during
summer and makes it warmer during the winter season. It also leads to rainfall. It plays an important
role in the deciding of weather in a particular area. The animals which live on land take ware from
ponds, rivers and lakes etc. The water requirement is also met by the food. The water is lost through
the urine and sweat. The rest of water is released when the organism dies.
5
Nitrogen Cycle of Biosphere
The nitrogen forms many components like nucleic acids, proteins, amino acids etc. It is the inert gas
and is the most abundant gas present in the atmosphere. It plays an important role in the fixation of
nitrogen .They play a vital role in the formation of protoplasm. It is present in the inorganic form and
is changed into the organic form. This conversion is done by the plants. The organic nitrogen act as a
food for the animals and the inorganic nitrogen act as a food for the plants and they store in the form
of nitrates and ammonium ions. They occur in the soil. They cannot be recreated from the nitrates
which are present in the rocks. The rocks occur everywhere and liberate nitrogen by the process of
weathering. It is a slow process. The nitrogen is mainly provided by the atmosphere and they make
more than 80 percent of the air. The nitrogen can occur in the form of element or molecule. In the
process of nitrogen fixation this nitrogen is changed into the other compounds of nitrogen. The
nitrogen fixation can be atmospheric, biological or industrial. In the atmospheric nitrogen fixation the
oxygen combines with the nitrogen. This combination does occur with the process of photochemical
and electrochemical reactions. It gives rise to oxides of nitrogen. They dissolve in the rain water and
are settled in the soil. They combine with the other salts and form nitrates. This process adds around
35 mille gram per meter per year of the nitrogen. The biological nitrogen fixation involves the different
types of bacteria. They can be free living or symbiotic or blue green algae. They have the ability to
utilize the nitrogen from atmosphere and change it to ammonia. The ammonia combines with the
organic acids to form the amino acids. This type of nitrogen fixation adds around 400 mille gram per
meter per year of the nitrogen. It raises the total amount to 175 million tones making nearly 2/3rd of
the total supply. The industrial nitrogen fixation produces the ammonia. In this nitrogen is combined
with the hydrogen at high temperature and at constant pressure. The plants absorb the nitrate ions
and change it to ammonia and which is used to make the amino acids. This type of ammonia is of
direct type. The amino acids form proteins and nucleotides. They give rise to nucleic acid later on. The
animals make use of the organic nitrogen with the help of plants. The products like nucleic acids and
proteins are used by the animals. When the proteins are metabolized they produce multiple
nitrogenous wastes like ammonia, urea along with the uric acid. They are excreted out. The dead
bodies of plants along with the animals have a nitrogenous compounds and the ammonifying bacteria
act on it. These are also known as the decomposers. They include the Actinomycetes, fungi and bacilli.
They use the organic acids and release the ammonia. It helps in the building of body. The ammonia
may also come into the atmosphere and the volcanic eruptions are also a good source of ammonia.
This ammonia is acted by the nitrifying organisms which change them into the nitrate. In this case the
nitrites are formed first and are followed by the nitrate. This helps the plants in the process of
absorption. The nitrifying bacteria are the nitrosomonas, nitrococcus, nitrobacter and penicillium. The
nitrate is available for the absorption. Some potassium salts are added to the soil which acts as a
fertilizer. Some nitrate is also lost by the process of precipitation and leaching. It forms the rocks and
they release the nitrogen very slowly. The anaerobic areas and in the water rich areas the bacteria
utilize the oxygen of nitrates. The nitrates reduce to form the nitrogen gas which comes into the
atmosphere. This step is referred as the denitrification. The common bacteria included in this group
are pseudomonas and thiobacillus.
Oxygen Cycle of Biosphere

The oxygen is very essential component for survival. It forms many organic compounds. It is required
by the organisms that respire aerobically. It can occur in the form of gas or in combined form. The
gaseous form constitutes 20 percent of the total content. In the combined form it occurs as a carbon
dioxide and water. The requirement of organisms for oxygen is met from the atmosphere. The aquatic
animals meet their requirement of oxygen from the water where the oxygen is present in the diffused
6
form. Some of them may come to the surface to obtain oxygen. The process of respiration involves
the oxidation in which carbon dioxide and water is formed. The burning of fossil fuels lead to the
emission of number of gases like the carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide etc. The oxides can be reduced
chemically as well as biologically. They release oxygen. Main process which is concerned with the
liberation of oxygen is photosynthesis. The photolysis breaks the water. So, the oxygen content of the
atmosphere has remained static for long decades. In the early time when the earth evolved the oxygen
was present in the combined form.
Carbon Cycle of biosphere

The carbon occurs in all of the organic components. It occurs in the protoplasm, carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins and nucleic acids. It is present in the nonliving component and occurs in many forms. The
main forms are the carbon dioxide in air, dissolved carbon dioxide in the water, graphite in the rock
form and in the form of fossil fuels which are a source of energy. The carbon content present in the
atmosphere is 6 multiply by 10 raise to power 14. In the hydrosphere it is less than the atmosphere.
The lithosphere has three multiply by 10 raise to power 21 carbon content. This carbon is only
available when it is burnt or changed chemically. The carbon present in the atmosphere and
hydrosphere is available as such. It may occur free in the air or in gaseous forms. It is used by the
producers in the process of photosynthesis and is converted into the organic compounds. The amount
of carbon used yearly in the process of photosynthesis is seven multiply by 10 raise to power 13. The
oxygen which is liberated act as a byproduct. The one hectare area of tropical rain forest produces
10000 kg of oxygen. It absorbs 8000 kg of carbon dioxide. The producers’ fix the carbon and it enters
the food chain. It is passed into the herbivores, carnivores etc. The photosynthesis leads to the
decrease in the carbon content of hydrosphere and atmosphere. It can be increased by the process of
respiration, burning of fuels, volcanic eruptions along with the hot springs, decomposition of wastes
and the dead bodies and the weathering of rocks. Some carbon is added to the lithosphere by shells
and skeletons of the animals. They also form coal and oils. The exchange of the materials between the
hydrosphere and lithosphere is slow. The exchange of the materials between organisms and the
atmosphere is rapid. The carbon is absorbed by the producers. This is a self-regulated process and
shows feedback. The increase combustion of fossil fuels has led to disturbance of this cycle. They add
six multiply by 10 raise to power 12 carbons in the atmosphere. So, they increase the carbon dioxide
in atmosphere. They have an adverse effect on the atmosphere and also melt the ice and increase the
sea level around 20 meter
Natural Resources
The man is the most dominant animal of the biosphere. It has well developed physical and mental
features. He has nice skills to manipulate the things and make tools which are essential for survival
now days. He is a social animal. He has the ability to read and write. He can speak and can express
himself. He can domesticate the animals. He belongs to the faculty of reason. All these features have
made him the most dominant animal of our sphere. He has the ability to manipulate the environment
according to his requirement. He needs more comfort and security. He uses a lot of energy and
material to meet its requirements. He makes his own socio cultural environment with the natural
environment. He has the ability to develop certain skills and tools. The growth of society depends on
him and plays a crucial role in the development of human power. So, man is also known as the social
and cultural animal. The human species has evolved slowly and from many stages. These include the
hunting, fishing, and gathering of food, agricultural and industrial process. They have made man
powerful and have the ability to manipulate the environment. They change the environment into
noosphere which is also known as the mind region or mind area. He uses the environment according
to his mind and does not care about the other organisms. The source of supply which is in reserve and
7
includes the wealth, goods and organisms is referred as natural resources. They can make the
hydrosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. These are essential for life. They also include the water,
plants, minerals, animals etc. The resources are not static and keep on changing with the society.
There are certain societies in the Andaman group which do not utilize the uranium, gold and silver.
These are not the resources for them. These may be resources for the other society. The uranium is
used in the nuclear energy and gold is an important source of ornament.
Types of Natural Resources

The natural resources are of multiple types. These are classified on the basis of chemical composition,
abundance and availability and presence in the different parts of world. There are inorganic and
organic resources. The inorganic resources include mainly air and water. The organic resources include
mainly plants and animals. The mixed type that is inorganic and organic includes the soil. They are also
classified as the inexhaustible and exhaustible resources. The inexhaustible resources are not
exhausted by the use of man. It includes the air and sand. The exhaustible resources are exhausted by
the use of man. It includes the renewable and nonrenewable resources. The renewable resources are
replaced after being used by the humans. It includes the water, soil and organisms. The nonrenewable
resources are not replaced after being used by the humans. It includes the fossil fuels and minerals.
The forest and wild life are the renewable resources and has the ability to become nonrenewable.
They are also classified as the natural, multi-national and international resources. The natural
resources occur within a country. It includes the minerals and lands. The multinational resources are
shared by the few countries. It includes the rivers and lakes. The international resources are shared
by all of the individuals. It includes the air and sunlight. There are multiple energy resources. It includes
the fossil fuels, solar energy and different types of power like nuclear, wind and hydroelectric. The
energy from garbage and geothermal is also a good source of energy.
Fresh Water Resources

The earth is mainly formed by the water. It makes more than the 80 percent of the earth surface. The
earth is also known as the water planet. The water resources are of different types. They can be fresh
water or ocean water resources. The fresh water resources occur in the rivers, lakes, ponds and
streams. Their size may vary and may be small or large in size. The fresh water is an indispensable
source of energy and forms around 80 percent of the body weight. It is essential for the survival of
human race. It occurs in the form of rainfall. The average rainfall in India is more than 100 centimeter.
However, in certain areas it is less than the 100 centimeter like deserts and the semi-arid areas. The
land under irrigation is nearly 50 million hectare and is likely to increase with the passing time. In India
the ground water reserve is very huge. The rainfall adds nearly 3 million cubic kilometer of water in a
year. The most of water goes into rivers and the rest of water goes underground. This is very helpful
in the process of irrigation. The fresh water is used by the humans for many purposes. It is used in the
drinking, bathing, washing and in the production of electricity. It helps to rear fishes and the other
aquatic animals. It is used in the disposal of sewage and organic wastes. The industrial plants and the
construction of houses are dependent on it. It is used in the irrigation of land. There are large fresh
water reserves in India. But the fish production is very low in India.
Fossil Fuels
The fossil fuels include the coal, petroleum and natural gases. They play a vital role as a source of
energy. The oil resources are limited and have a great demand. This is due to the increase in population
and increase in demand of automobiles. There are more coal reserves than the petroleum reserves.
The coal is produced by the India, America, Japan, Poland, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Libya etc. The
Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, j and k, and Andhra Pradesh in India are the main reserves of coal. The new oil
8
reserves have been detected in the Bombay high recently. The per capita consumption of energy is
different in the different countries. The highest per capita consumption of energy is in America. But it
covers around 6 percent of the world population. The lowest per capita consumption of energy is in
India and it covers around 15 percent of the world population. This data was taken in the early 1970s.
The coal produces energy and so its production is very important. The coal can be changed into the oil
and methane gas. The gas is more suitable as it produces less pollution. The coal deposits also have
sulphur. When it is burnt it forms a large amount of sulphur which causes an adverse effect on the
environment. It causes air pollution. In the modern technology they are an important source of energy.
Their use is multipurpose in the agriculture, automobiles, industries and engines etc. The petroleum
products are also formed by them.
Alternative Sources of Energy

There are the other sources of energy. It includes the, solar energy and different types of power like
nuclear, wind and hydroelectric. The energy from garbage and geothermal is also a good source of
energy. The solar energy is the non-exhaustible source of energy. There occurs no pollution. This is
mainly used to heat water and to cook the meals. The hydroelectric power is formed by the kinetic
energy of water. There are number of power stations in India which are based on this power. They
depend on rivers and canals. The sea tides also play a crucial role in the formation of tidal energy.
There are some form of water which occurs on the earth as hot springs and form electrical power. It
is also known as the geo thermal energy. There are many wind mills which are used by the people as
a source of power and is used to pump water. The duration and quantity of the wind is not static. It
differs from place to place. So, they differ in function from place to place. The nuclear energy is formed
by the fusion and fission of atoms. The nuclear fusion involves the combination of two nuclei of an
atom. The fission involves the splitting of nuclei. A large amount of energy is liberated. A 1 molecule
of uranium 235 can generate an energy which is equal to the burning of 15 tons of coal or 14 barrels
of crude oil. The atomic power stations are located in the different parts of our country. They are
present in the Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh. The waves in the sea are also
used to liberate energy and are referred as a tidal energy. The cooking and heating in the villages is
done by the use of cattle dung. A new gobar gas plant technique is very popular in India. It is also
known as the biogas. This dung forms an odorless gas which has low pressure. It is used for heating
and cooking and it’s left out is used as a manure. The wood is also an important source of energy and
is known as the wood energy. The liquid hydrogen is also an important source of energy and is
pollution free. The garbage production is the highest in America and half of this is in paper form. The
rest of is in the form of plastics, papers and bones etc. So, the waste is also beneficial.
Conservation of Energy
The energy problems are increasing day by day. They are serious and can become critical in the coming
time. We should follow certain energy saving programmes. The life style should be modified. One
should preserve the energy by switching off the lights which are not required. The excessive
consumption of oil should be checked. The oil must be protected from the fire. All other alternative
sources of energy like the solar energy and different types of power like nuclear, wind and
hydroelectric must be used more.
The Layers, Composition and Role of Atmosphere

The atmosphere is defined as a gaseous envelope which covers the earth. It consists of many layers.
These include the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere.
 The troposphere extends from the earth to up to 10 kilometer.
9
 The stratosphere extends from 10 to 60 kilometer. In this the temperature is directly
proportional to the height.
 The mesosphere extends from 60 to 100 kilometer. In this the temperature is not directly
proportional to the height.
 The thermosphere extends from 6 100 kilometer onwards. In this the temperature is directly
proportional to the height
There is a layer known as the exosphere which is the outermost layer and merges with the space.
These layers are separated by the tropopause, mesopause and stratopause. The atmosphere is made
up of many gases. It includes the nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. The nitrogen is the most
common gas and is inert in nature. It forms around 80 percent of the environment. The oxygen forms
around 20 percent of the total gases which is followed by the carbon dioxide and the other inert gases.
It also contains the water vapor, gases and dust particles. The stratosphere also consists of ozone
layer. It is also known as the ozonosphere. It protects the organisms from the harmful radiations. The
air helps in the locomotion of animals, birds and bats. It provides the oxygen, carbon dioxide and
nitrogen. It helps in the dispersal of seeds, fruits and spores. It helps in the aviation transport and
transmission of the sound among animals. The circulation of air plays a vital role in changing the
climate conditions. They also play an important role in the water cycle. The use of manmade satellite
is multipurpose. It is used in the communication, monitoring of the weather and in the research. They
keep an eye at the high altitudes. The ionosphere has multiple ions and electrons. They reflect the
radio waves back to the earth. The pollution has an adverse effect on the environment.
Greenhouse Effect of Biosphere

It is defined as a process of having a high temperature in the greenhouse although it receives fewer
radiations than the outside. It occurs due to the high concentration of carbon dioxide and vapor
content. The glass walls are also included under it. They allow the short wave radiations to enter the
house. There is almost no dissipation of energy as the longer heat waves cannot penetrate through
the carbon dioxide and vapor. It leads to the warmer dust and cloudy nights as compared to the dry
nights. The gas such as carbon dioxide is known as the greenhouse gas as it is transparent to the solar
radiations but have the ability to absorb infra-red waves. These are also known as the long waves. The
carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere has increased which may be attributed to the
increase in the temperature of atmosphere. This effect is known as the greenhouse effect. It melts the
ice and increases the sea level.
10
Material 1 of 2.
Water Resources: Distribution
Introduction.
First. Is water a resource?
What type of resource is water?
Check the second material for explanation on how water is a resource and factors
affecting it in the sub-Saharan Africa. Happy reading
Note on distribution
Hydrology is defined as the science that attempts to answer the question, ‘What happens
to the rain’? (Penman, 1961). McDonnell (2003) argued that since the 1960s hydrologists
have (Hewlett and Hibbert, 1967) grappled with the same question using scientific
investigations and experiments, and have resolved that the study of water distribution can
be complex, comprising huge sources of uncertainties of significant research interest. The
entire hydrological cycle is known to be complex (Figure 1), and the components, which
function interactively, can make it difficult to understand (Elsenbeer, et al, 1995;
Elsenbeer and Vertessy, 2000; Jones and Swanson, 2001).
Figure 1. The hydrologic cycle and its interactive components
The knowledge of the complexity in the hydrologic cycle can be important to the
understanding of water movement (Pringle, 2003). Figure 1 illustrates that the land can
respond to many mechanisms in any single storm event, and that both the land’s hydraulic
properties and the hydrologic events can be important for a study in catchment hydrology.
Lands and basins usually respond to precipitation, which is a main component of the
hydrologic cycle, as direct runoff and groundwater, in a complex way and can be affected
by the hydraulic and hydrologic processes that operate within them, as well as the scale
at which the processes are measured (Hewlett and Hibbert, 1967; Klemes, 1983;
Sivapalan, 2005). Direct runoff is the flow of water that has resulted directly from a
precipitation effect, usually in the form of channel interception (water from direct rainfall
and splash off from nearby vegetation), overland flow (part of the precipitation that has
moved over the soil surface) and interflow. Investigations into how runoff is generated
and how water mobilises and transports chemical substances from different sources in a
catchment to the stream channels have become important to researchers (Liu et al, 2004;
Sonneveld, et al., 2006; Christophersen, et al., 1993, Granger, et al., 2010). The reason
for such importance can be that catchment behaviour is known to be useful for predicting
and controlling aquatic pollution. Knowledge of a catchment’s response can also be useful
for diagnosing the health (quality) of a catchment and identify sources and characteristics
of threatening substances (Elsenbeer et al, 1994; Elsenbeer, 2001; Liu et al., 2004).
The objective of this material is to provide a review of the basic concepts and relevant
literature in lands response to rainfall/precipitation.
Runoff Mechanisms and Processes of Flowpath Generation

Studies have shown that favourable conditions for the mechanisms of direct runoff and
groundwater can be related to the climate, topography, vegetation, soil characteristics
and geological structure of a landscape. The results on the investigations into the runoff
generation mechanism and flow paths that have featured prominently in hydrologic
studies are summarised in Figure 2. Figure 2. shows that runoff mechanisms and the
associated flow paths can be partitioned into surface and subsurface flow as discussed
in the sub-sections below:
Figure 2. Summary of flowpaths at catchment or field-scale. The different forms of the
matrix and preferential flows are highlighted close to them
Surface runoff
Surface runoff can be grouped into two types; infiltration-excess flow and saturation
excess flow. Different concepts have been provided to explain the formation of surface
runoff, and they showed that type of surface runoff that will occur in a catchment can be
influenced by the topography, soil permeability and soil wetness (Figure 3a-c).
Figure 3a-c. The different processes of surface runoff generating mechanisms. (a)
Hortonian infiltration-excess flow, (b) Partial-area infiltration-excess flow, and (c)
Saturation-excess flow (modified after Beven, 2012)
Specific concepts explaining the movements of water downslope are subsequently
explained.
Infiltration-excess overland flow

Two main mechanisms are widely accepted in literature to have explained the
mechanisms of infiltration-excess flow. The mechanisms are the Hortonian Overland Flow
(HOF) and Partial-Area Overland Flow (POF). Both the HOF and POF agree that runoff
can be generated when the infiltration capacity of the soil is exceeded by precipitation.
Infitration capacity is the maximum rate at which a given soil can absorb precipitation as
it falls (Beston, 1964). In areas with very significantly low soil’s infiltration capacity or
where soil storage capacity is extremely low, excess precipitation rapidly runs downslope
in form of the HOF (Horton, 1933) (Figure 3a).
The HOF have been observed in arid and semi-arid areas, paved and concrete surfaces,
cultivated or heavily grazed areas underlain by heavy clayey soils, catchments with
extensive rock outcrops and fields with high rate of organic matter decomposition. Water
that flows through the HOF mechanism acquires the chemical signature of the top soil
only, but can be affected by land use and vegetation (where it is present). When
compared with the POF and saturation overland flows (Figure 3b-c), the runoff by HOF
mechanism can reach the stream channel faster because the water is not retained in the
soil but may not contain as much concentration of the soil chemistry as would POF and
saturation overland flow (SOF).
Betson (1964) has proposed the POF after observing that only a small (localised) part of
a catchment may have actually contributed to overland flow. Such observation has also
been reported elsewhere (Moldenhauer et al, 1960; Amorocho and Orlob, 1961; South-
eastern Forest Experiment Station, 1961). The partial area model suggests that runoff
usually originates from a small, but relatively consistent, part of the catchment (otherwise
known as the partial area) (Figure 3b). The partial area is a permanently saturated area
or area of lower infiltration rate. Betson (1964) argued that partial area can only vary
(expand or shrink) under ‘unusual’ complex land use change, change in soil’s moisture
storage capacity and significant change in rainfall intensity. The assumption of the
relatively consistent partial area was however challenged by subsequent studies,
especially the variable source concept (VSA), which showed that the partial area can
expand and shrink during a storm event, and as a result of seasonal contrast (Hewlett
and Hibbert, 1967; Bonell et al, 1984; Van de Griend and Engman, 1985). The partial
area can also respond to the influence of soil condition and soil-boring organisms and
catchment topography (Weyman, 1973; Bonell et al 1984). This assumption of the
relatively consistent partial area has been described as a main reason why the concept
is not popular (Van de Griend and Engman, 1985).
Saturation-excess flow (SOF)

The process of SOF generation is explained by the Variable Source Area (VSA) concept
(Hewlett and Hibbert, 1967). The VSA concept explains that runoff is generated by the
expansion of small, locally variable water table (known as ‘contributing areas’) during
storm condition (Figure 4). The contributing areas are formed when and where rainfall
intensity is greater than the saturated hydraulic conductivity or when rainfall duration is
long enough to allow an initial shallow water table to rise to the surface (Loague, 1992;
Grady, 2001).
Figure 4. Variable source area and the variability of the contribution from different
source areas in the catchment. 1. The catchment and the condition for area
formation- lower infiltration area or permanently saturated area such as the shallow
soils, 2. Partial or source areas; these are areas contributing to runoff, 3. Increase
in the source areas as rainfall increase 4. Increase in the number of source areas
as well as their expansions. The degree of expansion and increase depend on soil
depth, average slope, size and number of storms and land use (Modified from
Black, 1997)
Under the SOF mechanism, runoff may occur in either of three ways; (a) excess water
can flow down slope as surface runoff, after the soil is saturated; irrespective of the
intensity of the precipitation, (b) previously stored soil moisture (antecedent soil moisture)
may be displaced by translatory flow. Hewlett and Hibbert (1967) described the
translatory flow as the mechanism that releases the water that has been stored in the soil
mantle before rainfall began, or (c) as return flow. Return flow occurs when infiltrated
water re-emerges at the surface before it flows to the stream as a result of increased
water or encounter with a perched water table or an impermeable layer.
In summary, the surface runoff generation mechanisms can be agreed to be made up of

the Hortonian overland flow, and the saturation overland flow that is explained by the VSA
concept. The prevalence of either of the mechanisms in any area depends on a varying
climate and anthropogenic factors with soil and topographic conditions of the catchment
as diagrammatically illustrated in Figure 5. Factors, which determine whether the runoff
ends as surface flow or subsurface flow, according to Figure 5, include slope, soil
permeability and valley size.
Figure 5. Conditions for the surface runoff generation (after Dunne, 1983)
The subsurface flow component is explained below.
Subsurface flow (SSF)

Subsurface flow (SSF) is known to comprise the part of rainwater that infiltrates into the
soil and flows underground into a stream channel. This includes the groundwater and soil
water. The soil water can flow rapidly as lateral flow, when water encounters a less
permeable layer at some depth in the soil or when near-stream water table rises and
groundwater increases during a rainfall event. When SSF occurs in the soil layer, it is
often referred to as interflow or throughflow. Hewlett and Hibbert (1967) describe the
interflow as the part of the rainwater that moves rapidly as subsurface water into the
stream channel. Water can move rapidly through the subsurface layer either as matrix
flow or as preferential flow.
Matrix flow refers to the relative slow and even movement of water and solutes through
the soil. Matrix flow occurs in both saturated and unsaturated fine soil matrix pores
(Tsuboyama et al, 2010). Preferential flow, on the other hand, refers to the uneven and
often rapid and saturated flow through a series of connected macropores, soil pipes,
fractures and finger flow (Beven and Germann, 1982; Dunne, 1983; Haria, et al., 1994;
Hagedorn and Bundt, 2002). The effect of macropores is attributed to the following
conditions (Figure 6):
 Pores (usually less than 0.5 m in size) formed by soil micro fauna within the first
1 m of the soil profile;
 Pores caused by vegetation roots (with sizes varying with type and stage of
vegetation growth), dead vegetation, including buried organic matter and rotten
wood;
 Naturally occurring macropores caused by varying soil hydraulic conductivity,
cracks and fissures (including those caused by desiccation, chemical weathering,
soil weathering, drying and wetting of clays, freezing and thawing and pressure
release);
 Artificial pipes such as mole or tile drainage which have been used on heavy
soils to improve productivity of pastures and crops by removing excess water;
underground drainage networks in peat soils (Hallard, 1988; Haria et al, 1994;
Averis, et al., 2004, Fraser, et al., 2001, MacEwan, et al., 1992; Simard et al.,
2000; Stone and Wilson, 2006).
Figure 6 a-e. Preferential flow mechanisms. (a) and (b): diagrammatic expressions of
some preferential pathways. c-d are terrestrial images of a drain flow (c),
macropores in a clay soil as traced with a dye (d), and decayed root channel
within soil (e). (source: USGS North Carolina Water Centre)
W
Water Supply and Quality in Introduction

the Sub-Saharan Africa
Water is an essential part of the ecosystem,
Adebayo Oluwole Eludoyin1 and supporting the sustenance of living organisms
Olajumoke Esther Olanrewaju2 and transformation of nonliving things. Water is
1
Department of Geography, Obafemi Awolowo an asset when it is available in safe and secure
University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria amount but it may become an agent of disaster
2
Department of Public Health, University of when it is neither safe nor secure. Provision of
Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria safe and secure water is so important that life
depends on it. Supply and quality of water exert
implications for spread or containment of infec-
tious diarrhea and other serious waterborne ill-
Synonyms
nesses that are leading causes of infant mortality
and malnutrition (Banerjee and Morella 2011).
Safe and available water
Impact of water also extends beyond health to
the economic realm in the form of lost working
days and school absenteeism. Consequently, it has
Definition become a goal that water is made available to all
people in different parts of the world in such a
Water supply represents the provision of water by sustainable amount and pattern that concerns are
public utilities, commercial organizations, com- raised for communities and countries that are
munal or individuals’ efforts, usually through a threatened by short, unreliable, and unsafe water
system of pumps and pipes. In the sub-Saharan supply. The Sustainable Development Goals
Africa, it includes direct fetching with bowls or (SDGs), which build upon the expired Millen-
drawers from surface and groundwater sources. nium Development Goals (MDGs), is the center-
Water quality encompasses the physical, chem- piece of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
ical, and biological condition of water, with Development, and were adopted by the United
respect to a specific use, such as drinking, bathing, Nations Sustainable Development Summit in
domestic chores, or any other uses. 2015 (Woodbridge 2015). The sustainable Devel-
opment Goal 6 is targeted at “ensuring availability
and sustainable management of water and sanita-
tion for all” is characterized by eight targets;
including achieving universal and equitable
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Clean Water and Sanitation, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70061-8_166-1
2 Water Supply and Quality in the Sub-Saharan Africa
access to safe and affordable drinking water for all rise to spatial variations in rainfall frequency and
by 2030 (6.1), attaining access to adequate and intensity is a major factor in water distribution
equitable sanitation for all (6.2), improving water across the African region, such that while loca-
quality (6.3), increasing efficiency in the use of tions within the Equatorial and Monsoon climates
water across all sectors (6.4), promoting the adop- receive more than 50% of the continent’s total
tion and implementation of integrated resource surface water, far less is available in countries
management systems and principles (6.5), protect outside the climate types (Fig. 2). Local factors
and restore water-related ecosystems (6.6), influencing water distribution include the differ-
expand international cooperation and build capac- ent levels of water infrastructure, policy enact-
ity to support water and sanitation provision in ment, and implementation and urbanization. The
developing countries (6a), and promote and sub-Saharan Africa was projected to have gained
strengthen participation of local communities in up to US$3.1 billion (in 2000 dollars) in Africa,
water and sanitation initiatives (6b) (Fig. 1; by a combination of time savings and health ben-
Chitonge et al. 2020). efits if it would meet the MDG for access to safe
Prior to the recognition given to water resource water (Hutton et al. 2004). Here, three key issues
as an important goal of the sustainable develop- are discussed, the key challenges of water supply
ment, the 1997 Mar Del Plata Action Plan adopted and water quality conditions, as well as the vision
by the General Assembly of the United Nations for meeting the SDG 6 in the sub-Saharan Africa
has already enshrined access to water as an essen- region.
tial human right (Grönwall 2008). Access to safe
drinking water is measured by the proportion of
the population with access to an adequate amount Water Supply Conditions
of safe drinking water that is located within a
convenient distance from their residence. The The sub-Saharan Africa region is classified as
United Nations (World Water Assessment water-poor when it comes to access to clean drink-
Programme 2006) recommends access to at least ing water. Lee and Schwab (2005) associated poor
20 L of safe potable water at the farthest distance water supply described as interrupted service,
of 1 km. The World Health Organization (2017) such that water is provided to residents for a
recommended that cost of potable water should be restricted number of hours per day with stagnancy
less than 10% of the total household income, and of water and growth of microorganisms. They
that safe water should be available without (Lee and Schwab 2005) noted that negative
extreme effort. Issues regarding water supply is hydraulic pressure can draw pathogens from con-
as important as life itself. Water is an essential taminated pipe areas into the water, and that nat-
ingredient of life sustenance, coming only after ural ageing and corrosion of pipeline
oxygen. Access of the people to clean and ade- infrastructure, leakages in pipeline network can
quate water supply for domestic, commercial, create favorable conditions for bacterial growth
agricultural, and industrial as well as basic sanita- along water distribution channel. Pipeline distri-
tion has been linked to developmental progress, in bution networks, where available in the sub-
human health, education, and gender equality Saharan Africa, are often characterized by
(Pan Africa Chemistry Network 2010). interrupted services, and in areas where these
The African society is particularly vulnerable facilities are unavailable, the residents face inad-
to climate change, and the consequences are huge equate access to safe water. Tatlock (2006)
on water resources (Kendon et al. 2019). The reported that 64% of Africans rely on water that
region is apparently a well water-endowed region is limited and highly variable and roughly 25% of
with an abundance of water, including at least Africa’s population suffers from water stress.
17 rivers with greater than 100,000 sq. km basin Challenges with many of the urban areas include
area, each; and at least 160 lakes, each greater than their rapid growth that in many cases has led to
27 sq. km size. The diversity in climate that gives increased demand for water from existing, largely
Water Supply and Quality in the Sub-Saharan Africa 3
6.1.1 6.1.1 Safely managed drinking water services

6.1
6.2.1 Safely managed sanitation and hygiene
Drinking services
6.6.1 6.2.1
water
6.2 6.3.1 Wastewater safely treated
6.6 Sanitation
Ecosystem and 6.3.2 Good ambient water quality
6a & 6b Hygiene
6.4.1 Water use efficiency
6a.1 Cooperation 6b.1
and 6.3.1
Participation 6.4.2 Level of water stress
6.3
6.5
Water Wastewater 6.5.1 Integrated water resources
6.5.2
Management & Water management
Quality
6.4 6.5.2 Transboundary area with cooperation
6.5.1 6.3.2
Water use
& scarcity 6.6.1 Water-related ecosystems
6.4.2 6.4.1 6a.1 Water - and sanitation-related assistance

that is part of a government spending plan
6b.1 Participation of local communities water
and sanitation management
Water Supply and Quality in the Sub-Saharan Africa, Fig. 1 Sustainable Development Goal 6 and its indicators.
(Modified from Lamizana and Zennaro 2019)
less improved, sources. Van Rooijen et al. (2009) constructed during the colonial period or by apart-
argued that influx of water, as well as that of heid government in South Africa (Odeku 2018).
human waste, has outpaced existing water and In countries where recent efforts at improved dis-
wastewater systems, causing increased rate of tribution network is unsubstantial or where main-
water pollution and irregular water supply. tenance is poor, only residents that can afford to
In many urban areas, most of the existing water sink boreholes for groundwater and adequately
distribution networks are those that were treat the water for improved quality are likely to
Water Supply and Quality in the Sub-Saharan Africa, Fig. 2 Disparity in (a) climate type and (b) rainfall over the
sub-Saharan African countries
be served with safe water; and this is a big issue may have been occasioned by either incompe-
given uncertain house ownership and negative tence or corruption in many countries in the region
effects of massive drilling (Rodina 2013). Jones (Mehta et al. 2014; Eludoyin et al. 2007). Some
and van der Walt (2004) aptly described the con- specific details are discussed below:
dition of water supply in the rural areas across the
region thus: Climate Variability and Change
Over 300 million still lack access to safe water in Variability in water supply in the African region is
sub-Saharan Africa. Lack of access to safe water is associated with climate variability, increasing
worst in rural areas, where women and children population pressure, urbanization and pressure
often spend considerable time fetching water: over from agricultural, commercial and industrial
1.2 billion people worldwide live more than 15 min
walk from a safe water source, many in Africa. In activities, as well as poor water technology,
the Southern African Development Community, among others (Rutten 2012). Rainfall and atten-
56% of rural communities lack access to safe dant soil wetness (water content of the upper soil
water, against only 22% in urban areas. layer, prior to a rain event) exhibit high spatial and
The condition describes by Jones and van der seasonal variations over the African region; evap-
Walt (2004) reveals the poorer condition of rural oration rates are also high due to high and less
dwellers in the continent as regards water distri- variable temperature across the region. It is impor-
bution as well as most other infrastructure. In tant to note that Africa is positioned across equa-
general, the Friedman’s core-periphery model torial and subtropical latitudes, where rainfall
which describes a situation where the core amount is more variable than temperature; the
(which is usually an urban area, and often vary latter is consistently high. For example, Carter
based on the sphere of focus or catchment) often and Parker (2009) reported that the inter-annual
receives a larger share of development or associ- variability in the region is such that 95% of annual
ated infrastructure at the expense of the smaller rainfall totals deviate between 16% and 45% from
communities (that are typically rural). Most rural the mean. Kendon et al. (2019) reported that given
dwellers rely on natural sources of water includ- more accurate representation of convection, pro-
ing streams, shallow wells, and rainfall while the jected changes in both wet and dry extremes over
urban areas maybe better supplied by infrastruc- Africa may actually be more severe than estimated
ture, including water facilities. by most studies. Nicholson et al. (2018) reported
occurrence of extreme droughts in the Sahel and
eastern Africa (including the 2011 drought which
produced famine in Somalia and neighboring
Factors Influencing Water Supply in the countries), downward rainfall trends in the Sahel
Region and western sectors of North Africa, an abrupt
reduction in rainfall around 1968, as well as
Many physical/natural and man-made factors weakened gradient of rainfall across west-to-east
have been linked with water supply problems in cross-section of part of the region. In general, a
the sub-Saharan Africa. The factors are often significant part of the African continent is semi-
intertwined, and have only been presented in this arid, and are prone to drought conditions while
chapter separately for elucidation purpose. The and many settlements along the coastal regions of
sub-Saharan African region is located in the tro- Nigeria, Algeria, and Congo/Gabon have experi-
pics, where the environment, including water enced some destructive impacts of severe flooding
resources, is influenced by variability and change (Eludoyin et al. 2017).
in the hot but humid tropical climates. Other chal- Surface water flow and groundwater abun-
lenges include low-level of infrastructure, popu- dance are dependent on precipitation
lation growth, fund, and governance. Important (Rosenberry et al. 2020). Therefore, variability,
problems in many countries have been linked to decreasing trend, and extreme rainfall recorded
poor coordination and participation process that in the sub-Saharan African region are linked
with inter-annual variability of surface water influence of socio-economic status in accessibility

(flow) such that wetter periods observe greater to water in many regions in Africa. Anand (2007)
volumes of stream flow surface water and drier argued that water infrastructure is grossly
periods observe reduced volumes of surface neglected in the region, and there is disparity
waters (Samson et al. 2016). Studies (e.g., Olago among countries in continent. A World Bank
et al. 2009; Mahé et al. 2009) reported declining report (Banerjee and Morella 2011) documented
stream flows in the Central Kenyan Rift, Volta that variation exists in the proportion of household
River Basin, Benue, and Niger River Basins piped-water coverage across the countries of
while more recent studies (including Ilori and Africa (about 2% in Uganda to about 40–60% in
Ajayi 2020) deduced from their long-term data Gabon, Senegal, and South Africa and almost less
at locations across Africa that although the arid than 20% in other countries). According to
and semi-arid regions in Africa had experienced Banerjee and Morella (2011),
two decades of intermittent rainfall since 1950, only 4% of rural households in Africa receive piped
the region may be currently undergoing a partial water, compared with 38% in urban areas. Majority
recovery in annual rainfall amounts. Change in of the Africa’s rural households receive their water
rainfall pattern and amount will influence the from these sources (wells and boreholes). Richer
households are much more likely to enjoy access to
water catchments, and consequently, the land- piped water than are poorer households. On the
use, land cover, and livelihoods of the neighbor- water-supply ladder, rising income is associated
ing communities. A United Nation University – with piped water and a declining dependence on
WIDER Research Brief (Working Paper (2015/ wells, borehole and surface water.
45) inferred that:
By 2050, climate change is likely to have an impact
Urbanization and Population Increase
on water availability in most of South Africa.
Increased drying or flooding is expected, with the The sub-Saharan Africa has been reported to
potential for strong localized effects. This is partic- experience rapid – some of the highest rates in
ularly true of regions with small water resource the world; 1.6–3.1% per year – urban population
management systems
growth (Lapworth et al. 2017), with an estimated
Climate change will also amplify existing half of the population projected to live in urban
stress on water availability in Africa, and that the areas, by 2030 (UN-Habitat 2004). Also, Alaazi
impacts of climate change exacerbate the already and Aganah (2019) reported that while the sub-
water-stressed catchments with complex land Saharan Africa is recognized as the world’s least
uses, engineered water systems, and a strong his- urbanized region, it is also the region with the
torical sociopolitical and economic footprint. largest proportion of urban slum dwellers. Issues
regarding slum dwellers also project the signifi-
Water Infrastructure cant differences in the condition of rural dwellers
Apart from climate, water supply in Africa is and urban dwellers in the African countries, prob-
faced with poor infrastructure. Clark et al. ably because they typically differentiated in terms
(2004) defined water infrastructure as the engi- of socio-economic status, such that poorer people
neering and social facilities available to acquire live in the rural areas, slums and some poorly
raw water, treat, pump, distribute, and store that served (in terms of water infrastructure) commu-
are targeted at ensuring water sustainability. Water nities in cities. Bosch et al. (2001) reported that
supply infrastructure consists of the materials for socio-economic status, especially income levels
building supports to pump, divert, transport, store, of household, determine the household’s access
treat, and deliver safe drinking water. While many to water services. The United Nations Environ-
urban areas appear to subscribe to centralized mental Program, UNEP (Van Leeuwen 2013) also
water infrastructure systems for water supply projected that by 2025, 16% of the population in
and wastewater for urban areas, systems in rural Africa will be living in water-scarce areas with
areas are rarely decentralized, suggesting the another 32% in water-stressed areas, due to a
growing demand for water in response to popula- the years while accessibility to piped water and
tion growth and economic development, climate stand posts is very low (less than 1% in many
effects, as well as low levels of development and countries), and existed in the 1990–2005 period.
exploitation of water resources (Fig. 3). Spatial coverage of piped water over the region
Water scarcity will further increase as popula- markedly reduced between 1990 and 2005, due to
tion and economic activities, especially in the rapid population growth. A little variation, how-
agricultural and industrial, grow. Consequently, ever, exists among countries in the region;
by 2025, up to 16% of Africa’s population will Adekola (2018) described the water infrastructure
be living in countries facing water scarcity, and of an urban area in Nigeria whose population
32% in water-stressed countries (UN Water/ increased from 93,000 in 1963 to 428,000 in
Africa 2005); the drier region will be worse hit. 2018, as one with two additional small dams,
While there has been a concerted effort to increase same number of booster stations and treatment
access to improved water supply across Africa, plants, and an extension of pipeline by 82.46 km
through widespread development of groundwater (69.41 km between 1964 and 1993, and 13.05 km
resources for domestic water supply in the private between 1993 and 2016).
sector, Stampini et al. (2009) raised concerns that Probably the foremost documented program
such development is unable to half the Goal of that is aimed at addressing the challenges of
halving the proportion of people without access to water infrastructure in the region is the Integrated
water, even in 2040. This is because the current Water Resources Management (IWRM); process
developmental work cannot keep up with popula- which promotes the coordinated development and
tion growth and urbanization. Many urban and management of water, land and related resources,
rural people, including slums dwellers with lack in order to maximize the resultant economic and
of services practice self-provision of water, using social welfare in an equitable manner without
groundwater sources – a condition that appear to compromising the sustainability of vital ecosys-
increase with population and settlement growth – tems (Mehta et al. 2014). The IWRM
with capacity to exert pressure on the quality and (International Conference on Water and the Envi-
quantity of the groundwater resource (Lapworth ronment 1992; GWP 2000) recognizes the
et al. 2017). In general, the African population
does not have adequate access to water but a • Finite nature of water and its key role in sus-
number of governmental and non-governmental taining life, development, and the environment
efforts are on to improve the situation. • Importance of participatory approaches in
water development and management
Inadequate/Unsustainable Technological and • Central role played by women in the provision,
Institutional Arrangements management, and safeguarding of water
Inadequate institutional and financing arrange- • Economic and competing values of water and
ments, inadequate data on water resources, as the need to recognize water as an
well as and human capacity for developing, economic good
planning, and implementing projects are also hin-
drances to sustainable water supply in the sub- Mehta et al. (2014) noted that the IWRM has
Saharan Africa (Banerjee and Morella 2011; been promoted by international agencies, includ-
Rutten 2012). The problem with planning and ing the World Bank, African Development Bank,
institutional arrangement is more obvious in the and Global Water Partnership, and as such as been
disparity in the proportion of water sources within considered as a discursive framework of interna-
a country, and between the rural and urban areas. tional water policy. Studies have argued that com-
For example, Banerjee and Morella (2011) argued plexity in the delineation and role of river basins
that reliance on surface water is prevalent in Afri- in the sub-Saharan Africa, overlapping of respon-
can rural areas, and borehole source, which is a sibilities among government agencies and
more improved source of water has increased over
Water Supply and

Quality in the Sub-
Saharan Africa,
Fig. 3 Water scarcity
condition across Africa
(Van Leeuwen 2013;
Damkjaer and Taylor 2017)
Key
Economic water scarcity
Physical water scarcity
Approaching physical water
scarcity
No data
ministries, cultural and governance divergence, scarcity is better defined by poor management or
including weak political will/responsibility, poor poor governance (World Water Assessment
coordination, and corruption are important rea- Programme 2006), politics, social engineering
sons that have limited the anticipated socio- and institutional issues (Molle et al. 2008).
economic, political, or ecological outcomes of Molle et al. (2008) promoted the idea of consid-
IWRM in the region (Swatuk 2005). World Bank ering freshwater resources management as a
(2010) reported that many water facilities have regional phenomenon, as exemplified by the
suffered from poor “maintenance culture” of European Water Framework Directive, and pro-
many African countries. An outline of a water posed strong stakeholders (practitioners, decision-
policy includes the government’s sector goals makers, civil society groups, experts, researchers,
and institutional commitments, which some of students)” participation in water policies in the
the African countries are still lacking while region.
many of those with water policy conspicuously
do not guarantee public-private partnership
(Banerjee and Morella 2011).
Water Quality Conditions
In general, there is yet no consistent set of
institutional arrangements in the sub-Saharan
The essence of understanding water quality con-
Africa countries, probably because the role of
dition of any place is the desire to have sufficient
water as a “critical life sustainer in ecological
water resources from where populations can drink
functioning, food production, economic activities,
them through generations without any major
health and recreation, and its importance as spir-
health problems, identify working monitoring
itual value, makes it a resource that traverses both
plans for hotspots of pollution and provide cost-
nature and society (Molle et al. 2008) is not well
effective strategy to make safe water available to
understood and not considered in water schemes.
the people. Sources of water are diverse, but 75%
Although there some optimism that many govern-
of drinking water in Africa is obtained from
ments are undergoing reforms that will likely
groundwater, and about 23% are from surface
improve water supply (Banerjee and Morella
water – including streams, springs, and rain
2011), it is imperative to note that the water
harvesting – but less than 3% are supplied through
well-organized waterworks (Pan Africa Chemis- national standards (e.g., WHO 2017), because of
try Network 2010). The distribution of water factors including bureaucratic procedures, inade-
sources suggests that less than 3% of water sup- quate commitments to implementation of relevant
plied to the region are likely to have been well policies, inadequate capacity for sustenance of
treated and subjected to quality assessment before monitoring programs, among others. The general
they were supplied to the people. factors that are associated with water contamina-
Both the surface and groundwater sources are tion in the region are as discussed below.
vulnerable to contamination but groundwater is
generally regarded to better adequate chemical
and natural microbiological quality for drinking Factors Associated with Water
and other uses than the surface water. Existing Contamination in the Sub-Saharan
statistics reveal that more countries in the sub- Africa
Saharan Africa records higher death rates, owing
to consumption of unsafe water, than any other Existing reports (including Pan Africa Chemistry
continent (Fig. 4). Figure 4, despite placing the Network 2010; Pare and Bonzi-Coulibaly 2013;
sub-Saharan African countries in worse condition Kumpel et al. 2016) have documented that water
than most other countries still excluded many pollution is severe in Africa, and mainly due to
rural and urban dwellers whose studies have domestic activities, especially dumping of solid
shown to seek diseases diagnosis late (e.g., wastes and discharge of wastewaters; intensive
Martins et al. 2013) or that refuse to visit a hospi- use of pesticides, herbicides, and inorganic fertil-
tal, even in the face of disasters, due for reasons izers for agriculture; discharge of untreated waste-
ranging from availability/accessibility of waters from industries; mining activities and
healthcare facilities to socio-economic reasons natural pollution sources. These factors are
(Omodanisi et al. 2015). discussed below:
Studies have also linked widespread lack of
access to safe drinking water in communities in Non-industrial (Including Domestic and
Africa, to prevalence of water-based diseases Commercial/Trading) Activities
(e.g., Jones and van der Walt 2004). Sources of A large number of the population of the sub-
pollution include lack of sewage treatment or pol- Saharan Africa live in poverty, particularly in
lution from agriculture, mining, and industry. rural areas and urban slums, and many cities are
Even with international aid, the rate of population characterized by poor sanitation, especially in
growth, poor infrastructure, and poor planning/ precarious neighborhood areas and slums. The
governance are competing challenges for sustain- condition of poor sanitation and urban slums are
able water quality (Salami et al. 2011). The study typically exacerbated by increased rate of rural-
conducted by Salami et al. (2011) also linked the urban migration that has encouraged rapid urban
access to safe water supply to life expectancy rate growth in many African towns. Consequently,
in Africa, showing it is proportional to human existing infrastructure for water distribution, san-
poverty index, mortality rate, population, and itation, and waste disposal become stressed, even
governance. Standard quality protocols and in places where they are available. In many of the
instruments are also poorly developed across the countries, corruption and political instability have
African countries, and only few of the countries in made matter worse. From Ghana through Nigeria
the region showed strict compliance and concern to Congo, Namibia, and South Africa, studies
to water quality assessment, probably due to weak have revealed poor waste disposal, which causes
operational and surveillance monitoring tech- release of poisonous substances as leachates into
niques. Peletz et al. (2016) noted that regulated adjacent water bodies (e.g., Eludoyin et al. 2004;
water quality monitoring activities in sub-Saharan Dibi et al. 2010; Agodzo and Huibers 2011). The
Africa did not achieve testing levels specified by groundwater is also vulnerable to contamination
the World Health Organization Guidelines or through leachate seepage (Morris et al. 2003;
Rate of human deaths due to consumption of unsafe water

No data 0 20 40 60 80 100 /thousand
Water Supply and Quality in the Sub-Saharan Africa, Fig. 4 Global distribution of rate of human deaths due to
consumption of unsafe water (GRID)
Oyeku and Eludoyin 2010). Poor waste disposal food is almost the most important driver of water
in urban areas, near rivers and dams, coastal pol- use in the region. Both rural and urban agriculture
lution, as well as leaded oil contamination by practices resulting in increased irrigation and mar-
motorbike and vehicles pose direct threat to the ket garden cultures, as well as cash crop cultiva-
water environment and human health and the tion of cash and food crops are sources of direct
environment (Fanou et al. 2006; Eludoyin et al. pollution due to intensive use of fertilizers and
2018). Water pollution promotes eutrophication pesticides, which increase productivity but
and heavy metal contamination of water bodies threaten the environment and crop quality.
(de Joode et al. 2016). Farmers who cultivate cash crops in West Africa
Many urban settlements, including major cities reportedly apply pesticides with a mixture of
have developed without concomitant develop- DDT, endosulfan, and methylparathion, which
ment of wastewater treatment (Pare and Bonzi- are toxic substances that eventually become
Coulibaly 2013), suggesting that the quality of dissolved and flow into nearby water bodies
water in those settlements may be compromised (Fanou et al. 2006). Farmers in the region have
by pollution from wastewater. Kumpel et al. also been reported to increase the doses of pesti-
(2016) reported high risk of fecal contamination cides to crops hosting high resistant pests, such as
of major sources of drinking water in Senegal, the cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera).
Gambia, Ghana, Zambia, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Pesticides, such as pyrethroids, endosulfan with
Uganda (Fig. 5). organophosphates, pyrethroids, and carbamates,
and herbicides have been widely used by farmers
in the sub-Saharan Africa (De Bon et al. 2014;
Agricultural Activities
Luiz et al. 2011). Contamination of water by pes-
Agriculture, the mainstay of most African econo-
ticide and herbicides has also been reported in the
mies is a major user of water in Africa. About 86%
region (Savadogo et al. 2006; Tapsoba
of the total annual freshwater withdrawal goes to
et al. 2008).
agriculture (Frenken 2005), thence the demand for
100
80
Percentage of Samples
60
40
20
0
A B C D E F G H I J K
Legend Sources of Drinking Water
A =Bottled/Satchet water Fecal Indicator Bacteria (FIB)
<1
B =Stored water
1-9
C =Surface water
10 - 99
D =Unprotected hand-dug wells
> 99
E =Unprotected spring
F =Protected hand-dug wells
G =Protected spring
H =Borehole
I =Rainwater
J =Public tap
K =Piped on plot
Water Supply and Quality in the Sub-Saharan Africa, Fig. 5 Fecal contamination levels in samples collected from
improved, unimproved, and stored sources. (Source: Kumpel et al. 2016)
Industrial Activities of the African countries, including Nigeria,

Efforts are huge to promote industrialization in the Burkina Faso, Congo, Ghana, Niger, and
sub-Saharan Africa (Steel and Evans 1981; South Africa, more water bodies will become
Salahuddin et al. 2020). Industries in most coun- vulnerable to the effects of mining activities.
tries in the region, however, generate wastewaters Water pollution linked to mining can cause
or liquid wastes, with little or no respect to envi- severe heavy metal contamination of water
ronmental laws, local laws, and security; often sources and poisoning of humans and animals, if
due to poor enforcement strategies, corruption, ingested (Plumlee et al. 2013) that has been linked
or politics (Sultana and Loftus 2019). Wastewa- with increased cases of kidney pain, respiratory
ters are capable of contaminating surface water by problems, dizziness, and miscarriages in many
transfer of pollutants, including heavy metals, residents of mining communities (Twerefou et al.
dye, oils, among others (Archer et al. 2020). 2015). Studies have also shown that crude oil
A major industrial activity in Africa is mining; (petroleum) exploration have raised concerns for
probably the continent is a reserve of at least severe wetlands pollution in many areas, includ-
30% of the world’s mineral resources, and pos- ing the Niger Delta in Nigeria, the largest drainage
sesses the largest known reserves of strategically basin in Africa (Omo-Irabor et al. 2008). Despite
important minerals, including gold, cobalt the general perspective that artisanal miners adopt
(Mapani and Kříbek 2012; Eludoyin 2016). Miller the use of basic tools and manual labor, and are
et al. (1999) noted that mining activities poten- consequently more destructive or pollute the envi-
tially pollute the water resources, and since the ronment more (Canavesio 2014), a more recent
mining industry is undergoing expansion in many study (Marshall and Veiga 2017) argued that there
are currently no clear regulations that defines the development in the region were enumerated by
activities that are classified as artisanal mining Pare and Bonzi-Coulibaly (2013), as follows:
because existing mining policies across the
world only refer to the size of the operation. Con- a. Studies have shown significant gaps between
sequently, both artisanal (small-scale) and or research and policy in the sub-Saharan Africa,
corporation-owned (large-scale) mining opera- but improving and supporting researches in the
tions require adequate coordination for sustain- water sector, is still crucial to provide strong
able environmental management; and not just scientific data for policy development and
the artisanal mining practice. Marshall and Veiga decision-making, and to assist strategies in the
(2017) canvassed against demonization of arti- water sector. As at present, large-scale state-of-
sanal miners as “illegal” workers, since they pro- the-art water monitoring programs are few;
vide the main source of economic sustenance, and almost unpopular in Africa. While water
consequently proposed an integrated plan to com- research in the United Kingdom can benefit
bat poverty, provide training (education) and from the protocols and data archives of the
organization for the miners; such that they can Institute of Ecology and Hydrology, Environ-
be motivated “to organize themselves in coopera- ment Change Network, among others and the
tives and/or in co-existence with conventional European countries benefit from supports of
mining companies.” Sustainable mining activities the Terrestrial Environmental Network Obser-
will protect the water resources better than poorly vatories (TERENO), and the Consortium of
managed practices. Universities for the Advancement of
Hydrological Science (CUAHSI) in the North
Natural Pollution America, none of such magnitude exists in the
Water resources, especially groundwater, are vul- sub-Saharan Africa. Recently, a survey by
nerable to contamination through rare chemical Ofori et al. (2020) on priority research ques-
(e.g., arsenic), due to contaminated geology. tions from stakeholders (practitioners,
Many of the naturally occurring pollutants are policymakers, students, non-water experts) in
products of oxidative weathering and geothermic a part of the sub-Saharan Africa reveals focus
reactions (Mukherjee et al. 2009). Partey et al. on three broad water themes – Security and
(2009) reported high concentrations of fluorine governance, water quality, and sustainable
in water used by populations in south-central Sen- management (Fig. 6), that can be adopted for
egal and the Maradi area in Niger Republic (Pare focus in the region.
and Bonzi-Coulibaly 2013). There are also cases b. Improving water governance, including facili-
of abnormally high dissolved salts (calcium, car- ties for legislation and implementations.
bonates and fluorides) in areas underlain with Clemmens (2006) suggests that success of
certain geology (Janssen and Verweij 2003), water governance depends largely on the edu-
such as the limestone regions of Nigeria, Demo- cational level of the population and democracy
cratic Republic of Congo; coal deposits in level in the country, especially the capability
South Africa and Niger, and Malmesbury in for positive synergies with combination of
South Africa. incentives, enforcement, pollution prevention
measures, and cross-fertilization of ideas from
all key-actors including communities and
The Vision for Meeting the Challenges of stakeholders.
SDG 6 in the Sub-Saharan Africa c. Ensuring sustainable groundwater protective
strategies through policies and infrastructure.
Studies have revealed that the sub-Saharan Africa d. Need to improve funding and capacity build-
can meet the targets of the SDG 6 if the gover- ing. In a survey of 36 professionals in water
nance is targeted at ensuring a strict implementa- and sanitation across 22 countries in sub-
tion of relevant policies. Key foci for water Saharan Africa, Salami et al. (2011) showed
Top Research Questions
• Can maximized water security minimize transboundary water conflicts?

• How can groundwater resources in the sub-Saharan African countries be
best developed, utilized and sustainably managed?
• How does ecosystem degradation affect water security at different
scale?
Water security
and governance • How can the water governance efficiency of river basins be measured in
the context of bringing sustainable development of the resources?
• What are the impacts of increasingly competing demands of water on
the sustainability of water resources?
• What can be done to improve water quality monitoring, control,

implementation and enforcement?
• How can water quality be improved in the advent of change of
livelihoods and urbanization, when pollutants of water are continuously
Water quality
changing from organic to inorganic?
• What if the future of water quality and is the current science and
infrastructure able to handle the emerging pollutants?
• Is it possible to establish the economic value of available data so that

policy makers can get to know the economic implication of making
decisions without sound analytics?
Sustainable water • Is there a way of putting all the data concerning water and sanitation on
management a single database so that they can be accessible to everyone?
• What mitigation measures have been put in place to protect and sustain
various water projects that are being abandoned after the end of a
project cycle?
Water Supply and Quality in the Sub-Saharan Africa, Fig. 6 Key research questions for water research in the sub-
Saharan Africa. (Adapted from Ofori et al. 2020)
that funding and technical reform, political share common water basins, at regional level,
commitment, and governance as well as capac- and will require fundamental changes in policies,
ity building are the most important responses strategies, and legal frameworks, as well as
from the professionals (Fig. 7). changes in institutional arrangements and man-
agement practices, at the national level. While
The aforementioned foci are in tandem with the this is achievable, lessons from previous programs
Africa Water Vision for 2025 that designed to in Africa, including the Millennium Development
avoid the disastrous consequences of threats of Goals, suggested the need for sustainable and
water scarcity and pollution. The Vision is efficient water policy and governance, political
targeted at ensuring regional collaboration for will, and commitment to drive the policies as
strengthening governance of water resources, well as concerns for infrastructure and funding
improving water wisdom, meeting urgent water (Fig. 9). With issues identified in Fig. 8 in place,
needs, and strengthening the financial base for the there are evidences that the sub-Saharan African
desired water future in the region (Fig. 8). countries will be able to mitigate the concerns for
The UN Water/Africa (2005) called for part- extreme climate, rapid urbanization, inefficient
nership and solidarity between countries that water use, and management that have been earlier
ACE ACE Singular most important factor to consider for

Three most important factors to
IMA improve access to safe drinking water IMA improve access to safe drinking water
TRA TRA
CFP CFP
FAA FAA
BMM BMM
ARE ARE
CBR CBR
GPW GPW
AFT AFT
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Percentage responses Percentage responses
Legend
ACE = Agreement and Cooperation of External agencies BMM = Better Maintenance and Monitoring
IMA = Integrated Multidisciplinary Approach ARE = Awareness Raising and Education
TRA = Transboundary CBR = Capacity Building and Reform
CFP = Clear and Well Focused Policies AFT = Adequate Financial and Technical
FAA = Flexible and Adaptive Approach Resources
Water Supply and Quality in the Sub-Saharan Africa, Fig. 7 Perception on factors to achieve progress in increasing
access to safe drinking water in the sub-Saharan Africa (Salami et al. 2011)
Actions Targets
Improving governance of • Development of national policies and comprehensive

water resources institutional reform
• Enabling environment for regional cooperation on shared water
• Systems for information generation, assessment and

dissemination
Improving water wisdom • Sustainable financing for information generation and
management
• Capacity building
• Mapping and characterizing the proportion of people without

access
• Water for achieving food security
• Development of water for agriculture, hydropowe, industry,
Meeting urgent water needs
tourism and transportation at national level
• Conservation and restoration of environment, biodiversity and
life supporting ecosystems
• Effective management of drought, floods and desertification
• Sustainable financing for policy and institutional reform and

capacity building
Strengthening financial base
• Sustainable financing for information generation and
for desired water future
management
• Financing urgent water needs
Water Supply and Quality in the Sub-Saharan Africa, Fig. 8 Framework for action for improved water in the sub-
Saharan Africa (UN Water/Africa 2005)
Water Supply and Issues Targets

Quality in the Sub-
Saharan Africa, • Efficient water use and management
Fig. 9 Issues and targets
• Rapid urbanization
for meeting SDG 6 in sub-
• Socio-economic inequalities
Saharan Africa
• Efficient climate warning system
Infrastructure and
funding
Political
commitment
Water Policy
and Governance
Arrows indicate interaction
reported as major problems that are associated ▶ Water and Sanitation Poverty in Informal Set-
with water security and safety in the region. tlements of Sub-Saharan Africa
▶ Water Supply and Sanitation in Sudan: Gap
towards achieving SDG6
Conclusion
Water insecurity and poor access to safe water in References

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BY-NC-SA3.0 IGO
OUR ENVIRONMENT
Important term to remember:
Environment: The immediate natural surroundings of man is called environment. E.g.: Plants, Air, Water,
Landforms, Wildlife, etc....... The word Environment has been derived from a French word "Environner"
which means "Neighborhood".
Components of Environment: (a) Natural Environment (b) Human Environment (c) Human Made
Environment
Biotic Components: All living things are known as Biotic Components. E.g.: Plants, Animal Kingdoms
including man, etc....
Abiotic Components: All non-living things are known as Abiotic Components. E.g.: Air, Water, Land, etc.....
Ecosystem: Interrelation between plants and animals in the natural environment is called Ecosystem.
Ecology: The Science with studies the relationship between living and non-living environment is termed
as Ecology.
Domains of Earth: The Four domains or realms of the Earth which jointly support life are:
(a) Atmosphere (b) Hydrosphere (c) Lithosphere (d) Biosphere
Biosphere: Plant and animal kingdom together make Biosphere or the living worlds. It is a narrow zone of
the Earth where Air, Water and Land interact with each other to support life.
1
Geography studies the interrelationship between human beings and the environment.
Natural Environment:
1. Lithosphere
 It is the solid crust or the hard-top layer of the earth.
 It is made up of rocks and minerals and covered by a thin layer of soil.
 It is an irregular surface with various landforms such as mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys, etc.
Landforms are found over the continents and also on the ocean floors.
 Lithosphere is the domain that provides us forests, grasslands for grazing, land for agriculture and
human settlements. It is also a source of mineral wealth.
2. Hydrosphere
 The water bodies on the earth's surface together form the Hydrosphere. E.g., Seas & Oceans, Rivers,
Lakes, etc.
 Earth is also known as "Watery Planet", because 71% of its surface is covered with water.
 Water is used for various purposes, i.e., domestic, agriculture, industries, transportation, generating
electricity, etc.
3. Atmosphere
 The gaseous envelope around the earth's surface consisting of mixture of gases, water vapour and
tiny dust particles is called atmosphere.
 Atmosphere is endless with no visible boundary.
 Atmosphere is composed of various gases. Major gases present are: Nitrogen – 78%, Oxygen – 21%,
Argon - .93%, Carbon Dioxide – 0.03%, Other Gases – 0.04% (like – helium, hydrogen, methane, ozone,
etc. and water vapours & dust particles.
 Ozone layer protects us from harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.
 It acts as a blanket which prevents the earth from becoming too hot during day and too cold during
night.
4.Biosphere
 Plant and animal kingdom together make biosphere or the living world.
 It is a narrow zone of the earth where Land (Lithosphere), Water (Hydrosphere) and Air (Atmosphere)
interact with each other to support life.
 Biosphere makes the earth a unique planet in the solar system.
2
ECOSYSTEM
 All plants, animals and human beings depend on their immediate surroundings. Often they are also
interdependent on each other.
 This relation between the living organisms, as well as the relation between the organisms and their
surroundings form an ecosystem.
 There could be an ecosystem of large rain forest, grassland, desert, mountains, lake, river, ocean and
even a small pond.
 In every ecosystem, there is a perfect balance in the transfer of energy and matter among the different
components. This is known as Ecological Balance.
ELEMENTS OF BIOSPHERE
1. Elements of Biosphere: Basically, there are three elements of Biosphere: -
(a) Producers (b) Consumers (c) Decomposers
(a) Producers: Plant Kingdom.
(b) Consumers:
Herbivores: First consumers, plant eating animals. E.g. goat, dear, etc. They are large in number and
reproduce faster.
Carnivores: Second level consumers. Flesh eating animals. E.g. lion, tiger, etc. They have sharp teeth and
claws and reproduce at a slower rate.
Omnivores: Consumers. They eat both plants and animals. E.g. man, ant, etc
Decomposers: Microorganisms like bacteria get their food from dead plants and animals by decomposing
them and are known as Decomposers. They keep the natural environment clean because they convert the
dead matter of plants and animals into simple compound which then enter the soil and air.
Food Chain: In the process of consuming plants by herbivores and herbivores by carnivores, there is a
transfer of energy from one level to another, which is called Food Chain.
3
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT
 Human beings are the most important part of environment. They not only interact with the
environment but also modify it according to their needs.
 Early humans adapted themselves to the natural surroundings. They led a simple life and fulfilled their
requirements from the nature around them. With time needs grew and became more varied.
 Modifications done by human beings have disturbed our ecosystem. Man is responsible for degrading
the environment. Deforestation, Soil Erosion, etc. are some of the important factors.
 Humans must maintain balance between natural and human environment. Resources to be used
wisely and should be preserved for future.
4
BIOSPHERE
Introduction
The biosphere concept is common to many scientific disciplines including astronomy, geophysics, geology,
hydrology, biogeography and evolution, and is a core concept in ecology, earth science and physical
geography. Biosphere is a key component of earth systems, which interacts with and exchanges matter
and energy with the other spheres, helping to drive the global biogeochemical cycling of carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur and other elements. From an ecological point of view, the biosphere is the "global
ecosystem", comprising the totality of biodiversity on earth and performing all manner of biological
functions, including photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, nitrogen fixation and denitrification. All
these are very vital for sustaining life. Therefore, the biosphere is the sphere of life. It is the world of living
organisms which dwell on land, water and in the air we breathe. The living organisms range from
microscopic (extremely small-size) to giant tress and animals. Scientists estimate that about one million
different species of animals and perhaps three thousand million species of plants have existed since life
began on earth.
The biosphere is dynamic, undergoing strong seasonal cycles in primary productivity and many biological
processes driven by the energy captured by photosynthesis. Seasonal cycles in solar irradiation of the
hemispheres is the main driver of this dynamic, especially by its strong effect on terrestrial primary
productivity in the temperate and boreal biomes, which essentially cease productivity in the winter time.
The biosphere has evolved since the first single-celled organisms originated 3.5 billion years ago under
atmospheric conditions resembling those of our neighboring planets Mars and Venus, which have
atmospheres composed primarily of carbon dioxide. Billions of years of primary production by plants
released oxygen from this carbon dioxide and deposited the carbon in sediments, eventually producing
the oxygen-rich atmosphere we know today. Free oxygen, both for breathing (O2, respiration) and in the
stratospheric ozone (O3) that protects us from harmful UV radiation, has made possible life as we know
it while transforming the chemistry of earth systems forever.
As a result of long-term interactions between the biosphere and the other earth systems, there is almost
no part of the earth's surface that has not been profoundly altered by living organisms. The earth is a
living planet, even in terms of its physics and chemistry. A concept related to, but different from, that of
the biosphere, is the Gaia hypotheses, which posits that living organisms have and continue to transform
earth systems for their own benefit.
Components of the Biosphere

A convenient way of discussing the biosphere is to divide it into living and non-living parts. By doing this,
the flow of energy and the exchange of materials between the living and the non-living part of the system
can be properly examined and the intricate relationships existing between them properly brought out.
This approach is used to present the discussion on the biosphere here. The division of the biosphere into
its living and non-living parts i.e. the biotic and abiotic components is present in the next section
BIOTIC COMPONENTS
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The biotic components of the biosphere are the living organisms. These are the elements which are
composed essentially of organic compounds or of compounds containing carbon. This contrasts them with
the rest of the earth crust for which the main elements are oxygen and silicon. It is usual to think of living
organisms in terms of the ability to grow, eat, move and multiply. While all these are true, the definition
given above is more scientific. Having said this, it should be understood that the main categories of living
things are plants and animals. To this list we can also add viruses. Plants and animals which are the main
categories of living things can be differentiated on the basis of their sources of nutrition. Therefore, biotic
components usually include:
 Producers, i.e. autotrophs: e.g. plants, which convert the energy [from photosynthesis (the transfer
of sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into energy), or other sources such as hydrothermal vents] into
food.
 Consumers, i.e. heterotrophs: e.g. animals, which depend upon producers (occasionally other
consumers) for food.
 Decomposers, i.e. detritivores: e.g. fungi and bacteria, which break down chemicals from producers
and consumers (usually dead) into simpler form which can be reused.
Animals cannot use anything simpler than amino acid for protein digestion. And for energy they rely on
carbohydrates and fats. By contrast, plants manufacture their own food, making use of the light energy
which they absorb from the sun in chemo- and photosynthetic processes. Animals and plants are found
in the various parts of the world. While some terrestrial animals can be found all over the world, many
are confined to specific locations. It is usual to describe the regions on the earth surface on the basis of
the life forms dominant in them. In the section that follows an attempt will be made to describe some of
the main life forms found on the earth surface and where they are found.
Life forms of the land surface
Over the land surface, the most densely inhabited portion by different life forms is the plant-soil interface.
This is the boundary or the meeting point of plants and soils. Within this layer the vegetation varies from
the forests to grasslands. To this we can add a third group. These are the desert communities.
Forests are plant formations which are dominated by woody species. These species of plants can be shrubs
or trees. Usually, they are so closely spaced that their canopies form a continuous layer or stratum that
shades the ground beneath them. It is useful to note that the basic physical appearance, of the temperate
and tropical forests is essentially the same. However, while temperate forests are dominated by a few
species of trees, sometimes just one species, the tropical forests are made up of a wide range of species.
The grasslands on the other hand are vegetation completely made up of grasses in which there is a
dominant grassy ground layer. It is thus clear that grasslands can be divided into two: these are
(1) The tropical grasslands or savannas and
(2) The middle and high-latitude grasslands.
The Savannas vary from an almost complete grassland cover to woody formations with a ground stratum
of grasses. The former can be found in the semi-arid parts of the tropics while the latter is found adjoining
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the moist deciduous tropical forests. The middle and high-latitude grasslands are dominated by tall,
luxuriant and deep-rooted grasses.
The third group-desert community consists of a scattered growth of drought tolerant (xerophytic) plants
with large areas of bare ground in-between. Xerophytes are plants which are well adapted to the dry
conditions of the desert environment. Their leaves are characteristically small to reduce evapo-
transpiration. The plants are also usually thorny to prevent or at least, minimize browsing by herbivores
living in the environment.
It is of interest to know that the pattern of vegetation distribution present in Nigeria is mainly controlled
by the availability of water. The greater the amount of annual rainfall in a given location, the richer the
vegetation associated with it. A wide variety of animals inhabit the different vegetation formations
discussed above. However, the animal species found in the various formations tend to differ according to
whether we have a predominance of trees or grasses. For instance, within the forest zone, the tree tops
are inhabited by birds and insects. Below the top layer, we have the canopy layer which houses a variety
of tree-dwelling monkeys. The ground dwellers include deer, rodents and wild pigs. Within the top soil in
the leaf covered layer are found bacteria and burrowing animals like the earthworm.
Life in the Oceans

Marine life in the oceans includes organisms of all sizes, shapes, and character, from the smallest bacteria
and protists that is single-celled heterotrophs and autotrophs which are visible through the highest power
microscopes to the largest organism on planet Earth at 100 feet long, the Blue Whale. Each of these
organisms interacts with and is affected by the oceans in different ways. The living creatures of the oceans
and seas are classified by location – either as plankton, nekton, or benthos. Plankton are organisms that
live in the water column, but that either cannot swim or cannot swim faster than currents. They are drifted
helplessly by currents and waves. Planktons are the most important creatures in the sea because it is on
them that other groups depend for food supply. They are small varying in size from a few centimeters to
a few thousandths of millimeter in length. They are found mainly within the first few metres of the ocean
surface. Examples include microscopic foraminifera, coccolithophores, radiolarian, diatoms,
dinoflagellates, and the larvae of many marine animals, such as crabs, fish, and sea stars – as well as larger
organisms like floating sargasssum weed and jellyfish.
Nekton form the second class of living organisms in the ocean. They are organisms that spend most of
their time in the water column and can swim freely and faster than currents. They are powerful enough
to determine where they want to go. Examples include whales, most fish, and squid. The major difference
between plankton and Nekton is in their habitat. All the marine animals inhabit oceanic areas but the zone
in which they inhabit greatly impacts the evolution of them. For example, a plankton is largely different
from benthos in that a benthos organism is far more capable of sustaining colder temperatures as sunlight
penetration is impossible at such deep levels. Plankton cannot propel themselves through water. Nekton
propel themselves through water by swimming or other means. Nektons are either vertebrates (fish) or
invertebrates (shrimp).
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Benthos form the third class of living organisms in the ocean. The benthos includes animals that are
ecologically linked to the ocean's floor. Including many echinoderms, benthonic fishes, crustaceans,
mollusks, poriferans and annelids. What about organisms that live mostly on the bottom, but that can
also swim? Like octopus, sawfish, rays, and flatfish? We call these organisms’ nektobenthos.
Living Creatures in the air

The living creatures in the air are extremely tiny. For this reason they can be airborne. They include various
viruses and bacteria which can only be detected with the aid of the microscope. As far as the concentration
of life form is concerned, the air is insignificant. It should be noted however that life forms in the air have
had the greatest effect on man in terms of spreading disease. They are beneficial to man in many respects.
For example, fermentation which is important in the preparation of wine is made possible by a group of
bacteria.
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS
Abiotic component of the biosphere refers to the physical environment (non-living parts) and its several
interacting variables which can be divided into four folds:
 Lithosphere which means the solid mineral matter on the earth and the land form as well;
 Hydrosphere, i.e. the water in oceans, lakes, river, ice-caps, etc;
 Atmosphere, the gaseous mixture in the air; and
 The radiant solar energy.
The position and movement of the earth with its gravitational force are additional abiotic components of
the biosphere (See Figure 3.1). However, these components create invariability of magnitude and duration
of other environmental factors. It is these which constitute the habitats in which plants and animals live.
Figure 3.1: The abiotic components and their interactions

Solar Energy
Solar energy interacts with rocks, water and gases to produce a complex environment with a large number
of identifiable variables such as heat, light, rain, wind, snow, fog, dust, storm, fire, etc. Thus, by the
interaction of variables, the environment is created and maintained as a unit where any single component
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cannot be removed or altered without disturbing the other components. Therefore, the environment is a
dynamic whole, which remain continuously in a state of flux and also varies in space. Functionally the
ecosystem allows the flow of energy and cycling of materials which ensures the stability of the system and
continuity of life. The energy needed for all life processes come from solar radiation (Figure 3.2)
During photosynthesis, green plants convert light energy to chemical (poten-tial) energy and make it
available to other organisms as food. Thus, a continuous flow of energy from sun through organisms
maintains the life on earth. Laws of Thermodynamics govern on the transfer and transformation of energy.
It says, the energy can never be destroyed, but it is transformed into different forms. Therefore, the part
of solar radiant energy that is not used in photosynthesis is used in heating of air, water and soil. So some
change does occur in cyclic order of nature.
Ultimately the energy is reflected back to outer space as heat. In fact, a small fraction of available light
energy is utilized during photosynthesis and a very little part is stored in animal tissues; the bulk is wasted
as heat. The next point is the ratio between the production and assimilation of energy. The small
organisms utilize a large part of the assimilated energy for growth while larger organisms consume a larger
part of the assimilated energy for maintenance of the organism (respiration). How-ever, all these
mechanisms-the transformation of energy, the food chain, the assimilation etc., are expressed as
ecological efficiency.
Figure 3.2: Hypothetical Model of a Functional Ecosystem
The Soils
In any consideration of the biosphere, soil is important because it is a most important medium for plant
growth. It provides support or anchorage for plant roots, and several ground based animals burrow in
them. Besides this, soil contains several mineral elements which are essential to life. These include
potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, Sulphur, iron, copper, manganese, zinc, molybdenum,
boron and chlorine. For example, Sulphur is necessary for the formation of amino acids, which are the
building blocks of protein. Calcium helps to strengthen cell walls and without magnesium chlorophyll
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production (i.e. the green pigment in plants) will be impaired. Besides providing anchorage for plants,
Soils is also a living environment for animals –termites, earthworms and bacteria etc.
Water
Apart from acting as a medium of life for several species of plants and animals, the ocean can be regarded
as a solution of nutrients. It is on such nutrients that plants and animals life depends. The ocean also
contains in dissolved form, the principal gases of the atmosphere namely oxygen, nitrogen and carbon
dioxide etc. the importance of gases to life is discussed in the section that follows.
Air
The atmosphere contains four elements which are essential to life. These are carbon (in form of carbon
dioxide), oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen. Oxygen, carbon and hydrogen are the major components of fats
and carbohydrates. On the other hand nitrogen is important for the synthesis of protein. The four
elements discussed above come ultimately from the atmosphere. The twelve elements which we
discussed under soil together with nitrogen are usually derived from bedrock from which the soils are
formed. Thus neither soil nor the atmosphere can support life alone. It is the Nature and extent of these
relationships which are considered below.
Interrelationships among the Components of the biosphere

In any part of the environment of life, whatever the scale, all the organisms present interact with the
physical environment. This interaction takes the form of a flow of energy and an exchange of materials
between living and non-living parts within the system. For convenience we shall discuss these two forms
of interaction separately.
Energy flow in the Biosphere

All living things require a constant supply of energy for the various functions they perform. The energy is
obtained from the sun. This energy is introduced into the biosphere by green plants through a process
known as photosynthesis. Plants are able to trap this light energy and by the process of photosynthesis
convert it into chemical energy. Thus the initial point of entry of energy in the ecosystem is through the
green plants (autotrophs or producers). In this way, it is energy from the sun that usually powers the base
of the food chain. An exception occurs in deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems, where there is no sunlight.
Here primary producers manufacture food through a process called chemosynthesis. It has been
estimated that on an average, about one per cent of total sun's energy reaching the earth is trapped by
green plants during the process of food manufacture (i.e., photosynthesis). The energy thus trapped by
plants is stored as carbohydrates. Some of the energy trapped by plants is used by them in performing
their metabolic activities like respiration, growth, etc., and some energy is released in the atmosphere as
heat. The energy regulates the humidity of atmosphere and forms the air currents. It determines the
different types of climates like the tropical, temperate, subtropics and arctic. The heating effect of the
solar radiations determines the atmosphere and soil temperature. They are dependent on the angle of
radiations which play an important role in the determination of season. The energy forms the water
vapors, clouds and rain.
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When plants are eaten by herbivorous animals, the energy stored in plants gets transferred to the
consumer animals. These animals utilize this energy for their own metabolic activities. Here again some
of the energy is released as heat. When primary consumers are eaten by secondary consumers, the same
process is repeated at every step of the food chain. Here it must be remembered, that energy released as
heat is considered as energy lost. The simple model of energy transfers within the biosphere is the food
chain (Figure 3.4).
solar radiation
primary secondary
herbivore
carnivore carnivore
d e c o m p o s it io n
Figure 3.3: Energy Flow through a Food Chain (Source: Simmons, 1982)
It can thus be conclude as follows:
 Conversion of energy takes place from one form to another. The light energy gets converted into
chemical energy by plants during photosynthesis.
 Plants act as converters of energy. They do not produce energy.
 The energy lost as heat is quite substantial, if taken together from various trophic levels
 During the transfer of energy through successive trophic levels in an ecosystem, there is a lost of
energy at each trophic level. In other words, the level following the previous one always receives less
amount of energy. After studying various food chains and energy transfers in different ecosystems,
Lindemann in 1942 gave the generalization called "The 10 per cent law", which shows that about 90%
of the energy is used up at each level and only 10% of it is transferred to the next trophic level. As a
result, at the last trophic level (decomposer), no energy is left for recycling. This is how the flow of
energy is unidirectional. Fast decreasing energy level at each step sets the limit of trophic levels only
to 4-5 at the maximum. Therefore, the plants (producers) receive the maximum energy and as you go
further down the trophic levels, the energy in the food goes on decreasing.
 The flow of energy is unidirectional. It enters into the living system from non-living environment
 The energy lost as heat cannot be utilized.
Each stage in the food chain is called a trophic level. Trophic levels are represented by numbers, starting
at level 1 with plants which are the producers. Further trophic levels are numbered subsequently
according to how far the organism is along the food chain. As illustrated below:
 Level 1: Plants and algae make their own food and are called primary producers.
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 Level 2: Herbivores eat plants and are called primary consumers.
 Level 3: Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers.
 Level 4: Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers.
 Level 5: Apex predators that have no predators are at the top of the food chain.
The feeding pattern of the living organisms over the land may be more complex than has been depicted
here. However, this is a simple way of trying to understand a really complex phenomenon. One more
point which should be emphasized about the food chain is that the energy which is passed from one
trophic level to the next is reduced. At each trophic level, the organisms lose energy in the form of heat
to the environment because they do work. To understand this, think of how you sweat profusely when
you run or do any physical work. Similarly, a carnivore may have to expend a great deal of energy catching
the herbivorous animals it will eat. Imagine the amount of energy man will have to expend if he relies on
hunting for meat. It should be noted too that by using solar energy and losing some energy at each trophic
level as heat an interaction is maintained between the system and the outer space.
Nutrient Cycling Within the Biosphere

The living and the non-living parts of the biosphere do not interact among themselves by means of energy
flow only; they also interact through the cycling of mineral nutrients. These are the elements which are
essential to life. Above we have divided the nutrients by source into those which ultimately come from
the atmosphere and those which essentially derived from the bedrock. They are called here mineral
nutrients because they are involved in the growth and maintenance of organisms.
The pathways of circulation of the mineral nutrients are generally described as cyclic. This should be
understood to mean that the circulation involves a use and re-use of the nutrients. Also because the
pathways involve the living and the non-living parts of the biosphere they are usually described as bio-
geo-chemical cycles. There are two major ways of recycling mineral nutrients in the biosphere. The first is
by way of animal excretion. This process is self-explanatory. It ensures a return with the soil of the mineral
nutrient used by the primary producer and passed onto either the primary or secondary consumers.
The second pathway for recycling the nutrient is by way of microbial decomposition of plants and animals
remains through the activities of decomposer organisms. The decomposer organisms belong to two main
groups. Bacteria and fungi constitute the first group. The second group is made up of animal such as
earthworms, beetles, and springtails and termites. Dung beetles and termites are more visible in the
tropics. Roughly speaking, the animal decomposers breakdown the debris physically by feeding off the
tougher elements in it and the smaller pieces are then subject to decomposition by fungi and bacteria.
The final stage is the transfer of minerals from the quickly decomposing litter directly to the up taking
plant roots. This is done via a coat of fungi which selectively takes up the minerals required by the plant.
It should be noted that this is a generalized biogeochemical cycle for most chemical elements. Human
actions can interfere in the circulation of the mineral nutrient. For instance, through forest and grassland
fires, some of the nutrients can be returned straight to the litter layer or burnt off. On the other hand,
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earth physical processes like erosion, rock weathering and volcanic eruption can act to release nutrients
from the soil and bedrock in an organic form.
There is one more important point for us to note in energy flow and nutrient cycling within the biosphere.
We have discussed them separately for the sake of convenience. In practice the nutrient cycling is not
separate from energy flow. In fact the plants and animals have to use part of the energy available to them
for maintaining the cycling of the nutrients.
Biotic Community
Plants and animals interact with other factors of their physical environment-climate, water, and soils-in
the manner we have described above to produce distinctive communities. It is these that are referred to
as biotic communities. The biotic community can occur at any scale. It can vary in size from the lawn in
front of a house, to a fish pond or it can involve the entire planet. What matters about the biotic
community is that as a unit it includes all of the organisms in a given area interacting with their physical
environment so that a flow of energy leads to an exchange of materials between living and non-living
parts within the system.
Having known how a community is constituted and operates, it is convenient to examine the categories
of communities that exist. For convenience these communities are divided into (1) land or terrestrial
communities and (2) water or aquatic communities.
Land or Terrestrial Communities

If you open your atlas to the section which shows the world vegetation, you can see the various terrestrial
communities that exist. However, such a map will conceal the fact that there are distinctive animals, soils
and climates associated with each vegetation. Once we add all these then we are studying the world’s
major terrestrial communities. Because the list of the world major terrestrial communities is too long to
be covered in an introductory discussion on the biosphere, we shall illustrate the general points by
discussing the tropical evergreen forest and the Savannah.
The tropical rain forest

The tropical rain forests are found mainly in the lowland areas of the Zaire and Amazon basins. In Nigeria,
they can be found in the extreme Southern parts as shown in figure 3.1. They occur in climates which have
both high and constant temperature and humidity, an annual precipitation of over 2000mm and at least
120mm in the driest months. This range of conditions can only be satisfied in a small section of Southern
Nigeria.
The trees of the rain forest are typically tall and jointly produce three layers or sinusiae (see figure 3.8).
The upper layer consists of the tallest trees which may be 45 to 50 meters high. This is also known as the
emergent layer. The second layer is the canopy layer. This is made up of trees which grow to a height of
25-35m. The trees of this layer form an almost continuous canopy which shades the ground from sunlight.
The third layer is made up of undergrowth. This is not dense because of the absence of sunlight.
There are more than 7000 species of trees in the tropical rainforest of the world with the forest found in
South East Asia and The Amazon basin having the larger numbers. In the West African sub-region, they
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number well over 3000. This makes the tropical rainforest the richest vegetation formation in the world.
In the wetter parts of the tropics, the tree both flower and leaves all the year round. Thus there is no
period of the year when the vegetation loses its greenness. This is why the vegetation in this area is often
described as Evergreen forest. The trees present in the tropical rainforest of Nigeria include the Melicia
excelsa (iroko), Khaya grandifolia, Ceiba petandara etc.
Like the trees, the animal communities are stratified. The upper layer of the forest is inhabited mostly by
birds and insects which live their whole lives in this arboreal habitat. The canopy layer houses the highest
variety of animals in the form of tree dwelling monkeys, sloths and anteaters. These rarely descend to the
ground. The ground dwellers are less diverse. They include deer, rodents, wild pigs etc. within the litter
layer can be found burrowing animals like earthworms.
Tropical Savanna
As discussed above, the Savanna occupies a large belt in Nigeria. It changes its character from the margin
with the forest in the south to the northern border of the country as the rainfall decreases in a northward
direction. Grassland fires and grazing by animals have also added their own impact in the distributional
pattern. Characteristically, however, the savanna can be found in the areas of Nigeria where there is at
least one long dry season. It should be stated here that savanna also occurs in areas that would be
classified as rain forest belt. Such savanna is not climatically defined. They may have anthropogenic origins
or may have existed because the local soils are poor. Such savannas units are described as a zonal because
they are confined to locations where the factors that produce them are potent. Tropical savannas exist
either as pure stands of grasses or as variable mixture of grasses and trees. The trees are usually 6-12m in
height; they are strongly rooted with flat crowns. They cope with the water shortage of the sometimes
long dry season by partially or totally losing their leaves during the period. Others cope by having small
leaves in addition. Generally, they are fire-tolerant, and have a wide range of adaptive capability for this
such as thick, flaking barks. In Nigeria, important savanna trees include Parkia filicoidea, Anogeissus
leiocarpus, Daniellia oliveri and Butyrospermum paradoxum. The grasses in the savanna are often long,
reaching up to 3.5m in height. Pennisetum purpureum (the elephant grass) may even grow up to 5m in
height.
The savanna vegetation supports a wide variety of animals. Some of the richest game reserves are located
in the tropical savanna. For example, the East African Savanna supports several species. Examples of these
species are the African Buffalo, the Zebra and many antelopes. Birds make a good use of a variety of food
species present. However, they can move quickly to evade unfavorable conditions. The insects are
dominated by the locusts, grasshoppers, ants and termites. The last named are locally more important
because they are a major component of the decomposer chain.
Water or Aquatic Communities

The life forms of the ocean have been examined under our discussion of biotic components. As already
indicated sea water is a solution of nutrients and salts. Thus, because the variation in the chemical
composition of other water bodies such as ponds, streams and rivers, you will also expect the life forms
inhabiting them to vary. We will not go into such details in this introductory discussion on the biosphere.
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Thus, our consideration of the life forms of the ocean will still be sufficient as an example of an aquatic
community.
The Dynamics of Biotic Communities

The biotic communities which have been considered above may change their features over time. There
are opportunities for us in our environment to watch such changes take place. For example, farmers in
tropical Africa practice shifting cultivation as a method of farming. This practice involves moving from one
plot to another as the land becomes infertile. If the plot is left fallow for many years it will be colonized
again by the type of vegetation which is normally supported by the climate of the area. Also the
progression from the establishment of life from the fallow stage to the climax vegetation is described as
Succession.
We can witness the progressive development of life forms due to some other events in our environment.
Consider for example they are of an abandoned mine quarry or an area which had just witnessed volcanic
eruption. Each of these events will create a fresh stage for life forms to reestablish themselves until the
features of the community created are in agreement with the climate of the area.
Man and the Biosphere

The biotic communities that we have discussed in this chapter are far from being static. Over the years
man has interfered with them altering and replacing many of them. The discussion so far has tried to
present the biosphere when human influence was minimal. This was deliberate to enable us to bring out
clearly the effect of man on the biotic communities human interference. The influence of man can be
itemized as follows: (a) domestication (b) simplification (c) obliteration (d) diversification and (e)
protection. Apart from understanding what each of these means, it is also important to be able to
recognize their effects on the earth’s biotic community at large.
Domestication
Domestication involves the production of plant or animals which is suited to human use. To accomplish
the objective domestication has taken the form of replacing the processes of natural selection by those
of human selection. Apart from this it may also involve the elimination of competitors. Agriculture
provides good examples of such processes e.g. the elimination of weeds from a maize farm.
Domestication however has effects on biotic community. First the domesticated plants and animals is
often reproductively isolated from its wild ancestor and so becomes effectively a new species. Besides,
there is usually a distinct change in shape and size of the domestic variety. In plant this is often in the
direction of a large size-if not the whole plant then of the edible parts such as seeds or leaves. The earliest
evidence of plant domestication comes from the Nile valley and is for the cultivation of barley in about
16,000 B.C. For the period between 9000 B.C and continuing to about 3000 B.C, modern Iran, Iraq, and
Palestine became the focus of domestication for animals such as sheep, goat, and cattle and for basic
crops such as barley, wheat, oats etc. The process of domestication did not stop with the ancient world.
Rather; it is a process which has continued through time-right up to the present day when scientific
knowledge has greatly increased the volume and effectiveness of domestication. Today domestication
has also included plants and animals breeding programmes.
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Simplification
Simplification as the name implies involves changing the complexity of biotic communities. This may take
the form of reducing the numbers of life forms present in the community or shortening their food chain.
Simplification may be achieved either through agricultural processes, pest control or accidentally by the
process of contamination.
As a basis for understanding how agricultural processes can lead to simplification consider for example
the diversity of species in the rain forest community. For instance, in some parts of Brazil there may be
about 300 species of trees within an area of 2 sq. km. by replacing such woodland with agricultural system
may now have a community of a single crop.
Pest control is one of the most common simplicity processes. This usually involves ridding the community
of all plants and animals that are not wanted. These are then labeled ‘weeds’ and ‘pests’. There are now
various chemicals formulations for killing weeds, viruses, bacteria and fungi etc. When such chemicals are
applied, it may lead to wiping off an important species of a given biotic community. Thus, with their
elimination, the biotic community becomes simplified in composition
Contamination may also bring about the simplification of biotic communities. For instance when the
atmosphere is contaminated by sulphur dioxides, lichens cannot grow.
Obliteration
Obliteration means the extinction of a species whether of plants or animals. We set in motion the process
of extinction when we attack species directly and reduce them to such small populations that they cannot
survive. Alternatively, we set the extinction processes in motion when we change plants and animals
habitat for our own purposes and thus break up the food chain on which they depend. Consider for
example the role of fire in the savanna environment. This is probably responsible for the maintenance of
savanna as grassy communities because when absent the tree cover increases. On a much local scale, you
can also think of grazing and overgrazing by animals. All domestic animals graze selectively and so the
vegetation is gradually altered as the more palatable plants are eaten by the snails. It is possible for
overgrazing to turn the vegetation into a more desert like community. Eventually soil erosion may set in
and the area may be reduced to a virtual desert. The example has also been quoted of the shrinkage of
health land in Southern England. This is a vegetation type in the temperate climate. It would interest you
to know that the shrinkage brought the Dartford Warbler bird to a verge of extinction in the United
Kingdom.
Diversification of biotic community is brought about by the introduction of a plant or an animal to a habitat
which it is not native to. In a few cases, the new species’ does well in its new home to the point where it
is naturalized and is often thought of as an indigenous species. The cassava food, for example is such a
familiar sight in Abeokuta, Ogun State that it may be difficult to imagine that it was introduced to Nigeria
by the Portuguese from Fernando Po in the 16th century. Similarly, the cocoa tree which is now a familiar
tree crop in forest parts of south western Nigeria was not introduced into the country until the late
nineteenth century.
16
The introduction of new species of plants and animals has been influenced by so many factors. These
include economic and cultural. The economic factor is perhaps most important especially with respect to
cash crops. New species might have been brought also for emotional reasons. The freed slaves from the
New World came home with plants they got familiar with when they were under captivity. We say
emotional because they may want the new species either of plants or animals to serve as reminders of
their homes of last abode.
For whatever reason new species of plants and animals are introduced, they bring about wholesale
changes in the landscape and the biotic community. Let us consider for example the introduction of goats
on a large scale to a community. This animal is a grazer. Thus its large scale introduction may begin to
affect the regeneration of forests in the area by giving such a region a completely new outlook. Introduced
species also tend to bring their pests and parasites with them and these may then spread into native
species creating problems where none existed before.
Protection
Protection refers to deliberate attempt by man to protect nature. We can divide the methods being
adopted into two parts. First, individual species which are rare perhaps, typical or even sacred may be
deliberately protected to ensure that they do not become extinct as many have. Second, a whole
community may be protected as sanctuary for endangered species or as a “laboratory” for observation.
The protection of a species may begin and end with legislation which forbids, for example, the killing of
an animal. This may extend to the whole of the legislative area covered.
However, such attempt at protection may be insufficient and sometimes becomes necessary to establish
a refuge for the plant or animal. In such places it is hoped that they can live unmolested such that their
food supplies and other environmental conditions are assured. We call such areas Reserves. Examples in
Nigeria are the Kainji National Park and the Yankari Games Reserve. They may be set up by national
governments, local governments, voluntary or religious bodies or even by the local community. In the
latter two cases, what is worthy of note to us is that either the religious or community reserve protects
both its plant and animal populations. What is the overall erect, if any, or conservation first, it enables us
to preserve a certain proportion of the Earth’s surface in mature biotic communities as distinct from the
‘derived’ systems produced by human activity. Beyond this, it enables us to preserve the natural diversity
of the living things and their communities on the face of the Earth.
It is clear from the foregoing account of man’s interference with the biosphere, that some of the human
actions are deliberate or purposeful while others are not.
From the foregoing, man interaction with the biosphere can be summarized under two main headings
(negative and positive) because our focus is to establish how man can live in harmonious relationship and
peaceably with this important component of the environment. Previous studies has shown that man
stands at the top of the ecological pyramid. He is an omnivore - a tertiary consumer, consuming both
plants and animals. In other to close this chapter, the content therein shall be summarized into the impact
of man on this component, which may be negative or positive depending on human decision.
17
The negative impact of humans on the biosphere
 The growth in human population and industrialization has resulted in the extinction of a number
of flora and fauna by deforestation.
 Clearing the natural vegetation and its replacement by a single crop has reduced the biological
diversity and the single crop has become susceptible to pests and insects.
 Burning of fossil fuels, automobile exhausts, gaseous effluents from factories have led to pollution
of land, air and water and its related consequences.
 Hunting of animals and birds and introduction of new predators in the environment has caused
extinction of some species.
While the overall impact of humans on the planet's biosphere have been negative, humans have done
many things to improve the overall quality for living things in biosphere we have damaged or
destroyed. Some other ways in which humans have attempted to minimize negative impacts or improve
the biosphere are listed below:
 Sustaining endangered species by using habitat protection methods such as wildlife refuges and
national parks.
 Passing wildlife management laws, such as game laws and catch restrictions.
 Adding lime to Adirondack lakes in an effort to neutralize their acid pollution so the original living
things in these lakes can be reintroduced.
 Design new products which meet basic needs without generating pollution.
 Inspection of all materials before entering the country to prevent pest introduction.
 Increased use of biodegradable packaging materials which will recycle themselves quickly to the
environment.
 Use fuels which contain less pollutants, such as low sulfur coal and oil.
 Remove pollutants by using such devices as afterburners or catalytic converters before they enter
the air.
18
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY ILE-IFE
SEO 002
Rain Semester, 2019/2020 SESSION
APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING TO ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Environmental Studies
Environmental studies is a multidisciplinary academic field which systematically studies human interaction with the
environment in the interests of solving complex problems. It involves educating the people for preserving the quality of
the environment. Environmental science is essentially the application of scientific methods and principles to the study
of environmental issues and one of such scientific methods is remote sensing.
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is the science of gathering information from a location that is distant from the data source. Remote
sensing is the science of obtaining information about the Earth using high-flying aircraft and satellites. The data is
collected by sensors attached to the aircraft and satellites that detect the energy that is reflected from the Earth.
Remote sensing is the process of collecting data about the earth’s surface and the environment from a distance, usually
by sensors mounted on ground equipment, aircraft or satellite platforms. Depending on the spectral location of the bands,
sensors collect energy that is reflected (visible and infrared), emitted (thermal infrared), or backscattered (microwave)
by a landscape surface and/or the atmosphere. In remote sensing, there are two basic physical components which are:
sensors and platforms.
Sensors
A remote sensor is an instrument that gathers thematic information from a distance. It is an instrument that detects and
record electromagnetic energy. There are two types of sensors:
1. Passive sensors e.g., aerial camera, video camera, thematic mapper, thermal scanner, etc.
2. Active sensors e.g., RADAR, LIDAR and SONAR
Platforms
A remote sensing platform is a vehicle used to carry the remote sensing equipment such as the sensors. There are 3
types, which are:
 aircraft
 satellites
 terrestrial
In summary, a platform (satellite, aircraft) is the carrier of the sensor (camera, scanner).
Advantages of Remote Sensing
a single remote sensing imagery can be used for several purposes
ability to have a synoptic view of large portions of the earth’s surface leading to a fast inventory of earth’s
natural and artificial resources
ability to view the same portion of the globe at different scales
ability to make observations over areas that are difficult to access
ability to view the same area at different periods and at regular intervals over many years, which can be used to
evaluate changes in the landscape over a period of time
Types of Remote Sensing
• Passive remote sensing – this collects natural radiant energy reflected or emitted from a targeted object. The source of
radiation is the Sun
• Active remote sensing – this uses its own source of energy (radiation) such that it transmits a signal to the targeted
object and then receive the reflected response.
Another method of acquiring terrestrial data in remote sensing is through the use of Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS). A very popular example of GNSS is the Global Positioning Systems (GPS). GPS aid in the collection of ground
data and processing of remotely sensed imagery. It is basically used to collect location data.
1
“Remote sensing is the art, science and technology of observing an object, scene or phenomenon by instrument-based
techniques without having physical contact with the object of interest." This process involves making observations using
sensors (cameras, scanners, radiometer, radar, etc.) mounted on platforms which are at a considerable height from the
earth surface and recording the observations on a suitable medium. It is a process of deducing from imageries,
information about the environment that one would have naturally gone to the field to gather.
Remote sensing has a wide range of applications for environmental planning and management. Coastal applications,
ocean applications, hazard assessments and natural resource management are just a few of the broad areas under which
fall an array of analyses such as; monitoring shoreline changes, measuring ocean temperatures, tracking the impacts of
natural disasters and charting wildlife habitats. These types of analyses all aid in the effective planning and management
of the land and water, and its resources.
Remote Sensing and GIS tools being handy, precise, economic and rapid are commonly applied for resource mapping,
measuring, monitoring and management. Satellite data are also of help in quantitative estimates of some properties of
landscape surface, and for periodic preparation of accurate inventories, managing and monitoring of natural resources,
as it provides repetitive information of required features.
The capabilities of remote sensing make it a valuable tool in providing decision-makers with large-area maps of target
features in a quick manner, and over consistent time intervals.
There are a series of satellite missions used for Earth Observation, for example, Landsat satellites have maintained a
continuous stream of data about the Earth since 1972. Others are SPOT, RadarSat, NigeriaSat, TerraSAR, GeoEye,
Worldview, IKONOS, Quickbird, etc. Landsat data usage ranges from managing and monitoring resources for both
environmental and economic quality as well as public health and national security. Its applications include the analysis
and management of agriculture and forests, water resources, infrastructure, natural disasters, land cover change and
climatic changes. The most common index used by analysts in the remote sensing field is the NDVI (Normalized
Difference Vegetation Index). NDVI quantifies areas of vegetation by measuring the difference between Near-Infrared
and red light.
Some specific application areas of Remote Sensing are considered below:
Applications of Remote Sensing

Some Applications Areas of Satellite Imageries include:
1. Determining soil moisture content using active and passive sensors from space
Soil moisture contributes so much to understanding Earth sciences, that is, the water cycle, weather forecasting, drought
and floods. SMAP (Soil Moisture Active Passive) is used to achieve this. SMAP is a combination of Active sensors
2
data and Passive sensors data for soil moisture determination. Earth observation satellites are used to retrieve data every
2-3 days that measure soil moisture in the top 5 cm of soil over the Earth’s surface. Maximising our knowledge of the
Earth’s topsoil layer is vital due to its extensive use in agriculture and supporting vegetation growth. Soil moisture also
contributes to our understanding of the water cycle and forecasting weather and natural disasters for environmental
management.
2. Detecting oil spills for marine life and environmental preservation
Oil spills have profound effects on marine life and the surrounding environment. An oil spill requires a quick response
so the oil does not disperse. Satellites can maximize the search for oil slicks. Not only can satellites determine the extent
of the oil spills, they can identify the direction and rate of oil movement.
3. Water Resource management
Earth Observation sensors from advanced satellites provide world-wide continuous measurements on various
hydrological components which are essential input data for hydrological modelling. Satellite remote sensing for
hydrological applications includes Global Precipitation Measurements (GPM) and Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
(TRMM). Using satellite data, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, dams and reservoirs can be mapped in 3D. Spatial
water availability maps can be generated.
4. Measuring wind speed and direction
Farmers, pilots, engineers and wind turbine planners need accurate wind information. Scatterometer and wind LiDAR
are used to make large-scale wind observations for wind farms, weather forecasting and for surfers.
5. Estimating surface elevation with the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) surveys the whole world in 11days using the Interferometric Synthetic
Aperture Radar, and from this SRTM data, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) can be computed to assess the topography
of an area.
6. Coastal Management
The coastal application of remote sensing is concerned with detecting, assessing and predicting the effects of weather,
climate, natural hazards and human activities on the state of our coastal areas. To successfully implement a sustainable
approach to the management of the coasts, the Earth observation (EO) by remote sensing is a much needed method by
which we could collect the information required on the appropriate time and spatial scales.
7. Forest Management
Satellite remote sensing has been found to be a very valuable application tool in forest management, not only in
monitoring, but also carrying out relevant observations, which can bring out the impact of deforestation on global
climate. Forest supplies are being monitored because they not only provide valuable materials but they also absorb
roughly one-third of carbon dioxide emissions. Satellite imageries quantitatively measure the loss and gain (change
detection) of the global forests.
8. Natural Disaster Management
Extensive multi-temporal spatial data is required for the management of natural disasters such as flooding, earthquake,
volcanic eruptions and landslides and remote sensing provides such multi-temporal spatial data.

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GEOGRAPHY THE PHILOSOPHIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL

G terns and explores spatial associations,

Earth is surrounded by a mixture of gases known as the Objectives

Figure 10 왘 Ninety-nine percent of

Figure 11 왘 This sunrise scene that

Layers of the Atmosphere

68 Chapter 3 The Dynamic Earth

Section 2 The Atmosphere 69

Figure 15 왘 Thermal Radiation

Section 2 The Atmosphere 71

Figure 16 왘 The gases in the atmo-

72 Chapter 3 The Dynamic Earth

There are different subdivisions of biosphere. These are known as:-

Closed and Open System of Biosphere

Foundation of Life of Biosphere

Production Ecology of Biosphere

Recycling of Materials of Biosphere

Flow of Energy of Biosphere

Biogeochemical Cycles of Biosphere

Phosphorous Cycle of Biosphere

Water Cycle of Biosphere

Oxygen Cycle of Biosphere

Carbon Cycle of biosphere

Types of Natural Resources

Fresh Water Resources

Alternative Sources of Energy

The Layers, Composition and Role of Atmosphere

Greenhouse Effect of Biosphere

Figure 1. The hydrologic cycle and its interactive components

Runoff Mechanisms and Processes of Flowpath Generation

Infiltration-excess overland flow

Saturation-excess flow (SOF)

In summary, the surface runoff generation mechanisms can be agreed to be made up of

Subsurface flow (SSF)

Water Supply and Quality in Introduction

6.1.1 6.1.1 Safely managed drinking water services

6.4.2 6.4.1 6a.1 Water - and sanitation-related assistance

with inter-annual variability of surface water inﬂuence of socio-economic status in accessibility

Water Supply and

Rate of human deaths due to consumption of unsafe water

Industrial Activities of the African countries, including Nigeria,

Top Research Questions

• Can maximized water security minimize transboundary water conflicts?

• What can be done to improve water quality monitoring, control,

• Is it possible to establish the economic value of available data so that

ACE ACE Singular most important factor to consider for

Improving governance of • Development of national policies and comprehensive

• Systems for information generation, assessment and

• Mapping and characterizing the proportion of people without

• Sustainable financing for policy and institutional reform and

Water Supply and Issues Targets

Arrows indicate interaction

Water insecurity and poor access to safe water in References

Components of the Biosphere

Life forms of the land surface

Life in the Oceans

Living Creatures in the air

Figure 3.1: The abiotic components and their interactions

Figure 3.2: Hypothetical Model of a Functional Ecosystem

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