Part I Circuits 41

EXAMPLE 2.14 The Wheatstone Bridge

➲LO4
Problem
The Wheatstone bridge is a resistive circuit that is frequently encountered in a variety of
measurement circuits. The general form of the bridge circuit is shown in Figure 2.42(a), where
R1 , R2 , and R3 are known while Rx is an unknown resistance, to be determined. The circuit
may also be redrawn as shown in Figure 2.42(b). The latter circuit is used to demonstrate
the voltage divider rule in a mixed series-parallel circuit. The objective is to determine the
unknown resistance Rx .

1. Find the value of the voltage vab = vad − vbd in terms of the four resistances and the c
source voltage vS . Note that since the reference point d is the same for both voltages, we R1 R3
can also write vab = va − vb . vS + va vb
_ a b
2. If R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 k!, vS = 12 V, and vab = 12 mV, what is the value of Rx ?
R2 Rx
d

Solution
(a)
Known Quantities: Source voltage; resistance values; bridge voltage.
c
Find: Unknown resistance Rx .

Schematics, Diagrams, Circuits, and Given Data: See Figure 2.42. R1 R3

R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 k!; vS = 12 V; vab = 12 mV. vS +
a va vb b
_
Analysis: R2 Rx

1. First we observe that the circuit consists of the parallel combination of three subcircuits:
the voltage source, the series combination of R1 and R2 , and the series combination of R3 d
and Rx . Since these three subcircuits are in parallel, the same voltage will appear across (b)
each of them, namely, the source voltage vS .
Thus, the source voltage divides between each resistor pair R1 − R2 and R3 − Rx Figure 2.42 Wheatstone
bridge circuits
according to the voltage divider rule: vad is the fraction of the source voltage appearing
across R2 , while vbd is the voltage appearing across Rx :
R2 Rx
vad = vS and vbd = vS
R1 + R2 R3 + R x
Finally, the voltage difference between points a and b is given by
R2 Rx
! "
vab = vad − vbd = vS −
R1 + R 2 R3 + R x
This result is very useful and quite general.
2. To solve for the unknown resistance, we substitute the numerical values in the preceding
equation to obtain

1,000 Rx
! "
0.012 = 12 −
2,000 1,000 + Rx
which may be solved for Rx to yield
Rx = 996 !
Comments: The Wheatstone bridge finds application in many measurement circuits and
instruments.
42 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Use the results of part 1 of Example 2.14 to find the condition for which the voltage
vab = va − vb is equal to zero (this is called the balanced condition for the bridge). Does
this result necessarily require that all four resistors be identical? Why?

Answer: R1 Rx = R2 R3

EXAMPLE 2.15 Resistance Strain Gauges

Another common application of the resistance concept to engineering measurements is the
resistance strain gauge. Strain gauges are devices that are bonded to the surface of an object,
and whose resistance varies as a function of the surface strain experienced by the object. Strain
gauges may be used to perform measurements of strain, stress, force, torque, and pressure.
Recall that the resistance of a cylindrical conductor of cross-sectional area A, length L, and
conductivity σ is given by the expression
L
R=
σA
If the conductor is compressed or elongated as a consequence of an external force, its dimen-
sions will change, and with them its resistance. In particular, if the conductor is stretched, its
cross-sectional area decreases and the resistance increases. If the conductor is compressed, its
resistance decreases, since the length L decreases. The relationship between change in resis-
tance and change in length is given by the gauge factor GF, defined by
#R/R
GF =
#L/L
And since the strain $ is defined as the fractional change in length of an object by the formula
#L
$=
L
the change in resistance due to an applied strain $ is given by
#R = R0 GF$
where R0 is the resistance of the strain gauge under no strain and is called the zero strain
resistance. The value of GF for resistance strain gauges made of metal foil is usually
about 2.
Figure 2.43 depicts a typical foil strain gauge. The maximum strain that can be measured
by a foil gauge is about 0.4 to 0.5 percent; that is, #L/L = 0.004 – 0.005. For a 120-! gauge,this

The foil is formed by a photo-

etching process and is less than
Circuit symbol for 0.00002 in thick. Typical resistance
RG
the strain gauge values are 120, 350, and 1,000 Ω.
The wide areas are bonding pads
for electrical connections.

Figure 2.43 Metal-foil resistance strain gauge.

 Part I Circuits 43

corresponds to a change in resistance on the order of 0.96 to 1.2 !. Although this change in
resistance is very small, it can be detected by means of suitable circuitry. Resistance strain
gauges are usually connected in a circuit called the Wheatstone bridge, which we analyze later
in this chapter.
Comments—Resistance strain gauges find application in many measurement circuits and
instruments. The measurement of force is one such application, shown next.

EXAMPLE 2.16 The Wheatstone Bridge and Force

Measurements
Strain gauges are frequently employed in the measurement of force. One of the simplest ap-
plications of strain gauges is in the measurement of the force applied to a cantilever beam,
as illustrated in Figure 2.44. Four strain gauges are employed in this case, of which two are
bonded to the upper surface of the beam at a distance L from the point where the external force
F is applied and two are bonded on the lower surface, also at a distance L. Under the influence
of the external force, the beam deforms and causes the upper gauges to extend and the lower
gauges to compress. Thus, the resistance of the upper gauges will increase by an amount #R,
and that of the lower gauges will decrease by an equal amount, assuming that the gauges are
symmetrically placed. Let R1 and R4 be the upper gauges and R2 and R3 the lower gauges.
Thus, under the influence of the external force, we have

R1 = R4 = R0 + #R
R2 = R3 = R0 − #R

where R0 is the zero strain resistance of the gauges. It can be shown from elementary statics
that the relationship between the strain $ and a force F applied at a distance L for a cantilever
beam is
6LF
$=
wh2 Y

where h and w are as defined in Figure 2.44 and Y is the beam’s modulus of elasticity.

F c
L
R1 ia ib
R4

R1 R3
+
R2, R3 bonded vS va vb
to bottom surface –
R2 R4
Beam cross section h
w
d

Figure 2.44 A force-measuring instrument.

In the circuit of Figure 2.44, the currents ia and ib are given by

vS vS
ia = and ib =
R1 + R2 R3 + R 4
44 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

The bridge output voltage is defined by vo = vb − va and may be found from the following
expression:
vS R4 vS R2
vo = ib R4 − ia R2 = −
R3 + R4 R1 + R2
R0 + #R R0 − #R
= vS − vS
R0 + #R + R0 − #R R0 + #R + R0 − #R
#R
= vS = vS GF$
R0
where the expression for #R/R0 was obtained in Example 2.15. Thus, it is possible to obtain
a relationship between the output voltage of the bridge circuit and the force F as follows:
6LF 6vS GFL
vo = vS GF$ = vS GF 2 = F = kF
wh Y wh2 Y
where k is the calibration constant for this force transducer.

Comments—Strain gauge bridges are commonly used in mechanical, chemical, aerospace,

biomedical, and civil engineering applications (and wherever measurements of
force, pressure, torque, stress, or strain are sought).

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Compute the full-scale (i.e., largest) output voltage for the force-measuring apparatus of “Focus
on Measurements: The Wheatstone Bridge and Force Measurements.” Assume that the strain
gauge bridge is to measure forces ranging from 0 to 500 newtons (N), L = 0.3 m, w = 0.05 m,
h = 0.01 m, GF = 2, and the modulus of elasticity for the beam is 69 × 109 N/m2 (aluminum).
The source voltage is 12 V. What is the calibration constant of this force transducer?

Answer: vo (full scale) = 62.6 mV; k = 0.125 mV/N

2.7 PRACTICAL VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

SOURCES
The idealized models of voltage and current sources we discussed in Section 2.1
fail to consider the internal resistance of practical voltage and current sources. The
objective of this section is to extend the ideal models to models that are capable of
describing the physical limitations of the voltage and current sources used in practice.
Consider, for example, the model of an ideal voltage source shown in Figure 2.1. As
the load resistance R decreases, the source is required to provide increasing amounts
of current to maintain the voltage vS (t) across its terminals:
vS (t)
i(t) = (2.24)
R
This circuit suggests that the ideal voltage source is required to provide an infinite
amount of current to the load, in the limit as the load resistance approaches zero.
Naturally, you can see that this is impossible; for example, think about the ratings of
a conventional car battery: 12 V, 450 ampere-hours (A-h). This implies that there is
a limit (albeit a large one) to the amount of current a practical source can deliver to
 Part I Circuits 45

a load. Fortunately, it is not necessary to delve too deeply into the physical nature iS
rS
of each type of source to describe the behavior of a practical voltage source: The
limitations of practical sources can be approximated quite simply by exploiting the +

notion of the internal resistance of a source. Although the models described in this vS + vL RL
_
section are only approximations of the actual behavior of energy sources, they will
provide good insight into the limitations of practical voltage and current sources. –

Figure 2.45 depicts a model for a practical voltage source, composed of an ideal vS
iS =
voltage source vS in series with a resistance rS . The resistance rS in effect poses a Practical voltage rS + RL
source
limit to the maximum current the voltage source can provide: vS
lim iS =
RL→0 rS
vS
iS max = (2.25)
rS rS iS max

Typically, rS is small. Note, however, that its presence affects the voltage across +
the load resistance: Now this voltage is no longer equal to the source voltage. Since
vS +
_ vL
the current provided by the source is
–
vS
iS = (2.26)
rS + RL
The maximum (short circuit)
the load voltage can be determined to be current which can be supplied
by a practical voltage source is
RL vS
vL = iS RL = vS (2.27) iS max =
rS
rS + RL
Figure 2.45 Practical
Thus, in the limit as the source internal resistance rS approaches zero, the load voltage
voltage source
vL becomes exactly equal to the source voltage. It should be apparent that a desirable
feature of an ideal voltage source is a very small internal resistance, so that the
current requirements of an arbitrary load may be satisfied. Often, the effective internal
resistance of a voltage source is quoted in the technical specifications for the source,
so that the user may take this parameter into account. +
A similar modification of the ideal current source model is useful to describe
the behavior of a practical current source. The circuit illustrated in Figure 2.46 depicts iS rS vS RL
a simple representation of a practical current source, consisting of an ideal source in –
parallel with a resistor. Note that as the load resistance approaches infinity (i.e., an
open circuit), the output voltage of the current source approaches its limit
A model for practical current
sources consists of an ideal source
vS max = iS rS (2.28) in parallel with an internal
resistance.
A good current source should be able to approximate the behavior of an ideal current
source. Therefore, a desirable characteristic for the internal resistance of a current
source is that it be as large as possible. +

iS rS vS

–
2.8 MEASURING DEVICES
In this section, you should gain a basic understanding of the desirable properties Maximum output
of practical devices for the measurement of electrical parameters. The measure- voltage for practical
ments most often of interest are those of current, voltage, power, and resistance. current source with
open-circuit load:
In analogy with the models we have just developed to describe the nonideal behav-
ior of voltage and current sources, we similarly present circuit models for practi- vS max = iS rS

cal measuring instruments suitable for describing the nonideal properties of these Figure 2.46 Practical
devices. current source