MODULE

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

S.Y 2023-2024

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

PREPARED BY:

AGDON, ROBIN
JABLA, TRISHA
MORENO,
AZEANETH
 Reading Material 7:
The Nervous System

What is this module all about?

The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that controls and regulates
all bodily functions, including movement, sensation, thought, emotion, and memory. It consists
of two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS), which is the command center, and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS), which connects the CNS to the rest of the body.

What are you expected to do?

After completing this Reading Material, you are expected to be able to:
1. Understand the basic structure of the nervous system,
2. Distinguished the parts of cerebral cortex nervous system; and
3. Illustrate how the peripheral and central nervous systems work.

Time Frame

February 12 - February 16, 2024

 Let’s explain

Our body is like a giant city, and the nervous system is the communication
network that helps different parts of the city talk to each other. It’s like a superhighway
for information.

A nervous system is an organism’s control center. It processes sensory

information from outside (and inside) the body and controls all behaviors—from eating
to sleeping to finding a mate. Even fundamental functions, like breathing and regulation
of body temperature, are controlled by the nervous system.

Functions of Nervous System

1. Receiving sensory input
Imagine you’re touching a hot pan. Your nervous system is like a big
antenna that picks up signals from your senses, like the feeling of heat from the
pan. It’s constantly receiving information about what’s happening in and around
your body.
2. Integrating information
Now, your nervous system has to make sense of that heat signal. It’s like a
super-fast computer that processes the information, deciding that the pan is too
hot and could hurt you.
3. Controlling muscles and glands
Once it’s made a decision, your nervous system sends out orders. It’s like
a boss telling your hand to move away from the hot pan, and it also tells glands
to do things like sweat to cool you down.
4. Maintaining homeostasis
When you’re hot, you sweat to cool down, and when you’re cold, you
shiver to warm up. Your body is always working to keep things in balance.
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity
Your nervous system is also responsible for your thoughts, emotions, and
memories. It’s like the director of a movie, controlling everything that happens in
your mind.

There are components of the nervous system which is the complex network of
cells that enables communication and coordination throughout the body, these are the
neurons and glial cells.
| Cells in the Nervous System

The nervous system is made up of neurons, specialized cells that can receive
and transmit chemical or electrical signals, and glia, cells that provide support functions
for the neurons by playing an information processing role that is complementary to
neurons.

A. Neuron

Figure 1. Neurons contain organelles common to many other cells.

Neurons also contain unique structures for receiving and sending the electrical
signals that make neuronal communication possible.

Parts of Neuron Description

contains a nucleus, smooth and rough endoplasmic

Cell body (or soma) reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and other
cellular components.

are tree-like structures that extend away from the cell

body to receive messages from other neurons at
Dendrites specialized junctions called synapses.

a single long cell process extending from the neuron cell

body. The area where the axon leaves the neuron cell
Axon body is called the axon hillock.
 axons surrounded by a highly specialized insulating layer
Myelin sheath of cells.

the periodic gaps along the axon in the myelin sheath are
Nodes of Ranvier sites where the signal is “recharged” as it travels along the
axon.

Types of Neuron

Neurons can be classified on the basis of their structure or their function.

Figure 1.2 Classification and main function of Neurons cells.

Here is a table of the different types of neurons in the body and their functions.

Types of Neuron Description

These neurons can receive impulses from multiple

neurons via dendrites. The dendrites transmit the
Multipolar Neuron signals through the neuron via an electrical signal that is
spread down the axon.

These neurons send signals and receive information

from the world. Examples include the neurons in the
Bipolar Neuron eye that receive light and then transmit signals to the
brain.

These neurons relay signals from the skin and muscles

to the spinal cord. They are the primary neurons
Pseudo-unipolar Neuron responsible for coordinating the movement of the arms
and legs using input from the brain.

These neurons help us feel and explore the world

Sensory Neurons around us. They send sensory information, like the
feeling of heat or pain, up to the brain.

These neurons transmit information to our muscles. For

Motor Neurons example, if you decide to move your hand, it’s the motor
neurons that send this instruction from your brain to
your hand.

These neurons aid in the transmission between motor

Interneurons and sensory neurons. They help to process and relay
information within the nervous system.

B. Glial cells

Glial cells guide developing neurons to their destinations, buffer ions and
chemicals that would otherwise harm neurons, and provide myelin sheaths around
axons. When glia do not function properly, the result can be disastrous—most brain
tumors are caused by mutations in glia.

Types of Glial Cells

Figure 1.3 Classification and main function of Glial cells.

Glial cells of the (a) central nervous system include oligodendrocytes, astrocytes,
ependymal cells, and microglial cells.

● Oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheath around axons.

● Astrocytes provide nutrients to neurons, maintain their extracellular environment,
and provide structural support.
● Microglia scavenge pathogens and dead cells.
● Ependymal cells produce cerebrospinal fluid that cushions the neurons.

Glial cells of the (b) peripheral nervous system include Schwann cells, which
form the myelin sheath, and satellite cells, which provide nutrients and structural
support to neurons.

Cells of the Nervous System

Cell Type Description Function

Neuron

Multipolar Many dendrites and one Most motor neurons and most
axon CNS neurons

Bipolar One dendrite and one axon Found in special sense organs,
such as eye and nose

Pseudo-unipolar Appears to have a single Most sensory neurons

 axon

Glial Cells

Astrocytes Highly branched Provide structural support;

regulate neuronal signaling;
contribute to blood-brain barrier;
help with neural tissue repair

Ependymal cells Epithelial-like Like ventricles of brain and

central canal of the spinal cord,
circulate cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF)

Microglia Small, mobile cells Protect CNS from infection;

become phagocytic in response
to inflammation

Oligodendrocytes Cells with processes that Cell processes form myelin

can surround several axons sheath around axons or enclose
unmyelinated axons in the CNS

Schwann cells Single cells surrounding Form myelin sheaths around

axons axons or enclose unmyelinated
axons in the CNS

The nervous system is divided into two main parts: the central nervous system
(CNS) which consists of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system
(PNS) which includes all the nerves that extend from the CNS to the rest of the body.

| Main Parts of the Nervous System

A. The Central Nervous System

The central nervous system (CNS) is a

crucial part of the human body's
nervous system, responsible for
processing and coordinating
information. It consists of the brain and
spinal cord. The brain, enclosed within
the skull, is the command center of the
body, controlling various functions
such as thinking, emotions, and
voluntary movements. The spinal cord, protected by the spinal column, extends from
the brain and serves as a communication pathway between the brain and the rest of the
body. Together, the brain and spinal cord play a vital role in regulating and responding to
sensory input, allowing the body to function and adapt to its environment. The brain,
and spinal cord is covered with three layers of protective coverings called meninges
(from the Greek word for membrane). The outermost layer is the dura mater (Latin for
“hard mother”).
As the Latin suggests, the primary function for this thick layer is to protect the
brain and spinal cord. The dura mater also contains vein-like structures that carry blood
from the brain back to the heart. The middle layer is the web-like arachnoid mater. The
last layer is the pia mater (Latin for “soft mother”), which directly contacts and covers
the brain and spinal cord like plastic wrap.

The space between the arachnoid and pia mater is filled with cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF). CSF is produced by a tissue called choroid plexus in fluid-filled
compartments in the CNS called ventricles. The brain floats in CSF, which acts as a
cushion and shock absorber and makes the brain neutrally buoyant. CSF also functions
to circulate chemical substances throughout the brain and into the spinal cord.

The entire brain contains only about 8.5 tablespoons of CSF, but CSF is
constantly produced in the ventricles. This creates a problem when a ventricle is
blocked—the CSF builds up and creates swelling and the brain is pushed against the
skull. This swelling condition is called hydrocephalus (“water head”) and can cause
seizures, cognitive problems, and even death if a shunt is not inserted to remove the
fluid and pressure.

The Central Nervous System consists of two: the brain and the spinal cord.

A. The Brain

The brain is the integrative portion of the nervous system that serves to receive,
process, and store sensory information and then plan and orchestrate the appropriate
motor response. It is divided into several anatomically and functionally distinct regions.
The forebrain consists of the cerebrum, basal ganglia, thalamus, and hypothalamus.
The midbrain, along with the pons and the medulla of the hindbrain, composes the
functional region referred to as the brainstem. The cerebellum is also considered a
component of the hindbrain but is functionally distinct from the brainstem.

A. Cerebral Cortex

The outermost part of the brain is a

thick piece of nervous system tissue
called the cerebral cortex. It contains
regions called lobes that are involved in
different functions. Each hemisphere
of the mammalian cerebral cortex can
be broken down into four functionally
and spatially defined lobes: frontal,
parietal, temporal, and occipital.
Lobes of the human Location Activity
cerebral cortex

It is located at the This lobe contains the olfactory

front of the brain, over bulb, which processes smells. The
the eyes. frontal lobe also contains the motor
cortex, which is important for
Frontal Lobe planning and implementing
movement. Neurons in the frontal
lobe also control cognitive
functions like maintaining attention,
speech, and decision-making.

It is located at the top Neurons in the parietal lobe are

of the brain. involved in speech and also
reading. Two of the parietal lobe’s
Parietal lobe main functions are processing
somatosensation—touch
sensations like pressure, pain,
heat, and cold.

It is located at the It is primarily involved in

Occipital lobe back of the brain. vision—seeing, recognizing, and
identifying the visual world

It located at the base Primarily involved in processing

of the brain by your and interpreting
Temporal lobe ears sounds. It also contains the
hippocampus - a structure that
processes memory formation.

B. Basal ganglia
An important function of the basal
ganglia is their contribution to the
control of voluntary movement.
Damage to the basal ganglia, as in
Parkinson’s disease, leads to
motor impairments like a shuffling
gait when walking.
C. Thalamus
 It receives sensory and motor inputs from the body and also receives feedback
from the cortex. This feedback mechanism can modulate conscious awareness
of sensory and motor inputs depending on the attention and arousal state of the
animal. The thalamus helps regulate consciousness, arousal, and sleep states
D. Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus controls the endocrine system by sending signals to the
pituitary gland. The hypothalamus is the body’s thermostat—it makes sure key
functions like food and water intake, energy expenditure, and body temperature
are kept at appropriate levels. Neurons within the hypothalamus also regulate
circadian rhythms, sometimes called sleep cycles.
E. Limbic System
The limbic system is a connected set of structures that regulates emotion, as well
as behaviors related to fear and motivation. It plays a role in memory formation
and includes parts of the thalamus and hypothalamus as well as the
hippocampus. One important structure within the limbic system is a temporal lobe
structure called the amygdala (Greek for “almond”). The two amygdala are
important both for the sensation of fear and for recognizing fearful faces. The
cingulate gyrus helps regulate emotions and pain.
F. Cerebellum
The cerebellum (Latin for “little brain”), sits at the base of the brain on top of the
brainstem. The cerebellum controls balance and aids in coordinating movement
and learning new motor tasks.
G. Brainstem
The brainstem connects the rest of the brain with the spinal cord. It consists of
the midbrain, medulla oblongata, and the
pons. Motor and sensory neurons extend
through the brainstem allowing for the relay
of signals between the brain and spinal
cord. The brainstem controls several
important functions of the body including
alertness, arousal, breathing, blood
pressure, digestion, heart rate, swallowing,
walking, and sensory and motor information
integration.

B. The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is a thick bundle of nerve

tissue that carries information about the body to the
brain and from the brain to the body. It is divided into four anatomical regions: cervical,
thoracic, lumbar, and sacral.

There are a total of 31 pairs of spinal nerves:

• 8 Cervical
• 12 Thoracic
• 5 Lumbar
• 5 Sacral
• 1 Coccygeal
The spinal cord also controls motor reflexes. These reflexes are quick,
unconscious movements—like automatically removing a hand from a hot object.

B. The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the connection between the central
nervous system and the rest of the body. The CNS is like the power plant of the nervous
system. It creates the signals that control the functions of the body. The PNS is like the
wires that go to individual houses. Without those “wires,” the signals produced by the
CNS could not control the body (and the CNS would not be able to receive sensory
information from the body either).

There are two types of nerves in the peripheral nervous system, the afferent and
efferent neuron.

Afferent neuron Efferent neuron

Also called sensory neuron Also called motor neuron

Carries information from sensory Carries information from the central

receptors to the central nervous system nervous system to the muscles and glands

Has specialized receptor endings that Has endings that connect with muscle
respond to stimuli fibers or gland cells

Transmits signals towards the brain or Transmits signals away from the brain or
spinal cord spinal cord
Involved in sensing the external or internal
Involved in initiating an action or response
environment

The PNS can also be broken down into the autonomic nervous system and the
somatic nervous system.

A. Autonomic
Nervous System
The autonomic
nervous system serves as
the relay between the CNS
and the internal organs. It
controls the lungs, the
heart, smooth muscle, and
exocrine and endocrine
glands. The autonomic
nervous system controls
these organs largely
without conscious control.
It can continuously monitor
the conditions of these
different systems and
implement changes as
needed. The autonomic
nervous system is divided into two: the parasympathetic and the sympathetic.

1. Sympathetic Nervous System

The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the “fight or flight” response
that occurs when an animal encounters a dangerous situation. Examples of functions
controlled by the sympathetic nervous system include an accelerated heart rate and
inhibited digestion. These functions help prepare an organism’s body for the physical
strain required to escape a potentially dangerous situation or to fend off a predator.

2. Parasympathetic Nervous System

While the sympathetic nervous system is activated in stressful situations, the

parasympathetic nervous system allows an animal to “rest and digest.”
 B. Somatic Nervous System

The sensory-somatic nervous system is made up of cranial and spinal nerves

and contains both sensory and motor neurons. Sensory neurons transmit sensory
information from the skin, skeletal muscle, and sensory organs to the CNS. Motor
neurons transmit messages about desired movement from the CNS to the muscles to
make them contract. Without its sensory-somatic nervous system, an animal would be
unable to process any information about its environment (what it sees, feels, hears, and
so on) and could not control motor movements.

The Somatic Nervous System is subdivided into two: the sensory-somatic

nervous system and motor-somatic nervous system.
Somatic Nervous System Function

Transmits sensory information from the

Sensory-Somatic Nervous System skin, skeletal muscle, and sensory organs
to the CNS.

Transmits messages about desired

Motor-Somatic Nervous System movement from the CNS to the muscles to
make them contract.

For example, when you touch a hot stove, the sensory neurons in your hand
send a message to your spinal cord and then to your brain, which interprets the
sensation as pain. This is an example of the sensory-somatic nervous system at work.
On the other hand, when you decide to move your hand away from the hot stove, the
motor neurons in your arm receive a message from your brain and cause your muscles
to contract, moving your hand away from the stove. This is an example of the
motor-somatic nervous system at work .
| Nervous System Disorders

Alzheimer’s disease ● Loss of neurons in the hippocampus is especially

severe in advanced Alzheimer’s patients.
● Symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease include disruptive
memory loss, confusion about time or place,
difficulty planning or executing tasks, poor
judgment, and personality changes.
● 1 in every 8 people age 65 above has the disease.

Parkinson’s disease ● Parkinson’s disease causes the loss of dopamine

neurons in the substantia nigra, a midbrain structure
that regulates movement.
● Loss of these neurons causes many symptoms
including tremor (shaking of fingers or a limb),
slowed movement, speech changes, balance and
posture problems, and rigid muscles.
● Out of 1000 people, 1-2 person has Parkinson’s
disease

Attention Deficit ● The cause of ADHD is unknown, although research

Hyperactivity Disorder points to a delay and dysfunction in the
(ADHD) development of the prefrontal cortex and
disturbances in neurotransmission.
● Symptoms of the disorder include inattention (lack
of focus), executive functioning difficulties,
impulsivity, and hyperactivity beyond what is
characteristic of the normal developmental stage.
● among Filipino children is around 7.7% diagnosed
with ADHD, although the exact figure might be
higher due to under-diagnosis.

Schizophrenia ● Doctors don’t know what causes schizophrenia. It

could be passed down in families, but not everyone
who has schizophrenia has a close relative (like a
parent, brother, or sister) with the conditio
● Doctors also believe the brain loses tissue over
time. And imaging tools, like PET scans and MRIs,
show that people who have schizophrenia have less
“gray matter” -- the part of the brain that contains
nerve cells -- over time.
● Symptoms of the disease include the inability to
differentiate between reality and imagination,
inappropriate and unregulated emotional responses,
difficulty thinking, and problems with social
 situations.The development of schizophrenia is
thought to involve malfunctioning dopaminergic
neurons and may also involve problems with
glutamate signaling.
● 1 in 300 people (0.32%) worldwide. This rate is 1 in
222 people (0.45%) among adults has
schizophrenia.

Stroke ● A stroke results when blood fails to reach a portion

of the brain for a long enough time to cause
damage. Without the oxygen supplied by blood flow,
neurons in this brain region die.
● This neuronal death can cause many different
symptoms— depending on the brain area affected—
including headache, muscle weakness or paralysis,
speech disturbances, sensory problems, memory
loss, and confusion.
● 15 million people worldwide suffer a stroke. Of
these, 5 million die and another 5 million are left
permanently disabled,

Meningitis ● Inflammation of the membranes (meninges)

surrounding the brain and spinal cord. It can be
caused by viral or bacterial infections, leading to
symptoms like headache, fever, and neck stiffness.
Bacterial meningitis is more severe and requires
prompt medical attention.

● The incidence of meningitis can vary, but on

average, it affects around 1-3 cases per 100,000
people annually, depending on the region and
population.

Dementia ● primarily impacts the brain's cognitive

functions.Neural connections and structures are
gradually damaged, leading to cognitive decline.
● Symptoms: Memory loss, especially recent
events.Difficulty in problem-solving and
planning.Confusion and disorientation in familiar
surroundings.Challenges in communication and
language.Changes in mood, personality, or
behavior.Impaired judgment and reasoning.
 Watch This

Supplementary video 1: Nervous System - Get to know our nervous system a

bit closer, how does it works?
Link: https://youtu.be/6O-0CVAgaEM?si=ytnoDaxsWiwBPn31
Supplementary video 2: Central Nervous System
Link: https://youtu.be/0yXMGQaVVXg?si=x_hSLOHdOe51V4qY
Supplementary video 3: Peripheral Nervous System
Link: https://youtu.be/jaWrMYChc5A?si=aE4rnm3GJu1J0d0K

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