C-PBC1: Introduction to Psychology

Chapter 3: Biological Basis of Behavior

Lesson 1: Neurons and Neurotransmitters  Plays a role in learning, memory, and emotions
 Loss of dopamine-producing cells causes symptoms of
Neuron
Parkinson’s Disease
 a specialized nerve cell that receives, processes, and
transmits information to other cells in the body.
3. Serotonin
 about 100 billion neurons (nerve cells) in the human
 Found throughout the brain
brain
 Plays a key role in such body functions as mood, sleep,
 Three basic structures – cell body, axon and dendrites.
digestion, nausea, wound healing, bone health, blood
o Dendrites – carry information to the cell body
clotting and sexual desire.
from other neurons
 Low serotonin levels are implicated in depression
o Cell Body (Soma) – contains nucleus and
maintains the life sustaining functions of the
4. Endorphins
neurons
 Reduce pain by inhibiting or “turning down” neurons
o Axon – carries information to the next cell
that transmit pain information

Myelin Sheath
5. GABA (Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid)
 are made of myelin
 Inhibits excitation and anxiety
 insulates the axon and speeds up the neural impulse
 The amount of myelin in the body increases
Neural Plasticity
throughout development
 The brain can be changed, both structurally and
 The myelination in the prefrontal cortex being the last
chemically, by experience
to complete in the 2nd or 3rd decade.
 Rat studies show that an “enriched” environment
 More myelin and myelination = quicker response to
leads to larger neurons with more connections
stimuli
 Has also been shown in humans
 Recent research has uncovered evidence of
Terminal button – enlarged area at the end of an axon
neurogenesis, or the production of new brain cells, in
Synaptic space (synaptic cleft) – tiny gap between
human brains
neurons
Synaptic vesicles – sacs in terminal button that release
Lesson 2: The Nervous System
chemicals into synaptic space
Nervous System
Neurotransmitters
 a complex network of nerves and cells that carry
 chemical messengers released by synaptic vesicles
messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to
 Neurotransmitters are a particularly important link
various parts of the body.
between the nervous system and behavior.
 It is the major controlling, regulatory, and
 Not only are they important for maintaining vital brain
communicating system in the body.
and body function, a deficiency or an excess of a
 It is the center of all mental activity including thought,
neurotransmitter can produce severe behavior
learning, and memory.
disorders.
 Together with the endocrine system, the nervous
system is responsible for regulating and maintaining
Common Types of Neurotransmitters
homeostasis.
1. Acetylcholine (ACh)  Two components:
 Involved in muscle action, arousal and attention o Central Nervous System (CNS)
 Loss of ACh producing cells is linked to Alzheimer’s o Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Disease
I. Central Nervous System
2. Dopamine  Comprised of the brain and the spinal cord
 Affects neurons associated with voluntary movement

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Skull covers the brain and helps protect it from injury. o Frontal lobe – controls motivation, emotion,
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) personality and the ability to solve problems
 a clear, colorless, watery fluid that flows in and o Parietal lobe – process sensory information
around your brain and spinal cord o Occipital lobe – controls vision
 It cushions the brain and cord from shocks that o Temporal lobe – control memory, hearing and
could cause injury the ability to understand language.
 It is maintained at a level around 1/2 - 2/3 cup.
The brain and spinal cord are enclosed by 3 membranes,  In larger mammals, including humans, the surface of
collectively known as the MENINGES: the cerebral cortex folds to create gyri (ridges) and
o Dura mater – the outside membrane sulci (furrows) which allows it to expand in surface
o Arachnoid – the middle membrane area without taking up much greater volume.
o Pia mater – the inside membrane  Subcortical structures of the cerebrum:
o Basal ganglia – important for the control of
1. BRAIN movement and forming habits
 the center of our thoughts, the interpreter of our o Olfactory bulb – a neural structure of the
external environment, and the origin of control over vertebrate forebrain involved in olfaction, the
body movement sense of smell
A. Brain Stem o Hippocampus – part of the limbic system and is
 the oldest and innermost region of the brain and is important in forming and storing information in
wired for survival long-term memory, and in spatial memory that
 It is designed to control the most basic functions of enables navigation
life, including breathing, attention, and motor o Amygdala – another part of the limbic system
responses that perform a primary role in the processing of
 Components of the brainstem: memory, decision-making and emotional
o Medulla – controls heart rate and breathing responses (including fear, anxiety, and
o Midbrain – associated with vision, hearing, aggression).
motor control, sleep and wake cycles, alertness,
and temperature regulation C. Cerebellum
o Pons – important to sleep and arousal  “little brain”
 small portion of the brain -- about 10% of the total
B. Cerebrum weight, but it contains roughly half of the brain's
 forms the bulk (80%) of the brain and is supported on neurons.
the brain stem  essential for making fine adjustments to motor actions
 Newest part of the brain and contains the two cerebral  it coordinates voluntary movements such as posture,
hemispheres – left and right. balance, coordination, and speech, resulting in smooth
o Left hemisphere – controls the right side of the and balanced muscular activity
body. It also performs tasks that have to do with  it is also important for learning motor behaviors.
logic, such as in science and mathematics.  Cerebellar dysfunction primarily results in difficulty
o Right hemisphere – coordinates the left side of walking, keeping balance, and holding hands steady.
the body and performs tasks that have do with  Consuming alcohol influences the cerebellum, which is
creativity and the arts. why people who are drunk have more difficulty
** Contralateral control – which means walking in a straight line.
the brain is wired such that in most
cases the left hemisphere receives D. Diencephalon
sensations from and controls the  also known as the forebrain stem
right side of the body, and vice versa  It includes the thalamus and hypothalamus.
 Corpus callosum connects the two halves of the brain o Thalamus
and supports communication between the  is a small structure in the center of the brain
hemispheres. whose functions include relaying sensory and
 Four lobes of the CEREBRAL CORTEX (the outer layer motor signals to the cerebral cortex and the
of the cerebrum)

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 regulation of consciousness, sleep, and  blood flow and oxygen are suddenly interrupted to an
alertness. area of brain tissue, which then dies.
 It is important in sleep because it shuts off  A blood clot, or bleeding in the brain, are the cause of
incoming signals from the senses, allowing us most strokes.
to rest.
Brain aneurysm
 An artery in the brain develops a weak area that
o Hypothalamus swells, balloon-like.
 is a smaller part of the diencephalon, roughly  A brain aneurysm rupture can causes a stroke.
the size of an almond. Cerebral hemorrhage
 It links the nervous system to the endocrine  Any bleeding inside the brain.
system via the pituitary gland and thus
regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, Concussion
and sex.  A brain injury that causes a temporary disturbance in
 It also responds to the satisfaction of these brain function.
needs by creating feelings of pleasure.  Traumatic head injuries cause most concussions.

** Limbic system – amygdala, hypothalamus, Brain tumor

hippocampus  Any abnormal tissue growth inside the brain.
 Whether malignant (cancer) or benign, brain tumors
2. SPINAL CORD usually cause problems by the pressure they exert on
 the brain’s link to the peripheral nervous system the normal brain.
 it receives information from the skin and muscles and
transmits it to the brain Glioblastoma
 An aggressive, malignant brain tumor (cancer).
II. Peripheral Nervous System  Brain glioblastomas progress rapidly and are very
 responsible in carrying the messages to and from the difficult to cure.
various muscles and glands of the body
 Divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System: Hydrocephalus
a. Autonomic Nervous System – it regulates  An abnormally increased amount of cerebrospinal
involuntary processes of the body such as (brain) fluid inside the skull.
heart rate, breathing, secretion, blood  Usually this is because the fluid is not circulating
pressure, digestion and others. properly.
o Sympathetic – it prepares the body’s
defense mechanism during a Meningitis
threatening event.  an inflammation (swelling) of the protective
o Parasympathetic – returns the body to membranes covering the brain and spinal cord
a calmer state.  bacterial or viral infection of the fluid surrounding the
b. Somatic Nervous System – consists of nerves brain and spinal cord usually causes the swelling
and muscles that contract and allows one to  injuries, cancer, certain drugs, and other types of
move voluntarily infections also can cause meningitis

BRAIN CONDITIONS Encephalitis

 Inflammation of the brain tissue, usually from infection
Headache with a virus.
 There are many types of headaches; some can be  It can be life threatening and requires urgent
serious but most are not and are generally treated treatment in hospital.
with analgesics/ painkillers.  Anyone can be affected, but the very young and very
old are most at risk.
Stroke  Fever, headache, and confusion are common
 brain infarction symptoms.

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Traumatic brain injury Endocrine System
 results from a violent blow or jolt to the head or body.  the chemical regulator of the body that consists of
 An object that goes through brain tissue, such as a glands that secrete hormones
bullet or shattered piece of skull, also can cause  Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the
traumatic brain injury. bloodstream
 More-serious traumatic brain injury can result in  Hormones – chemicals in the bloodstream that affect
bruising, torn tissues, bleeding and other physical behavior; are necessary in the integration of actions
damage to the brain. and responses in the body to maintain homeostasis or
 These injuries can result in long-term complications or internal balance.
death. Endocrine Glands
Parkinson's disease ** Gland – an organ that makes and puts out
 Nerves in a central area of the brain degenerate hormones that do a specific job in your body.
slowly, causing problems with movement and Endocrine glands release the substances they make
coordination. into your bloodstream.
 A tremor of the hands is a common early sign.
Pituitary Gland
Huntington's disease – also known as the “master gland”
 an inherited disorder that causes nerve cells (neurons)  a small pea-sized gland located near the center of the
in parts of the brain to gradually break down and die. brain
 Dementia and difficulty controlling movements  is responsible for controlling the body’s growth
(chorea) are its symptoms. o Too little growth hormones produces dwarfism,
o Too much growth hormones causes gigantism or
Epilepsy giantism.
 characterized by repeated seizures  a sudden
alteration of behavior due to a temporary change in Adrenal Gland
the electrical functioning of the brain. o Adrenal cortex (outside part) – secretes
 Head injuries and strokes may cause epilepsy, but hormones that regulate sugar and salt balance
usually no cause is identified and help the body resist stress
o Adrenal medulla (inside part) – secretes two
Neurocognitive disorder hormones that arouse the body to deal with
 Mild neurocognitive disorder – some decreased stress and emergencies: epinephrine (adrenalin)
mental function, but able to stay independent and do and norepinephrine (noradrenalin)
daily tasks.
 Major neurocognitive disorder – decreased mental Thyroid Gland
function and loss of ability to do daily tasks. – regulates metabolism through secretion of hormone
thyroxin
Alzheimer’s disease
 a progressive disease beginning with mild memory loss Pancreas
and possibly leading to loss of the ability to carry on a  regulates the level of sugar in the bloodstream by
conversation and respond to the environment. secreting insulin.
 involves parts of the brain that control thought,  lack of insulin results in some form of diabetes, too
memory, and language. much causes hypoglycemia or low blood sugar.

Brain abscess Gonads

 a pus-filled swelling in the brain  In females, the ovaries produce hormones estrogen
 It usually occurs when bacteria or fungi enter the brain and progesterone that regulate sexual development,
tissue after an infection or severe head injury. ovulation, and growth of sex organs.
 Antibiotics and surgical drainage of the area are often  In males, the testes produce hormone testosterone
necessary. that regulate sexual development, production of
sperm, and growth of sex organs.
Lesson 3: The Endocrine System

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 Lack of sex hormones during puberty results in lack of
secondary sexual characteristics (facial and bodily hair,
muscles in males, breast in females)