Inżynieria Bezpieczeństwa

Obiektów Antropogenicznych 3 (2022) 10-20

https://inzynieriabezpieczenstwa.com.pl/

The use of cohesive soils improved with lime as an example of

circular economy in earthworks
Wojciech GOSK*
Bialystok University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Environmental Sciences, Bialystok, Poland

Abstract

A common practice in civil engineering during earthworks is the usual replacement of cohesive soils
(fine soils), excavated during earthworks, with non-cohesive soils (coarse soils). Until recently, such a
procedure was dictated primarily by economic and technical reasons. From an economic point of view,
the ease of access and therefore low cost of using such soils instead of cohesive soils was crucial. The
technical reason is, above all, the ease of compacting fine soils (as opposed to cohesive soils) and well-
developed and well-known engineering methods for controlling their compaction.
The situation changed radically when the new environmental regulations came into force and
enforcement by the inspection authorities began. Currently, soil removed from a construction site
according to regulations should be classified as waste. This fact has completely changed the approach
of participants in the construction process to the use of local soils, especially cohesive soils (e.g. clays).
Their use "on site" has stopped being an expensive option and has become a necessity.
This paper presents aspects of the use of lime-improved cohesive soils that can be successfully used
on site as excavation backfill. Problems related to the proper preparation of soil-lime composites are
described, as well as the results of compaction tests. The paper presents the author's own methodology
for selecting the content of quicklime in the soil-lime composite.

Keywords: soil improvement, cohesive soil, excavation, backfill, compaction.

Introduction
Subsoils built of made grounds used in earthworks should have sufficient bearing capacity and stiffness to meet
design criteria for ultimate and serviceability limit states. These criteria are designed to ensure the durability of the
earth-structure and the safety of its use. Since the problem of made grounds concerns a very wide spectrum of human
construction activities, many papers have been dedicated to this topic (e.g. Sulewska, 2009; Sulewska 2012). In
Poland, one of the most respected authors dealing with the subject of soil compaction and compactability is Stanisław
Pisarczyk (Pisarczyk, 2015; Pisarczyk, 2014). From an engineering point of view, an important element in the process
of soil structure designing and performing earthworks are standards, regulations and various types of guidelines
issued by opinion-giving research and development centers. The standards in the analyzed field are primarily
concerned with the area of road construction. The reason for this is that all earthworks are a natural and integral part
of this type of construction. From a formal point of view, an important source of guidelines for the requirements for

* Corresponding author: E-mail address: (w.gosk@pb.edu.pl) Wojciech GOSK

https://dx.doi.org/10.37105/iboa.146
Received 15 September 2022
Available online 30 September 2022
ISSN 2450-1859, eISSN 2450-8721
Published by Centrum Rzeczoznawstwa Budowlanego
- 10 -
 Inżynieria Bezpieczeństwa Obiektów Antropogenicznych 3 (2022) 10-20

earthworks and soil structures is the Regulation of the Minister of Infrastructure dated June 24, 2022 on technical
and construction regulations for public roads (effective from September 21, 2022).
The PN-S-02205: 1998 standard is still used in the design practice of road construction in Poland. It should be
noted that the standard for earthworks EN 16907-1: 2018 is now formally in force. Also important are materials
issued by the General Director of National Roads and Highways, among which it is necessary to list, for example,
the "Catalogue of typical constructions of flexible and semi-rigid pavements", which is an Appendix to Order No. 31
of 16.06.2014, and the "Conditions for the execution and acceptance of construction works" (D-02.00.0 1 v03.
Earthworks. General requirements. General Directorate of National Highways of September 30, 2019).
The requirements for soils as materials for use in earthworks given in the documents mentioned above have a
major impact on design decisions as well as decisions made during the execution of earthworks. In engineering
practice, there are often situations where local cohesive soils were classified as unsuitable or even unsuitable for
further use after excavation. Such soils were transported to an offsite, often many kilometers away, and replaced with
delivered soils, usually non-cohesive. Quite rarely was the decision made to reuse local soil after it had been properly
improved. This was due to the factors, which are discussed below.
1) Non-cohesive soils are considered more useful than cohesive soils due to their easier compaction. In addition,
non-cohesive soils are less sensitive to moisture and do not create frost heave.
2) Sourcing and transporting non-cohesive soils (gravels, sands) was relatively cheap.
3) The standard techniques used to improve cohesive soils have quite a few limitations (primarily due to
equipment availability) and can be time-consuming and expensive.
4) The technology of using improved cohesive soils is well developed for earth-structures with large volumes and
work areas. It is very seldom used for linear trench.
5) Quality control of the compaction of embankments and backfills made of non-cohesive soils is easier to carry
out than in cohesive soils. Inspection and acceptance procedures for non-cohesive soils are better known and there
are correlative relationships that allow the use of dynamic probing tests and light falling weights deflectometers.
6) Often in the project documentation, the authors impose the need to use only backfill of non-cohesive soils
without analyzing the possibility of using cohesive soils.
7) The habits and beliefs of participants in the decision-making process very often influence the disqualification
of cohesive soils as a possible building material already at the initial design stages.
In addition, an important element of the problem discussed seems to be the lack of precision in the area of existing
and applied norms and guidelines. An example is the removal of Appendix No. 4 in the Announcement of the Minister
of Infrastructure and Construction dated December 23, 2015. (on the announcement of the consolidated text of the
Ordinance of the Minister of Transport and Maritime Economy on the technical conditions to be met by public roads
and their location), which a discussion of the bearing capacity classes of road subsoil were included. However, the
classification into bearing capacity classes is still present, for example in the "Catalogue of typical constructions of
flexible and semi-rigid pavements." Not surprisingly, designers and construction managers are consternated by the
problem presented.
The implementation of new environmental regulations (THE ACT of December 14, 2012 on waste. Journal of
Laws of 2020, item 797, 875, as amended) harmonized with European Union law (Directive 2008) has significantly
changed the situation. According to the new regulations, soil removed from a construction site must be classified as
waste, which cause significant additional costs. The use of cohesive soils as trench backfill or embankment material
has basically become a necessity instead of an expensive alternative.

- 11 -
 Inżynieria Bezpieczeństwa Obiektów Antropogenicznych 3 (2022) 10-20

1 Improvement and stabilization of cohesive soils with lime

According to classical terminology, soil improvement should be understood as such modification that improves
the geotechnical properties of soils to increase their suitability for construction. Soil improvement operations can dry
the soil, improve its compaction, increase its bearing capacity and increase its resistance to water and frost. Soil
stabilization, on the other hand, is the process of engineering soil reinforcement for construction purposes, when the
properties of the stabilized soil are included in the design, and the stabilized soil layer is a construction component
of the structure (e.g., road subgrade). As a rule, such layers are expected to have high strength and frost resistance.
In fact, appropriate additives (e.g., cement, lime, fly ash, etc.) are used for both soil improvement and stabilization.
The main difference, however, is the amount of additive used. In the case of the use of lime, it should be considered
that stabilization can be mentioned with a binder mass addition of 3 to 8% (PN-S-96011:1998) or 3 to 12% (Pisarczyk,
2015). Therefore, it should be concluded that the application of a smaller amount of binder should be considered an
improvement. This is supported by information found in papers by Celauroa at. al. (2012a, 2012b), in which the
authors state that the typical amount of CaO quicklime used to improve cohesive soils is up to 3% for construction
of road embankments and up to 6% for capping layers.
The PN-EN 14227-15:2015-12 standard introduced a new approach to the classification and naming of soil
mixtures with hydraulic binders. The first classification was made into: aggregate mixtures bound with hydraulic
binder and soil stabilized with hydraulic binder or lime. The definition of stabilization has been significantly
expanded and, in a sense, "absorbed" improvement. Currently, soil stabilized with hydraulic binder is classified into
soil bound with hydraulic binder or lime and soil improved with hydraulic binder or lime.
Improving and stabilizing soils with lime can be done with both quicklime (CaO) and hydrated lime Ca(OH) 2.
Various literature sources (e.g., Pisarczyk, 2015; Rolla, 2001; PN-S-96011:1998) report that cohesive soils with a
plasticity index IP ≥ 7%, which contain clay minerals that react with lime, are suitable for lime stabilization. Soils
with an organic content of more than 10% and with a high sand equivalent value (greater than 30%) are not suitable
for improvement. Quicklime can be used for cohesive soils with a clay fraction content fi > 10%. When the moisture
content of the soil is quite low and does not exceed the optimum moisture content (w < w opt), the so-called „lime
milk” should be applied. Analogous information can also be found in the studies of Bicalhoa at. al, 2018 and
Baldavina at. al, 2018.
The improvement of geotechnical properties of soils with lime addition is the result of crystallization of Ca(OH)2
and carbonation of calcium hydroxide with simultaneous exchange reactions resulting in the formation of (Di Sante
et al., 2014). These processes cause soil strengthening. It is also important to reduce the moisture content of the soil
after the addition of lime (there is drying of the soil - the addition of 1% lime reduces the moisture content of the soil
by 0.8-1.4%, 1% can be taken as a guideline) as well as increasing its optimum moisture content. This is an effect
that improves the compactability of soils containing too much water. So here we can say about the simultaneous
double effect of lime. According to Pisarczyk (2015), the optimum moisture content of soil with the addition of lime
can be calculated from the formula:
m
wopt = wopt + 1,5 + 0,4  D, % , (1)

where:

m
w opt – the optimum moisture content of soil with the addition of lime, %,

D – quicklime content, %.

The addition of lime also makes the preparation and processing of the soil significantly easier. This is due to the
fact that aggregation occurs - the soil is much easier to crumble, easier to mix and homogenize. The plasticity index
and liquidity index of cohesive soils decreases and the soil becomes more crumbly and granular and thus easier to
build and compact (Di Sante at. al., 2014).

- 12 -
 Inżynieria Bezpieczeństwa Obiektów Antropogenicznych 3 (2022) 10-20

2 Methodology of improving cohesive soils with lime and their embedding

Cohesive soils after being excavated from the trench should be properly prepared at the construction site before
being embedded again. At the first stage, the soils should be crushed so that they become material in the form of
clumps. Crushing can be carried out with a recycler, commonly known as a sieving bucket, (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Crushing cohesive soil with a recycler

After initial fragmentation, a defined (based on geotechnical tests) amount of quicklime is added to the soil using
a doser (Fig. 2). Next, the cohesive soil is mixed with the lime, initially using a blade rake (Fig. 3), then again, with
further grinding, using a recycler (Fig. 4). This phase continues until a well-mixed homogeneous lime-soil mass
(lime-soil composite) is obtained in the shape of small clods.

Figure 2. Adding quicklime to the soil using a doser

- 13 -
 Inżynieria Bezpieczeństwa Obiektów Antropogenicznych 3 (2022) 10-20

Figure 3. Mixing soil with quicklime using a blade rake

Figure 4. Mixing the soil with lime and further crushing with a recycler

The prepared soil-lime mixture is then poured into the excavation using a recycler (Fig. 5) with further crushing
of the soil.

Figure 5. Filling a layer of soil mixed with lime into a excavation

- 14 -
 Inżynieria Bezpieczeństwa Obiektów Antropogenicznych 3 (2022) 10-20

Embankments should be raised in layers of about 30 - 40 cm thick with simultaneous compaction. It is particularly
effective to use plate compactors mounted to the excavator (Fig. 6). Each of the performed layers (e.g., Fig. 7) should
be inspected geotechnically (make an acceptance of the quality of earthworks).

Figure 6. Compaction of the soil layer in the excavation by means of a hydraulic plate compactor

Figure 7. The layer of compacted lime-improved cohesive soil

The peculiarity of all the presented stages of the technological process of soil preparation and embedding is the
use of individual pieces of equipment, which are very efficiently mounted to the excavator by means of a fully
automatic hydraulic quick connector. In addition, this technique, unlike the standard method used in road
construction, makes it possible to carry out operations in cuttings.

3 Determination of the appropriate content of quicklime in the soil-lime composite

The methodology for calculating the proper content of quicklime in a soil-lime composite will be presented as an
example. This is the author's simple procedure, which works well for soil improvement but not for stabilization. In
the case of stabilization, standard procedures should be used (e.g. PN-S-96011:1998). In addition, the proposed
procedure is much less time-consuming than the one presented in Rolla (2001).
The cohesive soil under study and the soil improvement binder (Lhoist Proviacal ST) were obtained from The
Drabent company. The soil, according to Drabent's construction manager, came from the construction of DK678
road.

- 15 -
 Inżynieria Bezpieczeństwa Obiektów Antropogenicznych 3 (2022) 10-20

To begin with, identification and description of the soil was carried out in accordance with EN ISO 14688-1 and
additionally based on PN-88/B-04481. The type of soil, its moisture content and color were evaluated. The tests were
performed several times during the laboratory studies. It is estimated that a total of a dozen tests were carried out. It
was found that the tested soil should be classified as:
- according to PN-88/B-04481 - brown silty clay (Gπz) layered with gray sandy silt (πp) with stiff consistency,
- according to EN ISO 14688 - brown silty clay (siCl) layered with gray sandy silt (saSi) with stiff consistency.
The moisture content of the soil was determined by the drying method in accordance with PKN-CEN ISO/TS
17892-1 and PN-88/B-04481. A total of 8 moisture content tests were performed. The average moisture content of
the tested soil was 19.6%.
The determination of optimum moisture content (wopt) and maximum dry density (rds), was carried out in
accordance with PN-EN 13286-2:2010-11E and its accompanying appendices. This test is based on the Proctor
method. Due to the grain size of the tested soils, the A+A method was used. The laboratory compaction test is based
on compacting the soil in a standardized cylinder and determining the dry density of the soil (r d) at different soil
moisture contents (w). Based on the relationship rd(w), the optimum moisture content (wopt) and maximum dry density
of the soil (rds) were determined (the coordinates of the maximum on the graph), (Fig. 8).
The Proctor compaction test was aimed at determining the correct amount of improvement additive. This test was
conducted a total of 4 times using the method of successive trials using incremental increases in the amount of
quicklime. A total of 4 complete test series were made:
- once for the soil without any improvement additives,
three times for soil improved with the addition of Proviacal ST quicklime (0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5% by weight of
soil in the natural state).
The results of the compactability test are shown in Figure 8.
a)

b)

- 16 -
 Inżynieria Bezpieczeństwa Obiektów Antropogenicznych 3 (2022) 10-20

c)

d)

Figure 8. Results of the test of optimum moisture content (wopt) and maximum dry density (ds):
a) cohesive soil without the addition of quicklime; cohesive soil with the addition of quicklime: b) 0.5%, c) 1.0%,
d) 1.5%

It is assumed that a one-percent addition of lime reduces the moisture content of the soil by about 1%. Analyzing
the results given in Figure 8 and taking into account the natural moisture content of the tested soil of 19.6%, it was
determined (from proportionality) that the needed additive of quicklime is 0.83%. Therefore, for practical reasons,
an addition of 1.0% was assumed in the case under study.
The earthwork company used the proposed formula to improve the tested cohesive soil. In each case, they
obtained, after embedding the properly prepared soil-lime composite, the required value of the degree of compaction
Is ≥ 0.97 and the value of the secondary deformation modulus of the subsoil E v2 ≥ 40 MPa, which were the values
required by the design for the reconstruction of underground pipelines under the modernized road.
In the Report (Gosk at. al., 2018), it was shown that soil-lime composites with a properly selected amount of
quicklime additive can be properly compacted and subsoils made from them can obtain even higher values of degree
of compaction and stiffness parameters. During the realization of the project, values of degree of compaction I s = 1
and the plate load test modulus of the subsoil Ev2 exceeding 70 MPa were obtained. These values successfully meet
the standard requirements for backfilling of excavations of municipal infrastructure (e.g., pipelines) as well as for the
construction of traffic embankments.

4 Economic aspect of improving cohesive soils with lime

Cost data shows that improving cohesive soils with lime is clearly a more cost-effective solution than replacing
soils with non-cohesive ones. Table 1 presents the costs related to soil replacement and the costs to be paid for the
application of improved cohesive soil. The data shown are for August 2021 and August 2022 prices.

- 17 -
 Inżynieria Bezpieczeństwa Obiektów Antropogenicznych 3 (2022) 10-20

Table 1. Summary of cost of embedding 1 m3 of soil with replacement and improvement

2021 2022

Option 1 – replacement

1) Costs of removal, storage, planting of cohesive 15 zl/m3 65 zl/m3

soil

2) Gravel or sand, embedding 30 zl/m3 48 zl/m3

Total 45 zl/m3 113 zl/m3

Option 2 – improvement

1) Binder requirement of 20 kg/m3 9 zl/m3 32 zl/m3

2) Excavator approx. 20 tons + excavator 6 zl/m3 9 zl/m3
equipment (doser, blade cutter, recykler, plate
compactor - all items with hydraulic quick
connector)

Total 15 zl/m3 41 zl/m3

It can be observed a very large, about 2.5-times increase in price in the perspective of one year. The benefits
associated with the use of lime-improved soil are unquestionable. While in 2021 it was possible to save PLN 30 per
1 m3 of earthworks (67%), in 2022 the amount of savings is PLN 72 (64%). In the case of the work of one brigade
during one work shift, during which an average productivity of about 300 m3 is achieved, the cost savings amount is
PLN 21600!

5 Conclusions
The author's previous research has shown that the cohesive soils analyzed can be successfully used as backfill
for excavations performed during the construction of underground infrastructure of municipal engineering, as well
as foundation excavation of buildings and road embankments. Noteworthy is the fact that even a small one percent
addition of lime has a very positive effect on the characteristics of cohesive soils and improving their compactability
and suitability in terms of use for earth structures. The expected values of degree of compaction of cohesive soils
with lime can be gained with great care during their construction. Such soils should be compacted in layers so that
after compaction the individual layers are 30-40 cm thick. A key element in the correct construction process of the
embankments in question is to bring the embedded cohesive soil-lime mixtures to a moisture content close to the
optimum. At this moisture content, the soil is most easily compacted and can then achieve the maximum dry density
and a high value of the density index.
Previous experience of the author of the paper shows that in the case of cohesive soils, this is a challenging task.
In contrast to the use of non-cohesive soils as embankment or trench backfill material, the requirements for
supervision, inspection and acceptance of works during construction increase in the case under consideration. It can
be stated that cohesive soils are more difficult to use due to the fact that they are not forgiving of construction errors.
Despite these difficulties, the on-site use of cohesive soils obtained during excavation is becoming an indispensable
part of the construction process, is economical and in line with the philosophy of sustainability. In particular, it should
be noted that there is no need to obtain and transport non-cohesive soil from mines. In a sense, a closed cycle of

- 18 -
 Inżynieria Bezpieczeństwa Obiektów Antropogenicznych 3 (2022) 10-20

material is realized, which is cohesive soil re-installed and not taken out of the construction site and replaced with
non-cohesive soil.
In addition, the use of the technique of using parts mounted to the excavator arm largely eliminates the need for
personnel to be in the excavation, which is not insignificant in terms of workplace safety.

Acknowledgments
This work, carried out at Bialystok University of Technology, was supported by Polish financial resources on
science under project no. WZ/WB-IIL/5/2020.

References
1. Sulewska, M. J.: Sztuczne sieci neuronowe w ocenie parametrów zagęszczenia gruntów niespoistych. Studia z
zakresu inżynierii. Nr 64. PAN. Warszawa-Białystok 2009.
2. Sulewska, M.J.; The Control of Soil Compaction Degree by Means of LFWD. The Baltic Journal of Road and
Bridge Engineering 2012, 7(1), 36-41.
3. Pisarczyk St.: Gruntoznawstwo inżynierskie. PWN. Warszawa, 2014.
4. Pisarczyk St.: Grunty nasypowe. Właściwości geotechniczne i metody ich badania. Oficyna Wydawnicza
Politechniki Warszawskiej. Warszawa, 2015.
5. ROZPORZĄDZENIE MINISTRA INFRASTRUKTURY z dnia 24 czerwca 2022 r.w sprawie przepisów
techniczno-budowlanych dotyczących dróg publicznych. Warszawa, dnia 20 lipca 2022 r. Poz. 1518 (wejście w
życie 21.09.2022).
6. PN-S-02205:1998. Drogi samochodowe. Roboty ziemne. Wymagania i badania.
7. EN 16907-1: 2018. Earthworks - Part 1 – 6. Principles and general rules. CEN, Brussels, 2018.
8. WARUNKI WYKONANIA I ODBIORU ROBÓT BUDOWLANYCH. D-02.00.01v03 ROBOTY ZIEMNE.
WYMAGANIA OGÓLNE. GENERALNA DYREKCJA DRÓG KRAJOWYCH I AUTOSTRAD. Warszawa
30 wrzesień 2019.
9. Katalog typowych konstrukcji nawierzchni podatnych i półsztywnych. Załącznik do zarządzenia Nr 31
Generalnego Dyrektora Dróg Krajowych i Autostrad z dnia 16.06.2014 r.
10. Obwieszczenie Ministra Infrastruktury I Budownictwa z dnia 23 grudnia 2015 r. w sprawie ogłoszenia
jednolitego tekstu rozporządzenia Ministra Transportu i Gospodarki Morskiej w sprawie warunków
technicznych, jakim powinny odpowiadać drogi publiczne i ich usytuowanie (obowiązujące wraz ze zmianami
do 21.09.2022 r.).
11. USTAWA z dnia 14 grudnia 2012 r. o odpadach. Dz. U. z 2022 r. poz. 699, 1250, 1726.
12. DIRECTIVE 2008/98/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 19 November
2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives (Text with EEA relevance). Official Journal of the European
Union. L 312/3. 22.11.2008.
13. PN-S-96011:1998. Drogi samochodowe. Stabilizacja gruntów wapnem do celów drogowych.
14. Celauroa, B.; Bevilacquaa, A.; Lo Bosco, D.; Celauroa, C. Design Procedures for Soil-Lime Stabilization for
Road and Railway Embankments. Part 1 - Review of Design Methods. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences
53 ( 2012a) 755 - 764. SIIV - 5th International Congress - Sustainability of Road Infrastructures. .
15. Celauroa, B.; Bevilacquaa, A.; Lo Bosco, D.; Celauroa, C. Design Procedures for Soil-Lime Stabilization for
Road and Railway Embankments. Part 2 - Experimental Validation. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences
53 ( 2012b) 568 - 579. SIIV - 5th International Congress - Sustainability of Road Infrastructures.
16. PN-EN 14227-15:2015-12. Mieszanki związane spoiwem hydraulicznym. Specyfikacje. Część 15: Grunty
stabilizowane hydraulicznie (wersja angielska).
17. Rolla S.: Ulepszanie gruntów wbudowywanych w nasyp. Drogownictwo, nr 8/2001, 248 - 251.
18. Kátia V. Bicalhoa, Yasmina Boussafirb, Yu-Jun Cuic Performance of an instrumented embankment constructed
with lime-treated silty clay during four-years in the Northeast of France. Transportation Geotechnics 2018 17
100-116

- 19 -
 Inżynieria Bezpieczeństwa Obiektów Antropogenicznych 3 (2022) 10-20

19. Jair A. Baldovino, Eclesielter B. Moreira, Wagner Teixeira, Ronaldo L.S. Izzo*, Juliana L. Rose Effects of lime
addition on geotechnical properties of sedimentary soil in Curitiba, Brazil. Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering 2018 10 188-194
20. Marta Di Sante, Evelina Fratalocchi, Francesco Mazzieri, Erio Pasqualini Time of reactions in a lime treated
clayey soil and influence of curing conditions on its microstructure and behaviour. Applied Clay Science 99
(2014) 100-109
21. EN ISO 14688-1: 2018. Geotechnical Investigation and Testing. Identification and Classification of Soil.
Identification and Description. ISO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2018.
22. PN-88/B-04481. Grunty budowlane. Badania próbek gruntu.
23. PKN-CEN ISO/TS 17892-2. Badania geotechniczne. Badania laboratoryjne gruntów. Część 2: Oznaczanie
gęstości gruntów drobnoziarnistych.
24. PN-EN 13286-2:2010-11E Mieszanki niezwiązane i związane hydraulicznie. Część 2: Metody badań
laboratoryjnych gęstości na sucho i zawartości wody. Zagęszczanie metodą Proctora + poprawka PN-EN 13286-
2:2010/AC:2014-07E.
25. Gosk W., Sulewska M. J., Tymosiak D, Kalicki A. Wstępna ocena możliwości zastosowania gruntów spoistych
jako zasypek wykopów wąskoprzestrzennych budownictwa komunalnego. Raport z realizacji prac badawczo-
rozwojowych. Politechnika Białostocka. Wydział Budownictwa i Inżynierii Środowiska. Zleceniodawca
Drabent Sp.j. Białystok, 2018.

- 20 -