Example 2.

1
Asilica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to be considered by ray theory
analysis has a core refractive index of 1.50 and a cladding refractive index of 1.47.
Determine: (a) the critical angle at the core-cladding interface: (b) the NA for the
fiber: (c) the acceptance angle in air for the fiber.
Solution: (a) The critical angle . at the core-cladding interface is given by
Eq. (2.2) where:

.= sini 2in- .47

n 1.50

= 78.5°

(b) From Eq. (2.8) the NA is:

NA =(nË- n =(1.50° 1.47)

= (2.25-2.16)
=0.30

(c) Considering Eq. (2.8) the acceptance angle in air 6, is given by:
9, = sin! NA = sin 0.30
= 174°

20 Optical fiber waveguides Chapter 2

Example 2.2
Atypical relative refractive index difference for an optical fiber designed for long
distance transmission is 1%. Estimate the NA and the solid acceptance angle in air
for the fiber when the core index is 1.46. Further, calculate the critical angle at the
core-cladding interface within the fiber. It may be assumed that the concepts of geo
metric optics hold for the fiber.
Solution: Using Eq. (2.10) with A = 0.01 gives the NA as:
NA = n(2A) = 1.46(0.02)
=0.21

For small angles the solid acceptance angle in air is given by:

Hence from Eq. (2.8):

n(NA)° = IX0.04
=0.13 rad

Using Eq. (2.9) for the relative refractive index difference A gives:

Hence

2=1-A= 1- 0.01
n,

=0.99

From Eq. (2.2) the critical angle at the core-cladding interface is:

. = sin! 2= sin' 0.99

n,

= 81.9°
Example 2.3
An optical fiber in air has an NAof 0.4. Compare the acceptance angle for meridional
rays with that for skew rays which change direction by 100° at each reflection.
Solution: The acceptance angle for meridional rays is given by Eq. (2.8) with
n, = Ias:

, = sin NA = sin 0.4

= 23.6°

The skew rays change direction by 100° at each reflection, therefore y= 50°. Hence
using Eq. (2.17) the acceptance angle for skew rays is:

NA Sin-! 0.4
.. = sin
COs 50°

=38.5°

In this example, the acceptance angle for the skew rays is about 15° greater than
the corresponding angle for meridional rays. However, it must be noted that we have
only compared the acceptance angle of one particular skew ray path. When the light
input to the fiber is at an angle to the fiber axis, it is possible that y will vary from
zero for meridional rays to 90° for rays which enter the fiber at the core-cladding
interface giving acceptance of skew rays over a conical half angle of n2 radians.
Example 2.4
Amultimode step index fiber with acore diameter of 80 um and arelative index dif
ference of .5% is operating at awavelength of 0.85 um. If the core refractive index
is 1.48, estimate: (a) the normalized frequency for the fiber: (b) the number of guided
modes.
Solution: (a) The normalized frequency may be obtained from Eq. (2.70) where:
2rt 2t x 40 x10° x
V= an(24)=
0.85 x 106 1,48ox0.015)=75.8
(b) The total number of guided modes is given by Eq. (2.74) as:

V²_5745.6
2 2

= 2873

Hence this fiber has a Vnumber of approximately 76, giving nearly 3000 guided
modes.
54 Optical fiber waveguides Chapter 2

Example 2.5
A graded index fiber has a core with a parabolic refractive index profile which has
a diameter of 50 um. The fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.2. Estimate the total
number of guided modes propagating in the fiber when it is operating at a wave
length oflum.
Solution: Using Eq. (2.69), the normalized frequency for the fiber is:

V=aNA)= 27X 25 x10 x0.2

lx 106
=31.4

The mode volume may be obtained from Eq. (2.95) where for a parabolic profile:

986
M, 4 4
= 247

Hence the fiber supports approximately 247 guided modes.

 Example 2.6
Estimate the maximum core diameter for an optical fiber with the same relative
refractive index difference (1.59%) and core refractive index (1.48) as the fiber given
in Example 2.4 in order that it may be suitable for single-mode operation. It may be
assumed that the fiber is operating at the same wavelength (0.85 um). Further, esti
mate the new maximum core diameter for single-mode operation when the relative
refractive index difference is reduced bya factor of 10.
Solution: Considering the relationship given in Eq. (2.96), the maximum Vvalue
for a fiber which gives single-mode operation is 2.4. Hence, from Eq. (2.70) the core
radius a is:

Và 2.4 x 0.85 x 104

a=
2mm, (2A) 2rx 1.48 x(0.03)
= 1.3 um

Therefore the maximum core diameter for single-mode operation is approximately

2.6 um.
Reducing the relative refractive index difference by a factor of 10 and again using
Eq. (2.70) gives:
2.4 x 0.85 x 10
=4.0 um
2X 1.48 x (0.003)

Hence the maximum core diameter for single-mode operation is now approximately
8 um.

It is clear from Example 2.6 that in order to obtain single-mode operation with a maxi
mum Vnumber of 2.4, the single-mode fiber must have a much smaller core diameter than
the equivalent multimode step index fiber (in this case by a factor of 32). However, it is
possible to achieve single-mode operation with a slightly larger core diameter, albeit still
much less than the diameter of multimode step index fiber, by reducing the relative refrac
tive index difference of the fiber.* Both these factors create difficulties with single-mode
fibers. The small core diameters pose problems with launching light into the fiber and with
field jointing, and the reduced relative refractive index difference presents difficulties in
the fiber fabrication process.

*Practical vlues for single-mode step index fiber designed for operation at a wavelength of 1.3 um
are A= 0.3%, giving 2a = 8.5 um.

56 Optical fiber waveguides Chapter 2

Graded index fibers may also be designed for single-mode operation and some specialist
fiber designs do adopt such non step index profiles (see Section 3.12). However, it may be
shown [Ref. 35] that the cutoff value of normalized frequency V, to support a single mode
in a graded index fiber is given by:
V,=2.405(1 +2/a)! (2.97)

Therefore, as in the step index case, it is possible to determine the fiber parameters which
give single-mode operation.

Example 2.7
A graded index fiber with a parabolic refractive index profile core has a refractive
index at the core axis of 1.5 and a relative index difference of 1%. Estimate the maxi
mum possible core diameter which allows single-mode operation at a wavelength of
1.3 um.
Solution: Using Eq. (2.97) the maximum value of normalized frequency for
single-mode operation is:

V=2.4(1 +2/) =2.4(1 + 2/2)

=2.4V2

The maximum core radius may be obtained from Eq. (2.70) where:

V 2.4V2 x 1.3 × 106

a=

2m1,(2A) 2rx 1.5 x (0.02)

=3.3 um

Hence the maximum core diameter which allows single-mode operation is approx
imately 6.6 um.
Example 2.8
Determine the cutoff wavelength for a step index fiber to exhibit single-mode opera
tion when the core refractive index and radius are 1.46 and 4.5 um, respectively,
with the relative index difference being 0.259%.
Solution: Using Eq. (2.,98) with V, = 2.405 gives:
2ran, (2A)_ 2r4.5 x 1.46(0.005) m
2.405 2.405

= 1.214 um
= 1214 nm

Hence the fiber is single-moded to a wavelength of 1214 nm.

Example 2.9
Given that a useful approximation for the eigenvalue of the single-mode step index
fiber cladding Wis [Ref. 43]:
W() 1.1428V-0.9960

deduce an approximation for the normalized propagation constant b(V).

Solution: Substitutingfrom Eq. (2.68) into Eq. (2.71), the normalized propagation
constant is given by:

b)=1- W²) w

Then substitution of the approximation above gives:

(1.1428V- 0.9960)
b(V)

0.9960
V

The relative error on this approximation for b(V) is less than 0.29% for 1.5 sVs 2.5
and less than 2% for 1sVs3 (Ref. 43].
the parameteT TOT steP

Example 2.10
Estimate the fiber core diameter for a single-mode step index fiber which has an
MFD of l1.6 um when the normalized frequency is 2.2.
Solution: Using the Gaussian approximation, from Eq. (2.125) the fiber core
radius is:

0.65 + 1.619(V)+ 2.879(V)

5.8 x 10
0.65 + 1.619(2.2)"+ 2.879(2.2)
=4.95 um

Hence the fiber core diameter is 9.9 um.

Example 2.11
A parabolic profile graded index single-mode fiber designed for operation at a
wavelength of 1.30 m has a cutoff wavelength of 1.08 um. From experimental
measurement it is established that the first minimum in the diffraction pattern occurs
at an angle of 12°. Using an ESI technique, determine the spot size at the operating
wavelength.
Solution: Using Eq. (2.130), the effective core radius is:
3.8322 3.832 x 1.30 x 10
Ueff
2r sin ,n 2r sin 12°
=3.81 m

The effective normalized frequency can be obtained from Eq. (2.131) as:

Van=2.4054 =2.405 1.08

1.30
=2.00

Hence the spot size is given by Eq. (2.132) as:

o, =3.81 x 10|0.6043 + 1.755(2.00)+ 2.78(2.00)"1

=4.83 um
Example 2.12
Obtain the ESI relative refractive index difference for a graded index fiber which
has a cutoff wavelength and spot size of 1.190 um and 5.2 um respectively. The
maximum refractive index of the fiber core is 1.485.
Solution: The ESI core radius may be obtained from Eq. (2.134) where:
2aps = 1.820 x 5.2 x 10=9.464 um

Using Eq. (2.135), the ESI relative index difference is given by:
Ags1 = (0.293/1.485) (1.190/9.464)
=2.101 x 10 or 0.21%
 Example 3.1
When the mean optical power launched into an 8 km length of fiber is 120 uW, the
mean optical power at the fiber output is 3 uW.
Determine:

(a) the overall signal attenuation or loss in decibels through the fiber assuming
there are no connectors or splices;
(b) the signal attenuation per kilometer for the fiber.
(c) the overall signal attenuation for a 10 km optical link using the same fiber
with splices at 1 km intervals, each giving an attenuation of 1 dB;
(d) the numerical input/output power ratio in (c).
Solution: (a) Using Eq. (3.1), the overall signal attenuation in decibels through the
fiber is:

120 x 106
Signal attenuation = 10 logo = 10 log1o
P 3x 10
= 10 log,o 40 = 16.0 dB

(b) The signal attenuation per kilometer for the fiber may be simply obtained by
dividing the result in (a) by the fiber length which corresponds to it using Eq. (3.3)
where:

CugL= l6.0 dB

hence:

16.0
8

=2.0 dB km!

90 Transmission characteristics of optical fibers Chapter 3

(c) As auR =2 dB km, the loss incurred along 10 km of the fiber is given by:
ugL= 2x 10 = 20 dB

However, the link also has nine splices (at 1 km intervals) each with an attenuation
of IdB. Therefore, the loss due to the splices is 9 dB.
Hence, the overall signal attenuation for the link is:

Signal attenuation = 20 +9
= 29 dB

(d) To obtain a numerical value for the input/output power ratio, Eq. (3.2) may be
used where:

B- 1010= 794.3
P,
Example 3.2
Silica has an estimated fictive temperature of 1400 K with an isothermal compress
ibility of 7x10" mN Ref. 131. The refractive index and the photoelastic coeffi
cient for silica are 1.46 and 0.286 respectively [Ref. 13]. Determine the theoretical
attenuation in decibels per kilometer due to the fundamental Rayleigh scattering in
silica at optical wavelengths of 0.63, 1.00 and 1.30 um. Boltzmann's constant is
1.381 x 102 JK-.
Solution: The Rayleigh scattering coefficient may be obtained from Eq. (3.4) for
each wavelength. However, the only variable in each case is the wavelength, and
therefore the constant of proportionality of Eq. (3.4) applies in all cases. Hence:

8r'n'pBKT;
32+
248.15 x 20.65 x 0.082 × 7 x 10-1! x 1.381 x 10 x 1400
3x 2*
1.895 x 10-28
m
2

At a wavelength of 0.63 um:

1.895 x 1028
10 m!
0.158 x10-24=1.199 x

The transmission loss factor for 1 kilometer of fiber may be obtained using Eq. (3.5):
Lum = exp(-%L) =exp(-1.199 x 10 x 10))
=0.301

The attenuation due to Rayleigh scattering in decibels per kilometer may be

obtained from Eq. (3.1) where:

Attenuation = 10 logo(1/Lam) = 10 log,3.322

=5.2 dB km-!

At a wavelength of 1.0 um:

1.895 x 1028
= -= 1.895 x 10 m
1024

Using Eq. (3.5):

Lm =exp(-1.895 x 10*x 10') = exp(-0.1895)

=0.827

Linear scattering losses 97

and Eq. (3.1):

Attenuation = 10 logo 1.209 = 0.8 dB km!

At a wavelength of 1.30 um:

1.895 x 10-28
=0.664 x 10
2.856 x 1024

Using Eq. (3.5):

Lam = exp(-0.664 x 10x 10') = 0.936

and Eq. (3.1):

Attenuation = 10 log,0 1.069 =0.3dB km

Example 3.3
Along single-mode optical fiber has an attenuation of 0.5 dB km when operating at
a wavelength of 1.3 um. The fiber core diameter is 6 um and the laser source band
width is 600 MHZ. Compare the threshold optical powers for stimulated Brillouin
and Raman scattering within the fiber at the wavelength specified.
Solution: The threshold optical power for SBS is given by Eq. (3.6) as:
Pa=4.4 x 10 dRan V
= 4.4 x 10 x6x 1.3² x 0.5 x 0.6
= 80.3 mW

The threshold optical power for SRS may be obtained from Eq. (3.7), where:
P=5.9 x 10dha,B
= 5.9 x 10x6x 1.3 x 0.5
= 1.38 W
 Example 3.4
Two step index fibers exhibit the following parameters:

(a) a multimode fiber with a core refractive index of 1.500, a relative refractive
index difference of 3% and an operating wavelength of 0.82 um:
(b) an 8 um core diameter single-mode fiber with a core refractive index the
same as (a), a relative refractive index difference of 0.3% and an operating
wavelength of 1.55 m.
Estimate the critical radius of curvature at which large bending losses occur in
both cases.
Solution: (a) The relative refractive index difference is given by Eq. (2.9) as:

2n
Hence:

nË = nË- 2An; = 2.250 - 0.06 x 2.250

=2.115

Using Eq. (3.8) for the multimode fiber critical radius of curvature:

R.
3ni2 3x 2.250 x 0.82 x 10
4nX (0.135)
=9 um

(b) Again, from Eq. (2.9):

102 Transmission characteristics of optical fibers Chapter 3

n;= n;- 2An; = 2.250 -(0.006 x 2.250)

= 2.237

The cutoff wavelength for the single-mode fiber is given by Eq. (2.98) as:
2rtan, (24)
2.405
2rx4x 10x 1.500 (0.06)
2.405
= 1.214 um

Substituting into Eq. (3.9) for the critical radius of curvature for the single-mode
fiber gives:
20 x 1.55 x 104 0.996 x 1.55 x 10}3
R 2.748
(0.043) 1.214 x 106
=34 mm
Example 3.5
Amultimode graded index fiber exhibits total pulse broadening of 0. I us over a dis
tance of 15 km. Estimate:

(a) the maximum possible bandwidth on the link assuming no intersymbol

interference;

(b) the pulse dispersion per unit length;

(c) the bandwidth-length product for the fiber.

Solution: (a) The maximum possible optical bandwidth which is equivalent to

the maximum possible bit rate (for return to zero pulses) assuming no ISI may be
obtained from Eq. (3.10), where:
1 1
=5 MHz
Big=B= 0.2 x 10

(b) The dispersion per unit length may be acquired simply by dividing the total
dispersion by the total length of the fiber:
0.1 x 10
Dispersion = =6.67 ns km-!
15

(c) The bandwidth-length product may be obtained in two ways. Firstly by sim
ply multiplying the maximum bandwidth for the fiber link by its length. Hence:
BonL = 5 MHz × 15 km =75 MHz km

Alternatively, it may be obtained from the dispersion per unit length using
Eq. (3.10) where:
1
BopL = 2x 6.67 x106 =75 MHz km
Example 3.6
Aglass fiber exhibits material dispersion given by |2d'n,/d')| of 0.025. Deter
mine the material dispersion parameter at a wavelength of 0.85 um, and estimate the
rms pulse broadening per kilometer for a good LED source with an rms spectral
width of 20 nm at this wavelength.
Solution: The material dispersion parameter may be obtained from Eq. (3.19):

-
0.025 S nm km-!
2.998 x 10 x 850
= 98.1 ps nm-' km

The rms pulse broadening is given by Eq. (3.18) as:

Therefore in terms of the material dispersion parameter Mdefined by Eq. (3.19):

, LM

Hence, the rms pulse broadening per kilometer due to material dispersion:
o(1 km) = 20 x 1 x 98.1 x 1012 = 1.96 ns km
Example 3.7
Estimate the rms pulse broadening per kilometer for the fiber in Example 3.6 when
the optical source used is an injection laser with a relative spectral width ,/À of
0.0012 at a wavelength of 0.85 um.
Solution: The rms spectral width may be obtained from the relative spectral
width by:
, =0.00122 =0.0012 x 0.85 x 10-6
= 1.02 nm

The rms pulse broadening in terms of the material dispersion parameter following
Example 3.6 is given by:
O,LM

Intermodal dispersion 113

Therefore, the rms pulse broadening per kilometer due to material dispersion is:
O 102 x 1x 98.1 x 10=0.10 ns km

Hence, in this example the rms pulse broadening is reduced by a factor of around
20 (i.e. equivalent to the reduced ms spectral width of the injection laser source)
compared with that obtained with the LED source of Example 3.6.
 Example 3.8
A 6 km optical link consists of multimode step index fiber with a core refractive
index of 1.5 and a relative refractive index difference of 1%. Estimate:

(a) the delay difference between the slowest and fastest modes at the fiber output;
(b) the rms pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion on the link;
(c) the maximum bit rate that may be obtained without substantial errors on the
link assuming only intermodal dispersion;
(d) the bandwidth-length product corresponding to (c).
Solution: (a) The delay difference is given by Eq. (3.27) as:

ST A_6x 10' x 1.5 x 0.01

C 2.998 x 10
= 300 ns

118 Transmission characteristics of optical fibers Chapter 3

(b) The rms pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion may be obtained from
Eq. (3.35) where:
I 6x 10° x 1.5 x 0.01
o,=; 2.998 x 10
2V3c 2V3
=86.7 ns

(c) The maximum bit rate may be estimated in two ways. Firstly, to get an idea of
the maximum bit rate when assuming no pulse overlap, Eq. (3.10) may be used
where:

B,(max) = 1
2r 28T 600 x 10
=1.7 Mbit s-!

Alternatively an improved estimate may be obtained using the calculated ms

pulse broadening in Eq. (3.11) where:
0.2 0.2
B,(max) =
86.7 x 10
=2.3 Mbit s-!

(d) Using the most accurate estimate of the maximum bit rate from (c), and
assuming return to zero pulses, the bandwidth-length product is:
BooXL =2.3 MHz x 6 km = 13.8 MHz km
 Intermodal dispersion 121

Example 3.9
Compare the rms pulse broadening per kilometer due to intermodal dispersion for
the multimode step index fiber of Example 3.8 with the corresponding rms pulse
broadening for an optimum near-parabolic profile graded index fiber with the same
core axis refractive index and relative refractive index difference.
Solution: In Example 3.8, o, over 6 km of fiber is 86.7 ns. Hence the rms pulse
broadening per kilometer for the multimode step index fiber is:

g( km)_=86.7 =14,4 ns km
6

Using Eq. (3.42), the rms pulse broadening per kilometer for the corresponding
graded index fiber is:

10° x 1.5 x (0.01)°

g,(1 km)=
20V3e 20V3 x 2.998 x 10°
= 14.4 ps km
Example 3.10
A multimode step index fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.3 and a core refractive
index of 1.45. The material dispersion parameter for the fiber is 250 ps nm km
which makes material dispersion the totally dominating chromatic dispersion mech
anism. Estimate (a) the total rms pulse broadening per kilometer when the fiber is
used with an LED source of rms spectral width 50 nm and (b) the corresponding
bandwidth-length product for the fiber.
Solution: (a) The rms pulse broadening per kilometer due to material dispersion
may be obtained from Eq. (3.18), where:

d'n,
o(1km) d2 = LM= 50 x1x 250 ps km
= 12.5 ns km-!

The rms pulse broadening per kilometer due to intermodal dispersion for the step
index fiber is given by Eq. (3.35) as:

Overall fiber dispersion 125

(1 km) LINA) 10 x 0.09

4V3n,c 4V3 x 1.45 x 2.998 x 10
=29.9 ns km

The total rms pulse broadening per kilometer may be obtained using Eq. (3.43),
where o O, as the waveguide dispersion is negligible and o, = g, for the multi
mode step index fiber. Hence:
o, =(o+ o =(12.5+ 29.9 )
= 32.4 ns km
(b) The bandwidth-length product may be estimated from the relationship given
in Eq. (3.11) where:

Bog XL=0.2_ 0.2

32.4 x 109
=6.2 MHz km
 Example 3.11
Atypical single-mode fiber has a zero-dispersion wavelength of 1.31 um with adis
persion slope of 0.09 ps nm' km". Compare the total first-order dispersion for the
fiber at the wavelengths of 1.28 um and 1.55 um. When the material dispersion and
profile dispersion at the latter wavelength are 13.5 ps nm' km' and 0.4 ps nm' km",
respectively, determine the waveguide dispersion at this wavelength.
Solution: The total first-order dispersion for the fiber at the two wavelengths may
be obtained from Eq. (3.55). Hence:

D(1280 nm) =

1280 x 0.09 x 10-12

1280
=-2.8 ps nm kml

132 Transmission characteristics of optical fibers Chapter 3

and:

1550 x 0.09 x 102 .

D{(1550 nm) = 4

= 17.1ps nm' km-!

The total dispersion at the 1.28 um wavelength exhibits a negative sign due to the
influence of the waveguide dispersion. Furthermore, as anticipated the total disper
sion at the longer wavelength (1.55 um) is considerably greater than that obtained
near the zero-dispersion wavelength.
The waveguide dispersion for the fiber at a wavelength of 1.55 um is given by
Eq. (3.51) where:

Dy = D, - (DM + Dp)
= 17.1-(13.5 + 0.4)
=3.2 ps nm' km!
Example 3.12
The beat length in a single-mode optical fiber is 9 cm when light from an injection
laser with aspectral linewidth of Inm and apeak wavelength of 0.9 um is launched
into it. Determine the modal birefringence and estimate the coherence length in this
situation. In addition calculate the difference between the propagation constants for
the two orthogonal modes and check the result.
Solution: To find the modal birefringence Eq. (3.60) may be used where:
A 0.9 x
BrLa 101x 10
0.09

Knowing B, Eq. (3.59) may be used to obtain the coherence length:

0.81 x 10-12
Le -=81 m
B,8. 10x109
The difference between the propagation constant for the two orthogonal modes
may be obtained from Eq. (3.61) where:

B-B= 2n_ 27
0.09
=69.8

The result may be checked by using Eq. (3.57) where:

B-B,=:2rcB_ 0.9
2IX 105
x 106

= 69.8