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 International Relations
Paper—1 (Marks-100)

I. Introduction (Peu Ghosh)

The Definition and Scope of International Relations.

Define International Relations. Discuss its scope and importance of the study of International Relations.
(2000)

International Relations is a Separate discipline! Discuss. (2001)

The age of isolation is over. The modern states act and behave as member of the international
community. Qualify the statement with reference to the following:

(a) Definition and scope of International Relations.

(b) Nature and utility of the subject. (2004)

The relations between the sovereign states of the world are becoming one of the most important
aspects of contemporary life. Evaluate with reference to the importance of international relations.
(2005)

Comparatively analyze the basic philosophy of International Relations, “Peace and Security” has been
challenged by the emerging “Economic Regionalism and Military Technologies” (2007)

Discuss the importance of International Relations as a field of study. (2009)

Define International Relations. Identify and explain its continuously changing and expanding nature and
subject matter? (2011)

The Nation-State System

President Bush's invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq, without sound genuine reasons has made the future
of the Modern Nation State doubtful. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. (2003)

“Europeans transformed Westphalian System of States into empires during 16th, 17th and 18th
centuries to increase their Wealth and Power.” Elucidate the statement. (2007)

Describe and discuss the concept of Nation-State and evaluate its future in the light of certain recent
developments. (2009)

Describe the basic features of modern nation state. What are the dangers to its future? (2010)

Evaluate the general view the peace of Westphalia as the founding moment for modern state system.
Do you think this system is challenged in the contemporary world? (2013)

Evolution of International Society

"It is the national power both Tangible and Intangible that determines the actual as well as potential
power of state". In the light of this statement discuss in detail the nature the attributes of national
power. (2002)

The emergency of sovereign state as a primary actor was just the beginning of the evolution of modern
International System. Assess the pace of change in International Relations from 1815 to 1914. (2008)

"Can you imagine a world without inter-state relations"? Explain the importance of International
Relations in the Nuclear age. (2010)

Discuss the development of the study of “International Relations" and define its core influential factors
and define its role in the post-cold war era? (2012)

Discuss evolution and development of the discipline of International Relations; define the dominant
factors responsible for and explain their role in the post-cold war era (2014)

II. Theories and Approaches (John Baylis)

The Classical Approaches-Realism and idealism

How would a realist analyze the current problems in International Politics?

(a) Control of Mass destruction weapons;

(b) Terrorism;

(c) Human rights violations;

(d) Politics of environmental protection. (2005)

Identify the main arguments of the Realism and Liberalism in IR. Which approach appeals to you as a
better explaining IR and why? Discuss the empirical evidence. (2011)

The Scientific Revolution-Behavioral Approach, System Approach,

Neo-realism, Neo-liberalism.

Explain, with examples, the main principles of the NEO-REALIST SCHOOL OF THOUGHT in International
Relations. How does Neo-Realism differ from Classical Realism? (2006)

Explain, with examples, the main principles of the NEO-LIBERAL SCHOOL OF THOUGHT in International
Relations. How does Neo-Liberalism differ from Classical Liberalism/Idealism? (2006)

Post-modernism, Critical Theory, Feminism, Constructivism

Terrorism has compelled everyone to think, “No one can be trusted and everyone is to be feared.”
Discuss an appropriate response to Domestic and International terrorism. (2008)

Write notes on any TWO of the following:

(a) Feminism

(b) Neo-liberalism
(c) Social Constructivism

What are the essential differences between the liberal internationalist and realist theories? In your
opinion, why is realism the most dominant theory in the discipline of International Relations? (2017)

The positivist and post-positivist debate offers a striking contrast in terms of approach and methodology
to the study of International Relations. Describe, compare and critically evaluate the divergence
between the two debates. Are there any point of convergence? (2017)

III. International Political Security . (Peu Ghosh)

Conceptualization of security in the twenty-first century (Kaplan)

What is the significance of Security to states? How far do you agree that international security has given
way to global security in face of new challenges of Terrorism and Human Security? (2016)

Power. Elements of National Power

Examine the concept of National Power and its essential ingredients. (2016)

Balance of Power

Balance of terror and not of Power is helpful in maintaining Peace in the nuclear Power age Comment.
(2001)

Define balance of terror. How far it has succeeded in preventing a major war in the world? (2010)

Critically discuss the concept of Balance of power in the light of Hans Morgenthau's thought. (2013)

Explain the concept of Balance of Power in international relations and evaluate its relevance after the
demise of Soviet Russia. (2014)

The rise of China is being heralded as a return of ‘balance of power’ politics in international relations. As
the world moves towards multi-polarity, account for the essential features of the international security
architecture and its evolving dynamics. (2017)

Foreign Policy: Determinants, Decision making and analysis

Point out the main goals of Foreign Policy of states and determine the factors which influence its making
and implementation. (2016)

Sovereignty (Prakash Chandar)

The nation-state system is in a flux with an independence referendum in Scotland and another projected
for Catalonia in September 2017. Critically evaluate reasons as to why the modern nation-state in
Europe faces internal challenges to its sovereignty and territorial integrity. (2017)

National Interest (Prakash Chandar)

Describe interactions among Nations through diplomacy for establishing balance of power to preserve
their National Interest. (2006)
What factors were responsible for the creation of the WARSAW and NATO pacts? Can NATO's
continuing existence be justified? (2009)

IV. Strategic Approach to International Relation. (IR by JWT)

War: Causation of War, Total War, Limited War, Asymmetric Warfare , civil war, Guerilla war

Is war a rational act of state policy? Explain in view of the wars fought in the 20th century. (2016)

The non-state actor as a military competitor is gaining ground in the Middle East with the rise of ISIS.
What strategies can the United Nations and major powers implement in order to ensure peace and
security in Iraq and Syria. (2017)

Strategic Culture: Determinants of Pakistani Strategic Culture. (Hassan Askari Rizvi)

Critically evaluate the strategically competitive dynamics of Pakistan-India relations in the context of
Pakistan’s growing ties with China and India’s increased alignment with the United States. (2017)

Deterrence: Theory and practice with special reference to Nuclear India and Pakistan

What is nuclear deterrence? Is it an appropriate Policy? What are alternatives to nuclear deterrence?
(2005)

V. International Political Economy. (John Baylis)

Theories in IPE: Mercantilism, Economic Liberalism, and neo- Marxism

Theories of Imperialism, Dependence and Interdependence

Do you agree that in contemporary International Relations, International Economic and Trade linkages
are being used as pressure tactics in inter-State Relations? (2000)

Define Imperialism and discuss the Economic Theories of Imperialism. (2000)

In the modern era the foreign policy is directly affected by the economic conditions of a country. Discuss
(2001)

What are the major demands of the SOUTH against the NORTH for a New International Economic
Order? (2002)

Define Economic Imperialism. How far it is correct to say that the G-7 countries have embarked upon
Economic Imperialism in the Third World through WTO and Multi-National Corporations? (2003)

The economic power determine the superiority and political domination of a country in International
System? Discuss. (2004)

What are the principal challenges and potential opportunities for economic liberalization and
democratization in the Muslim world? (2006)

Economics realities compelled the members of the developing world to demand for the establishment
of New International Economic Order. Give your comment. (2009)
Define “Economics as an instrument in foreign policy" and explain its fundamental characteristic which
can help to achieve state's objectives. (2012)

Do you agree that 19th century European International Society was merely a means of legitimizing
Imperialism? (2013)

VI. International political community. (Peu Ghosh)

Nationalism

Nationalism has been major cause of conflicts. Justify with special reference to the following:

(a) Western concept of Nationalism

(b) Islamic concept (2004)

Discuss "Nationalism" and define its silent features in the post-cold war situation and explain its grave
consequences with reference to Eastern Europe, African continent and South Asian tragic incidents. Also
debate whether the UN and superpowers played any role in preventing bloodbath in the regions. (2012)

Is nationalism ultimately about preserving cultural identity against global pressure towards
homogenization? Discuss (2013)

Internationalism

Globalization

"Globalization” and "Regionalism ". Do you think these terms are antagonistic or complimentary? Give
examples in your arguments. (2002)

How can a Nation state best protect her interest and identity in a transitional World Order? (2008)

Define the term globalization. Do you believe its prospects are threatened because of the current
economic crises in general and third world economies in particular? (2014)

Define globalization and its attendant manifestations in global politics. Do you agree with the view that
economic globalization is a form of neo-imperialism which only stands to exploit the Third World states?
(2017)

VII. Approaches to Peace

Diplomacy (Peu Ghosh)

The introduction of the concepts of Unilateralism and pre-emptive Strike'1 by President Bush has
eroded the basis of International law and Diplomacy, in interstate relations. Discuss. (2003)

Discuss "Diplomacy" and define its kinds. Explain diplomatic means which can help to resolve disputes
and conflicts in the world. (2012)

Do you believe that Diplomacy is the ultimate way to resolve international disputes? What diplomatic
means are significant to realize that goal in general and Pakistan-India in particular? (2014)

International Law (Notes)

International Law is a significant instrument in regulating conduct of states and International
Organizations. Discuss (2001)

What are the main problems in defining ‘terrorism’? Also narrate the implications of the “War on
Terrorism” for International Law. (2006)

“Development of International Law and Organization are the efforts of all states to make International
System less anarchic”. Elucidate the statement. (2008)

Define and explain the international Law. Does International Law have any real role in international
Relations? (2011)

Define International Law and explain its Nature. Is it of significance to the development of laws of war
and their application? (2016)

Arms Control /Disarmament and Nuclear Nonproliferation Regime (Peu Ghosh)

Define Detente. Is a Detente possible between India and Pakistan? Give your arguments. (2003)

Middle East peace process is in doldrums. Discuss.

(a) Impediments to Middle East peace process

(b) Future prospects and peace efforts. (2004)

International system creates interactions among states through diplomacy, international law, and
economic relations. Comments. (2005)

War and Peace are conflicting values of International Politics. A state cannot encourage one without
sacrificing other. Describe three means of peace and security in nuclear age. (2008)

Do you support the argument that Iran-US nuclear deal will bring a new wave of instability in the region
and can also cause serious implications for global non-proliferation regime? (2014)

VIII. International Political Institution

United Nations

How effective arc international organizations in dealing with the global problems. Discuss with particular
reference to the UN from 1945 to present. (2005)

The two great wars had dismantled colonialism and created Third World and Non-Alignment Movement.
How did the UN justify its role in the World affairs? (2007)

How effective the UN in dealing with global problems. What will the International System look like in the
year 2050? (2008)

Discuss the significance and increasing role of International Society in the classically sovereign domains
of state with reference to United Nations. Also debate whether the UN in its present structure of status
can play the increased role expected of it? (2011)

Keeping in view the Charter assess the working of the United Nations in the new millennium. (2016)
International Monetary Fund (IMF)

World Bank

International Court of Justice

"After the downfall of Colonialism. The western Powers have embarked upon a new policy of "Economic
Imperialism" through IMF, World Bank, Multi-nationals and WTO". Do you agree? Substantiate (2010)

Paper- II (Marks-100)
I. International Relation between two Wars (Antony Best)

Russian Revolution, Fascism, League of Nations, Second World War

Discuss and explain the causes of World War II. Could a different policy by Britain, France and USA have
avoided its occurrence? (2011)

In what ways was the Versailles treaty a contributory factor to European political instability in the period
1919-39? (2013)

How for was Germany responsible for the outbreak of war in 1914? (2013)

Discuss the core causes of “Bolshevik Revolution” in Russia and explain its fundamental political and
socio-economic impact on the Western European politics. (2016)

II. Cold War (Peu Ghosh)

Decolonization in Asia and Africa.

Elucidate the impact of World War II on the de-colonization process in Asia. (2013)

Rise of United States and Soviet Union,

Era of Tight Bipolarity, Détente and Loose Bipolarity, Revival of Cold War

Define Non-Aligned Movement? Make an appraisal of its role and discuss the future of NAM. (2000)

Critically discuss the origin and developments of the cold war and its consequences on world politics.
(2009)

Discuss and analyze the role of Soviet Union during the Cold War. Was it a stabilizing or destabilizing
factor in International Relations? Elaborate your answer with reference to theory and facts. (2011)

Elucidate the significance of NATO during the Cold War and discuss whether it is still useful for European
security in the contemporary era? (2013)

III. Post-Cold War

End of History (Fukuyama), Clash of Civilization (Huntington), (Foreign Affairs Magazine Articles)
Write a critical analysis of the theory of ‘Clash of Civilizations’. What are the prospects of a dialogue
among Civilizations? (2006)

Critically analyze Samuel P. Huntington’s concept of “Clash of Civilizations”. Define its main
characteristics and explain its devastating consequences on the different leading civilizations of the
nations. (2016)

Terrorism, Globalization, (Peu Ghosh)

Is globalization under threat because of world economic crises? (2013)

The phenomenon of terrorism has occupied central stage in world today. Highlight the difference
between terrorism and freedom struggle. Discuss the issue of terrorism in backdrop of what is
happening in Afghanistan, Palestine and Kashmir. (2015)

Evaluate the significance of conflict between India and Pakistan in global perspective of terrorism.
(2017)

Elaborate Systems Thinking Theory in view of Pakistan and Globalization. (2017)

Uni-polarity, New world Order

In your opinion what are the distinguishing features in a profile of American foreign policy since 1990?
(2002)

The post-Cold War, World Order promised Peace, Security, Democracy, Nuclear Non-proliferation and
Human Rights protection. Assess its repercussions at present confronted by the world community in the
context of Terrorism, Nuclear Proliferation, Globalization and erosion of Human Dignity. (2007)

Discuss the strategic importance of "Indian ocean" in the post-cold war scenario and analyze the role of
the United States and China in the region. Also identify vital political, economic and strategic interests of
both great powers in the contemporary geopolitical situation. (2012)

IV. International and Regional Organizations

League of Nation (Peu Ghosh), United Nations (I.Law), Regional Organizations, EU, ASEAN, NAFTA,
SAARC, SCO, OIC, ECO, WTO.

OIC has failed to foster Pan Islamic unity and solidarity to meet the challenges faced by the Ummah in a
spirit of cooperation and collective action. Indeed it is an important forum that needs complete
overhauling/restructuring. Comment and suggest measures to make it effective. (2004)

Explain the socio-economic and Political Compulsions which led to the formation of Regional Blocs.
(2010)

Reforms in the United Nations, World Bank and the IMF (from Report)

Determine the factors in emergence of Neoliberal Institutionalism; highlight your discussion with
practices of International Financial Institutions and Pakistan. (2017)
V. Foreign Policy of Selected Countries

USA (internet), Russia, China (CFR and JWT Book), UK, EU

Pakistan (Pre-Cold War + Post Cold War > Abdul Sattar book, Pak’s Relations with others> Imtiaz Shahid)

India (Pakistan Relations with India > Prakash Chandar OR Peu Ghosh)

Define the present "Russian Doctrine" and discuss its impact on Pakistan and India. (2000)

Critically evaluate American Foreign Policy towards Afghanistan. (2001)

Analyze and elaborate the changes in Chinese foreign policy since the death of Mao Dse dung. (2002)

Evaluate the Sino-Pak nexus in the light of changing geo-politico-economic scenario of the region. (2004)

Will China become an Economic Super Power in 21st century? What should US-Policy be towards the
modernization of China? (2005)

How does domestic politics influence foreign policy decision making? Explain with reference to
Pakistan’s policy towards India. (2006)

How do you perceive US military engagement in Afghanistan and Iraq and its implications in near
future? (2007)

Critically evaluate American foreign policy towards Pakistan. (2009)

"The Al- Qaeda phobia has made USA a neurotic Super Power. She is disregarding the norms of
International Law and Diplomacy". Make your comments by a brief survey of US Global Policy. (2010)

Explain why, despite being target of terrorism, Pakistan's international allies often publicly express
dissatisfaction with Pakistan's counter terrorism policy and actions? Is this a failure of Pakistani
diplomacy or weakness in its policy? Identify the fault and suggest corrective measures, if required.
(2011)

Critically discuss "Pakistan's participation in SEATO and CENTO” and explain political, strategic, and
economic causes and define its potential disadvantages for the country's foreign policy and diplomacy.
(2012)

Carry out a comparative analysis of US foreign policy towards South Asia during and after the Cold war.
(2013)

Critically evaluate the joining of Western Alliances (SEATO & CENTO) by Pakistan and explain its political,
economic and strategic consequences for the state's policy. (2014)

Do you agree that the post-Cold War international scenario has generated more constraints that
opportunities for Pakistan's foreign policy? If so, what those? Suggest measures enabling Pakistan to
face the 'new challenges'. (2014)

Pak-china relations are historic and times tested, have developed a momentum of their own and are
continuing. Explain. (2015)
"In her foreign policy and trade, Pakistan has never benefited fully from the ideal Geostrategic location".
Discuss. (2015)

Discuss the moral imperatives of “Indian Foreign Policy” with the contending spirit of “Panchsheel” and
evaluate how much it helps to strengthen diplomatic objectives of the country’s foreign policy? (2016)

VI. South Asia (JWT Book)

Peace-making and Peace-Building in South Asia: Analytical overview of peace processes between/among
the states of South Asia especially between India and Pakistan.

India and Pakistan: Overview of agreements and accords, Indus Water Treaty; Composite Dialogue; Sir
Creek & Siachen border, Visa and People to people contact; Trade; and Role of civil society

Explain the impact of India-Pakistan nuclearization on strategic stability in South Asia. (2006)

Since South Asia has been dominated by the antagonism between India and Pakistan, what impact do
nuclear weapons have on the balance of power in the region? (2008)

“The Kashmir problem has been mishandled from the beginning and every successive Government in
Pakistan has contributed to that". Critically explain the statement. (2010)

Evaluate the significance of water conflict between India and Pakistan in perspective of Indus Water
Treaty (2017)

Afghanistan: Cold war theatre; Soviet Invasion Mujahedeen; Geneva Accord; Post Cold War situation---
Rise of Taliban, AL-Qeada & 9/11; Operation Enduring Freedom; The Bonn Process- Withdrawal

Critically Define “American interests in Afghanistan" and explain its political strategic failure in the
region and its unnecessary pressure on Pakistan to "do more" which can destabilize the regional
scenario rather than stabilizing the situation. Also discuss the serious impact of the American war on
terror on the Pakistan's state, Society and system. (2012)

"A single catastrophic event "Nine Eleven", has turned the world topsy-turvy". Discuss. (2015)

Visualize the post-Taliban scenario in Afghanistan and discuss implications for Pakistan. (2015)

Critically discuss main political, socio-economic and strategic hurdles between “Afghanistan-Pakistan
Relations” and how can both countries come out from the Cold War scenario? (2016)

VII. Weapons of Mass Destruction

Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

Define the Politics of Nuclear Proliferation. How far the super powers have been responsible for the
proliferation of Nuclear weapons. (2000)

What is Nuclear Proliferation? How far the United States of America is justified in pursuing the policy of
Non-proliferation towards North Korea and Iran? (2003)

What is nuclear proliferation? How far the United States of America is justified in making a nuclear deal
with India? (2009)
What nuclear proliferation concerns have stemmed from the dissolution of the Soviet Union? Has the
western world been able to address these concerns? (2013)

Nuclear Weapon States- Programs and Postures: Indian-Pakistan Nuclear Doctrines (Shamshad Akhter +
JWT Magazine)

Discuss the “Moral Dimensions of Pakistan’s Nuclear Programme”. Explain its essential features and
justify its offensive gesture which maintained the national and regional strategic balance. (2016)

Discuss “Nuclear Factor” as one of the major determinants of International politics with reference to
USA, India and Pakistan. (2017)

Nuclear Non –Proliferation Regime: International Atomic Energy Agency, Nuclear Non- proliferation
Treaty; Nuclear Supplier Group; Partial Test Ban Treaty; Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty; Fissile Material
Cut-off Treaty (Peu Ghosh)

Challenges of Non-Proliferation, Nuclear Civil Deal Regime (Peu Ghosh)

The Missile Defence Systems and their impact on global strategic environment

Militarization and Weaponization of Space.

Explain the future of Disarmament with reference to the foreign policy of major Powers. (2001)

“Notwithstanding its recent expansion NATO should be disbanded because the purpose for which it was
established exists no more". Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons. (2002)

Discuss the role of Nuclear Diplomacy in South Asia with particular reference to, “US Indian Nuclear deal
has activated Indo-Russian Nuclear Cooperation”. (2007)

VIII. Contemporary Issues

Indian Ocean and PACIFIC Ocean; Great Powers Moves and hegemony

In the context of its nature, purpose and devices, how does balance of power influence regional
systems? (2005)

Kashmir Issue (BBC report on Kashmir Solutions, JWT)

Palestine Issue (JWT + Internet)

State the conditions for the 'Road Map' of the Palestine state. What are the hurdles in its
implementation? (2003)

Describe the efforts of African National Congress against Apartheid regime of South Africa. (2013)

Analyze the causes and events of the Arab Israeli war of 1967? What were it implications? (2013)

Discuss the economic and strategic importance of Gawadar port of Pakistan and for the region. (2015)

Critically discuss the fundamental factors of “Greece Economic Crisis” which need huge financial
assistance from European Union and IMF as a debt relief to create “a breathing space” to stabilize
economy and explain out-of-the-box solution for the crisis-ridden country. (2016)
Pakistan has formally joined Saudi Arabia’s led 34-state Islamic military alliance to contain terrorism and
extremism in Southwest Asia. Critically discuss whether or not Pakistan participates in the newly formed
military alliance against terrorism and explain its political, socio-cultural and strategic implications on
the country (2016)

How can the energy Crisis of Pakistan be resolved? Emphasize your discussion vis-a-vis China-Pakistan
Economic Corridor. (2017)

Pakistan is one of the top 10 countries hit by global climate change trends: what can be the ways and
means to manage climate change trends? (2017)

Other
Write notes on TWO of the following:

(a) De-colonization (b) Crisis Management

(c) Euro Communism (d) Pak-China relations in the 1990s.

Write notes on any TWO of the following:

(a) Limited War

(b) International Law and International Morality
(c) SEATO
(d) Palestine Problem

Write short notes on the following:

a. NAM b. Detent c. WTO d. International Law e. congress of Vienna.

Write notes on the following:

(a) Deterrence

(b) Euro-communism

(c) Peaceful co-existence

(d) Perestroika

Expfain the following with examples:

(a) Hostile Embargo (b) Balance to Terror
(c) Entente (d) Co-existence

Write short note on any of two:

A. Terminology of AF-Pak

B. ECO

C. OIC
 Prepared by: Mohammed Uzair Arif

HISTORY OF EUROPE POST 1789

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION: 1789-1848

 Upheavals on economic and social domain triggered massive changes in the political arena in
Western Europe. French revolution had a trickledown effect on entire political landscape of
Europe.
 Political reaction in the wake of French revolution and other revolutions all around the Europe
inspired from it had a profound impact on the socio-political landscape of Europe.

 CAUSES OF REVOLUTIONS

 New Political ideas

 Economic  Misgovernance of
that were anti-pre-
grievances monarchs
industrial social
associated with  Highly unjust
and economic
early economic regime
arrangement.
industrialization

VOLCANO OF CHANGE that

ultimately resulted in French
Revolution and other series of
revolutions succeeding it in the
period of 1820-1848

ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF NAPOLEAN’S REGIME

Accomplishments Description
1) Consolidated  Equality under the law
Revolutionary  Hereditary privilege was revoked
changes in  Centralized system allowed bureaucratic structure to be put
France in place
 State controlled educational institutes were founded
 Religious freedom survived
 Freedom on internal trade
 Encouragement to innovation as a means of commercial
 Prepared by: Mohammed Uzair Arif

growth
 Peasants were granted freedom
2) Diffusion of  His bid to conquer Europe and carve out a French empire
French from it resulted in the diffusion of French revolutionary
Revolutionary ideas to other parts of Europe.
ideas to the rest  Powers of the Roman Catholic church and aristocrats were
of Europe curtailed
 Demise of Old regimes in Belgium, western Germany and
Northern Italy.
 “Underlying the theory was fact: the revolutionary and
Napoleonic armies had redrawn the mental map of
Europe. In place of the 18th century horizontal world of
dynasties and cosmopolite upper classes, the west now
consisted of vertical unities—nations, not wholly separate
but unlike”—Jacques Barzun
3) Alteration of  German and Italy’s territories were consolidated
map of Europe  Nationalism was fueled in reaction to Napoleon’s advances
in Spain, Poland, Russia and Prussia
 These state also reformed their internal structures in order
to halt and confront Napoleon’s attack.

IMPACT OF FRENCH REVOLUTION

IMPACTS DESCRIPTION
1) Radical change in the  Westphalia’s idea of Sovereignty, which rested with
idea of sovereignty the ruler or monarch was changed
 Sovereignty was shifted to the people

2) Declaration of right  Sovereignty resides with the people

of men  Since everybody is born equal, no distinction should
be made by the state
 “People should rule themselves and the government
should not only be for the people but also by the
people
 Serfdom, feudal restriction and the limitation
imposed by the guilds were abolished
 Religious Tolerance was assured
 Freedom of the press was ensured
 Right to education
 Vindication of the rights of woman (1792): Women
should have same rights as men

3) Dissemination of  Revolutionary ideas such as, liberty, equality and

revolutionary ideas fraternity were disseminated throughout the Europe
throughout the and from there to the World at Large.
world
 Prepared by: Mohammed Uzair Arif

4) Impact of the idea of  Liberty became the charter of all the reformers and
liberty revolutionaries
 Idea of liberty soon pervaded all the spheres of life:
Personal, Economic and Political.
 Demands for elected legislature, liberalized
economic structure and freedom of speech and
action increased

5) Principle of  Pre-Revolution concept of nationality meant loyalty

Nationality to the king and nobles
 After King Louis was ousted, French people came to
realize that their existence with that of the monarch
was not intertwined.
 Aggression of France against other countries: Austria,
Russia, Prussia and Spain, also sparked Nationalism
in them. The feeling of nationalism helped these
nation confront French aggression

6) Revolts that drove  Congress of Vienna(1815) did its best to confront

on the idea of nationalism, but they could not.
Nationality  Idea of Nationalism soon spread the entire
continent.
 It was the same idea, which later in 1871 helped in
the unification of Italy and Germany
 The same was the case with Balkan states
 Polish people also resisted Russian’s control over
their affairs on account of Nationality

7) Humanitarianism  Efforts all around the world were made to abolish

slavery.
 Legislations were passed to improve the conditions
of prisons and the people in general
8) Socialism took its  Since French Revolution was about the general well
cue from French being of the society, it also—surprisingly though--
Revolution gave birth to the idea of socialism.
 Properties were confiscated by the government ,
making socialism a political program from theoretical
one.
 Prepared by: Mohammed Uzair Arif

VIENNA SETTLEMENT
INTRODUCTION
 “Three tiers of institutions buttressed the Vienna system: the quadruple
alliance to defeat the challenged to the territorial order, the Holy alliance to
overcome threats to domestic institutions, and a concert of powers
institutionalized through periodic diplomatic conferences of the heads of
alliances to define their common purposes or to deal with emerging crisis” –
Henry Kissinger
 “ This concert mechanism functioned like a pre-cursor of the United Nations
Security Council”-Henry Kissinger
 Series of meeting in Vienna from September 1814-June 1815
 Europe was devastated by the Napoleonic wars(1803-1815)
 Ideals of freedom and liberalism had challenged the status-quo all over Europe
 That led to a highly tumultuous period.
 Napoleon’s desire to carve out a French empire was met with stiff resistance,
with other powers—Russia, Prussia, Austria, Great Britain—joining hands to
confront Napoleon’s hegemonic ambitions.
 It was chaired by Austrian Statesman, Klesmens Metternich.
 OBJECTIVE/AGENDA: To devise a political settlement and course aimed at
ensuring lasting peace in Europe
 It was the first event in history in which national representatives from all over
the Europe gathered at one place to decide the future political discourse.
 The tools that congress came up with to ensure peace in Europe were as
following:
 Containment of France
 Restoration of Balance of Power
 Restoration of Monarchy
 To learn how to cooperate with each other for long-term peace

PLAN FOR EUROPE BY VICTORIOUS PARTIES SPEARHEADED BY KLEMENS METTERNICH

 “The first and greatest concern for the immense majority of every nation is the
stability of laws—never their change”—Metternich
 Klemens Metternich was staunchly against the democratic ideals that emerged
from the French revolution.
 He was a conservative and wanted status-quo to prevail
 He devised a three-pronged strategy to ensure the prevalence of pre-revolution
European order:
FEATURES DESCRIPTION
1) The  Following steps were taken to
containment of strengthen the states around France:
France  The former Austrian Netherlands and Dutch
Republic were united to form the Kingdom of
Netherland
 Prepared by: Mohammed Uzair Arif

 Germen Confederation comprising 39

German states, dominated by Austria, was
formed( Austrian role in the German
confederation , as a means of checking on
PRUSSIA AND RUSSIA, was recognized)
 Switzerland was recognized as an
independent nation
 The kingdom of Sardinia in Italy was
strengthened by the addition of Genoa
 This remodeling of European Political
map was aimed at curtailing France’s
ambitions for continental domination in
the future.

2) Balance of  “Old formulas for balance of power were in

Power fact highly destabilizing and predatory”—
Paul Schroeder
 A new approach towards Balance of Power
was devised in congress of Vienna
 Apart from weakening France, one more
thing was also ensured: No one entity could
amass great power, enough to pursue a
hegemonic course.
 The scheme was designed in a way, which
ensured that Prussia and Russia influence
over Poland and German states was
 curtailed.
 France was restored to its 1792 geographical
extent.
3) Legitimacy  Authority of Monarchs, who were dethroned
in the wake of Napoleon’s advances, was
restored
 It was believed that such a move would
stabilize Europe

POST-CONGRESS OF VIENNA(1815-1878)
 Anti-revolution Alliances
 Revolutions
 Nationalism
 Unification of Italy and Germany
 Holy Alliance (1815) between Austria, Prussia and Russia. It pledged to
uphold Christian values and confront challenges in an event of
revolutions
 This was followed by series of alliances all aimed at confronting the
forces of revolution known as concert of Europe

DEMISE OF CONCERT OF EUROPE(1818-1854)


 TIMELINE
1815 Congress of Vienna
1820-1821 Revolutions in Portugal, Spain, Naples and
Piedmont
1821 Greek Uprising against Ottomans
1830 Belgium declared independence
1830 Poland became part of Russia
1848-49 The spring of Nations. Several Parts of Europe stood
up for independence
1853 Crimean War
1856 Treaty of Paris

 Vienna settlement, unfortunately, couldn’t last for long.

 “The gravest defect of the Vienna system was that it needed Russia more
than she needed it”-- Branislav L. Slantchev
 To be fair, it proved successful in preventing a major conflict on vast scale
but still failed to promise the true objective: Sustainable peace and
order.
 Wave of nationalism as a result of the diffusion of ideas of French
revolution, ideological differences and clash of interest among European
States directly contributed in the demise of Vienna settlement.
 CONFLICTS AND WARS:
1) Italian Risorgimento( Three wars of Independence between 1849-
1866)
 2) The Crimean war(1854-56)
3) Austro-Prussian War(1866)
4) Franco-Prussian War(1870-71)
 Crimean war(1854) proved to be the last nail in the coffin of concert of
Europe
 “Concert of Europe was equilibrium, where the cooperative behavior of
its principle members was sustained with incentives created by the
territorial settlement they designed at Vienna”—Branislav. Slantechev
 Hence, when the incentives created by territorial settlement at Vienna
could not no longer satiate Russians and other European powers, the
concert experienced gradual erosion, fracturing completely in 1850s.
 To sum up briefly, following reasons were responsible for the Demise of
concert of Europe:
REASONS DESCRIPTION
1) Clash of
PRO- ANTI-
Ideology and
INTERFERENCE INTERFERENCE
Interest
 Russia  Britain
 Austria

 The main objective of Great Britain

is neither to make interference in
the internal affairs of any state, nor
to help such powers who want to
interfere. Our great aim is to secure
world peace.—Lord Canning.
 Russian’s invasion of Ottoman
Empire inspired alliance of Britain,
France and the kingdom of Sardinia
against it.
 Russian’s move to gain the access of
black sea and surrounding areas
was seen as a disruption of Balance
of Power.
 As a result of this, the objective of
preserving peace was harmed.
 Russia was defeated and it was
prohibited to maintain a naval force
in black sea (Treaty of Paris).
 Russia’s power now considerably
curtailed, it simply had no reason to
support European order as
enshrined in Vienna settlement.
2) Asymmetric  Ironically, though Concert of Europe
power was aimed at achieving Balance of
 equilibrium Power but the respective powers of
European states were unequally
distributed. Russia and Britain were
the two dominant players in Europe
and their wishes and conduct
eclipsed the interests of other
states. Hence, small states were at
the mercy of these two; and they
did not shy away from pursuing
their interest even if it was against
the spirit of Vienna settlement.
3) Diffusion of the  The ideas that emerged in the wake
Ideas of French of French revolution—liberty,
Revolution equality and fraternity—had
amassed a great appeal in Europe.
 Concert of Europe was
fundamentally anti-revolution and
its associated ideas.
 So the diffusion of the ideas of
French revolution translated into a
strong wave of nationalism and
self-determinism, thus challenging
the very core of Vienna settlement.
 The revolts that resulted from the
fundamental disagreement on
Vienna settlement did a great
disservice to the concert of Europe
4) Absence of  Vienna Settlement was a great leap
Diplomatic forward in European history. It
Mechanism helped in preserving peace in
Europe but it was devoid of tools
that were necessary in sustaining
Vienna Settlement.
 The Vienna settlement was devised
and accepted because the threat
that loomed from revolutionary
forces affected all the major players
in Europe. So it was more of a
necessity than a conscious
agreement.
 As the degree of threat subsided
and interests of Russia and other
states clashed, Vienna Settlement
drifted towards irrelevance.
 Moreover, Vienna settlement did
not deliberate on the conflict-
resolution mechanisms. So there
 was no diplomatic course to resolve
conflicts.

POST-DEMISE OF CONCERT OF EUROPE(1856-1871)

 Crimean war witnessed the collapse of Vienna settlement
 Vienna settlement had enabled the European powers—
Britain, France, Russia, Prussia and Austria—to cooperate and
maintain order in Europe for three decades
 Russian defeat in Crimean war compelled it to focus on its
internal restructuring and reforms while pulling out of the
European Politics.
 Austria too lost its role in regulating the affairs of Germany
and Italy. It was expelled from German and Italy’s territories.
And was forced to enter in to alliance with Hungary
 Prussia emerged as an economic superpower
 Russia’s defeat and Britain indifference facilitated the
unification of Germany and Italy
 With the emergence of Germany and Italy as sovereign states
and new players in European politics, the European power
equilibrium was severely disturbed and was rendered
unstable.

1871-1914: Road to great war

TIMELI EVENT DESCRIPTION
NE
1870-71 Franco-Prussian War  France declared war on Prussia
 France was defeated
 It was declared a republic
 Its territories—Alsace and
Larraine—fell in the hands of
Prussia
 Monarch of Prussia was
crowned Kaiser Wilhelm of a
unified Germany at Versailles
 Otto von Bismarck, chancellor
of Prussia since 1862, and now
Germany sough to pursue a
policy of isolation of France in a
bid to retain the conquered
territories of Alsace and
Lorraine
1870 Rise of Italy  The French garrison of Rome
withdrew during the Franco-
Prussian war
 Italian forces ceased Rome
 Unification of Italy was
accomplished
1872 The three Emperor  Germany, Austro-Hungarian,
understanding Russia came to an
understanding that they would
maintain peace and consult in
an event War breaks out.
1878 Breakup of the Ottoman  Ottoman Empire lost its
Empire in Europe territories in Balkan and east
Europe.
 European powers, notably
Russia and Austria , vied for
influence in Balkan states after
that
1879 Dual Alliance: Germany  It was done in anticipation of
and Austria-Hungary an attack by Russia
1881 European Occupation of  European powers, notably
North Africa Britain, occupied regions of
North Africa, previously under
the control of Ottoman Empire
 Britain occupied Egypt to
protect Suez canal
1881 The new three emperor  In an event a fourth power
understanding: attacked any of these
 Russia countries; two of rest would
 Germany maintain neutrality.
 Austro-
 Hungary  This also manifests
shrewdness of Bismarck, who
was willing to go to any extent
to preserve Germany from
external threats
1882 Triple Alliance of  Italy joined the dual alliance of
Germany, Austria- Germany and Austria-Hungary
Hungary and Italy making it a triple alliance
against the possible attack by
France
 It can also be seen as a move to
advance the policy of isolation
of France, spearheaded by
Bismarck.
1887 The Reinsurance Treaty  It was signed between Russia
and Germany. In an event, the
other any one of them was
attacked, the other would
maintain neutrality
1887 Mediterranean Treaty  It was a reaction to the
Reinsurance treaty
 Austria, England and Italy
signed the same deal
1890 Fall of Chancellor  William 11 ascended the
Bismarck throne after the death of
William 1 in 1888
 He challenged Bismarck’s
diplomatic maneuvers
 His vision for Germany clashed
with that of Bismarck
 FUNDAMENTAL
DIFFERENCES WITH
BISMARCK
1) Bismarck’s systems
of alliances were too
complex and,
therefore, must be
simplified
2) Russia was a great
threat and therefore
Germany should not
be in alliance with it
3) He saw England as a
powerful ally and
alliance with
England would mean
that he no longer
 would have to
remain in alliance
with Russia

 William 11 did not renew the

Reinsurance treaty with Russia.
 Russia became very worried
and started looking for
alternate allies. And to
Bismarck’s greatest worry , it
allied itself with France

 William 11 vision for
Germany
 Creation of high
seas fleet
 Increased
spending upon
new armaments
 Development of
a German
overseas empire
 Develop an
aggressive
foreign policy
He wanted Germany to
assume a role of Super
power.
 So the reign of Bismarck as the
chancellor of Germany and key
architect of its foreign policy
ended.
1893 Dual Alliance  It was signed between Russia
and France
 The dual alliance of 1879
between Russia and Austro-
Hungary Empire and the
Reinsurance treaty reflected
Germany’s duplicity.
 On one hand they had an
understanding with Russia and
the other they also had
Austria-Hungary in their camp
too.
 And since Russian and Austrian
interests clashed in Balkan
region, this system of alliances
 imploded.
 Russia, therefore, approached
France in its bid to sway
German plans.
1902 The rupture of  France-Italy agreement:
Germany’s foreign policy  Triple alliance( 1882,
Germany, Italy and Austro-
Hungarian Empire) was not
to be employed against
France
 This is how France subdued
their last insecurity of
Germans.
 Policy of isolation of France
 it backfired big time. And
instead of France, Germany
found itself at the receiving
end, with being isolated
itself rather than France.
 Transformation of England’s
neutral or aloof nature to
Europe’s politics
 England had kept itself
aloof from the Europe’
politics. It maintained a
policy of non-intervention
as long as its interests were
not directly under siege.
Von Otto Bismarck,
cognizant of this,
maneuvered his diplomatic
designs in a way to keep
England out of the game.
However, with Bismarck’s
fall the statesmen that
succeeded him lacked
diplomatic acumen. They
launched their naval
program, which rendered
Britain’s naval control in
jeopardy, owing to which,
Britain was compelled to
join the complex network
of alliances in Europe. This
destabilized the Europe’s
power equilibrium and
inadvertently paved way
 For WW1.
 So Germany’s foreign policy,
which was meticulously crafted
by Bismarck, ruptured due to
the reckless and over-
ambitious foreign policy of
Bismarck’s successors.
1904 DUAL ENTENTE  Signed between France and
England
 It was not a military alliance
but it continued till 1914 as a
military and naval collaboration
1907 The TRIPLE ENTENTE  Signed between England,
France and Russia
 It wasn’t a military alliance
 It was consultative in nature.
GERMANY’S SEARCH  Now that 19th century’s foreign
FOR ALTERNATIVES policy of Germany had
fractured. It started looking for
alternative strategy in a bid to
curtail England’s influence.
 It brought the faltering
Ottoman Empire in its camp.
 It also started a railway project
between Berlin and Baghdad,
which posed a direct threat to
England’s interests in Persian
Gulf.
 Moreover, England’s strategic
alliance with Russia forced
Austro-Hungarian empire to
join hands with Germany as the
two powers’—Russia and
Austro-Hungary—interest
clashed in the Balkan region.
 Having mentioned this,
Ottoman Empire and Austro-
Hungary Empire had
differences over Eastern
Europe. This posed a great
challenge for Germany as it had
to ensure the continuity and
cohesion of its alliance.

MAP OF 1914 AND THE SYSTEM OF ALLAINCES

 Why did WW1 take place

Militarization
Alliances
Imperialism
Nationalism (MAIN)
Domestic issues
CAUSES DESCRIPTION
1) Alliances  ““The alliances created an
excessively rigid diplomatic
framework, within which
relatively small detonators
could produce huge
explosions” (A.J.P. Taylor)
 Before the WW1, Europe was
divided into two groups of military
and strategic alliances:

1) The triple alliance: Germany,

Austro-Hungary and Italy
2) The triple Entente: France, Russia
 and Britain
 Alliances were motivated by
following factors:
 German insecurity of France
 Austro-Hungary and Russia’s clash of
interest in the Balkan region
 German’s desire for imperialism and
thus maintenance of Naval forces,
which didn’t bide well for Britain
 Italy’s interest in Africa and desires for
imperialism (Italy, however, made a
secret treaty with France assuring her
of maintaining neutrality in an event of
German invasion. So in reality,
Germany had only one dependable
ally)
2) Militarization  Animosity and insecurity among
European states fueled arms race, a
sort which was unprecedented in the
history of mankind.
 All countries barring Britain had
imposed conscription
 The armies of France and Germany had
more than doubled during 1890-1914
 85% of men in France, belonging to a
specific age group, were enrolled in
army
 Percentage spending had increased by
over 100% since 1890
 HMS dreadnought, a modern naval
battleship, was built in 1905, rendering
naval warfare even deadlier.
3) Nationalism  “ People of Europe leapt willingly into
the war”-- (A.J.P. Taylor)
 Nationalism, which finds its origins in
peace settlement of Westphalia and
reinvigorated by French revolution,
was skyrocketing in Europe.
 Germany was aiming for Weltpolitik
or the desire for world power status.
 France had been looking for the
opportunity to take back its lost
territories of Alsace Lorraine from
Germany. And from 1871 onwards it
had been breeding grounds for
severe Nationalism and instilled
 hatred amongst its masses for
Germany. (Whole academic syllabus
was altered in a way to instill
nationalism and hatred for Germany.
Even the professors were instructed
to indoctrinate children)
 Britain, a major superpower of that
era, was severely challenged by its
European counterparts for the naval
hegemony and colonial domination.
So English saw them as seriously
challenged and did not want to allow
anyone to share the empire on which
sun never sat.
 And it wasn’t only the great powers
that were experiencing strong bursts
of Nationalism; the Balkan states too
sought independence and autonomy
on claims of having distinct
nationality. It should not forgotten
that the event that triggered the war
was the assassination of Austrian
Prince, Franz Ferdinand, by a Serbian.
Which was then followed by the
declaration of war on Serbia by
Austro-Hungarian Empire
4) Imperialism  By the end of 19th century, other
European powers—notably Germany
and Italy—started contending for
Imperialism.
 Britain saw that as a move to challenge
its hegemony.
 This gave birth to several crises such as
the Moroccan crisis and Balkan unrest
5) Domestic issue  Some historians believe that socialism
had spread across Europe; due to
which, leaders were of the view that
the war might end class differences,
which would in turn reduce the
support for socialism
 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

INTRODUCTION(Chapter 1, Paper 1)
 The definition and Scope of International Relations
 The Nation-State System
 Evolution of International Society

QUESTIONS FROM PAST PAPERS(2000-2014)

1. Define International Relations. Discuss its scope and importance of the study
of International Relations(2000)
2. International Relations is a Separate discipline! Discuss.(2001)
3. President Bush's invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq, without sound genuine
reasons has made the future of the Modern Nation State doubtful. Do you
agree? Give reasons for your answer.(2003)
4. The age of isolation is over. The modern states act and behave as member of
the international community. Qualify the statement with reference to the
following:
(a) Definition and scope of International Relations.
(b) Nature and utility of the subject.(2004)
5. The relations between the sovereign states of the world are becoming one of
the most important aspects of contemporary life. Evaluate with reference to
the importance of international relations.(2005)
6. Europeans transformed Westphalia System of States into empires during
16th, 17th and 18th centuries to increase their Wealth and Power.” Elucidate
the statement.(2007)
7. The emergency of sovereign state as a primary actor was just the beginning
of the evolution of modern International System. Assess the pace of change
in International Relations from 1815 to 1914.(2008)
8. Describe the basic features of modern nation state. What are the dangers to
its future?(2010)
9. Can you imagine a world without inter-state relations"? Explain the
importance of International Relations in the Nuclear age.(2010)
10. Define International Relations. Identify and explain its continuously
changing and expanding nature and subject matter?(2011)
11. Discuss the development of the study of " International Relations" and
define its core influential factors and define its role in the post cold war
era?(2012)
12. Evaluate the general view the peace of Westphalia as the founding moment
for modern state system. Do you think this system is challenged in the
contemporary world?(2013)
13. Discuss evolution and development of the discipline of International
Relations; define the dominant factors responsible for and explain their role
in the post-cold war era(2014)
 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

DEFINITION OF IR BY SCHOLARS /ACADEMICS

 The field of IR concerns the relationship among the world’s government. But these
relationships cannot be understood in isolation. They are closely connected with other actors,
social structures, geography and historical influences. ( Joshua Goldstein)
 The term IR has two broad meanings: (1) Narrow view, it only deals with the official relations
conducted by the authorized leaders of the state and (2) Broader view; it deals with, apart
from official relations, movement of people, goods and ideas across the national frontiers. (
Prakash Chandra)
 IR is the study of ir whereby IR refers to the discipline of International Relations and ir refers
to international relations as they occur.( Chris Brown)
 ir means the diplomatic-strategic relations of states, and the characteristic focus of IR is on
issues of war and peace, conflict and cooperation. It is also viewed as cross-border
transactions of all kinds (Political, social, economic) and IR is likely to study trade negotiations
or the operations of non-state actors/institutions. (Kirsten Ainley)
 International Relations is the study of the relations of states and those relations are
understood primarily in diplomatic, military and strategic terms ( Penguin Dictionary)
 It is not of the nations which international relations seek to regulate. IR also deals with
following entities:
 Nations
 States
 Governments
 People
 Regions
 Alliances
 Confederation
 International Organization
 Religious Organization
 Industrial organizations
 Cultural organizations ( Prof Philip Quincy Wright)
 International Relations is concerned with the factors and the activities which affect the
external policies and the powers of the basic units into which the world is divided( Prof
Stanley Hoffman)
 International Relations do not cover only the official relations conducted by the leaders of
representatives of a state. They also cover the relations conducted by other important groups
to the extent they influence the interactions of the sovereign states.( Trygave Matheisen)
NOTE: Select definitions that are distinct from each other.

DEFINITION OF IR BY THEORISTS
 IR is the study of world Politics to develop the means of cooperation among states through
non-governmental organization in order to cope with the anarchic model of International
systems and the challenges that emerge out of this anarchy( Robert Keohane, Founder of
neoliberal thought in IR)
 IR is the relationship between states. The international system is based on two things:
(1) ordering principle of anarchy
 (2) Distribution of capabilities or power among nations. IR is the study of anarchy and how
the power is distributed varyingly among different nations or regions and how it leads to
war or cooperation among states ( Kenneth Waltz, Founder of neo-realist thought)
 The study of IR is to unveil ideas and interests that determined the course of world politics.
The International Political system is based on interests, where the interests of state are not
material but cultural and are determined by the social structure of the individual state. Since
social structure depends upon behavior, geography, aspirations, mindset and religion of the
society. It cannot be same in all states. Thus IR cannot be explained by a single theory but it is
a blend of various theories depending upon the composition of the society of a state.(
Alexander Wendth) Explain it through flowchart
 IR functions either by hard power or Soft power. Bid for power can be constrained by the
interaction rather than coercion. States can, however, achieve their interests by employing
smart power, which is the midway between soft and hard power.( Joseph S Nye)
 The culture/civilization rather than the state is the basic unit of international political system.
IR is the exploration of the different civilizations in the world; How they developed, how they
interact historically, what are the fundamental differences among them and how these
differences will lead to the clash of civilizations.( Samuel P Huntington)

 Individual  Domestic  International System
Human behavior Nature of states, their General characteristics
social structures and
domestic policies.

IR is the study of organic relationship among above three features( Robert Jarvis)

 We can make sense of changing dimensions of IR in the post modern world by understanding
the logics based on rational choice. The purpose of IR is to understand that how international
affairs work in the world and why they work that way. The individual and state interest differs
most of the times and this conflation of state and individual interest is the fundamental
impediment to advancing our understanding of ir. This impediment can be removed by
employment of logic and mathematics for the purpose of understanding the changing
dimensions, peculiarities, course of international political system( Bruce Bueno de mesquite)

SCOPE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

In short, if we are to be successful theorists of IR, we must resist
the tendency to define success in terms of simple models; instead we must be
prepared to live with quite high levels of ambiguity – if you want black and
white, buy an old television, don’t be an IR theorist.—Chris brown

There are two dominant Point off views vis-à-vis scope of IR

Pessimist Point of view Optimistic Point of view
 It is not an organized discipline  IR has significantly contributed towards
 Boundaries are not defined the development of International
 Simultaneously hosts scores of subfields System from a host of localized systems.
 ranging from history to Political Science.  It has enabled man to move towards
 Lacks empirical methodology cooperation from confrontation
 It does not have universal application.  IR has enabled theorizing, which in turn
Its applicability is subject to the degree has helped man to understand
of development of a country behaviors and predict international
 There is a wide gulf between its events
theoretical interpretation and actual  IR is neither science nor art but an
international happenings approach:
 It is devoid of distinct subject matter 1) Conservative
2) Liberal
3) Revolutionary

 IR is basically the study of concepts

pertaining to following fields:
1) Globalization
2) Diplomatic relations
3) State Sovereignty
4) International Security
5) Ecological sustainability
6) Nuclear proliferation
7) Nationalism
8) Economic Development
9) Global Finance

DEFINITION OF STATE BY ABRAHAM LINCOLN

 The main ingredients of a state are as follow:
1) Territory
2) People
3) Law

EVOLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY

 What is an international society?

(1) Organized human groupings
(2) Each having a control over distinct territories
(3) And they exercise a measure of independence from each other
 What is a state?
(1) Permanent population
 (2) Occupying a distinct territory
(3) Under the control of central government
(4) Independent of all other governments

 Concept of International Society according to Prof Hedley Bull

 International Relations emerged with the existence of states or independent Political
communities:
(1) Each of which possess a government
(2) Asserts sovereignty in relation to a particular portion of the earth surface
(3) Asserts sovereignty over a particular segment of the human population
 Definition of International Society according to Prof Hedley bull
 Group of states, conscious of certain common interests and common values, forge a society in
the sense that they conceive themselves to be bound by a common set of rules in their relations
with one another, and share in the working of common institutions.
Feature/Characteristics of International System
1) Independence  A liberal Political arrangement
 Autonomy over internal affairs
 Sovereignty
 Right of self-determination
 Right of self-defense
2) Diplomacy  An arrangement, which allows sovereign states to engage
with one another and facilitate in the pursuit of matters
of bilateral interest
3) International Law  A recent innovation dating back only as far as the 16th
and 17th centuries
 It is the set of rules generally regarded and accepted as
binding in relations between states and between nations.
 It serves as a framework for the practice of stable and
organized international relations
4) Miscellaneous  Laws of war
features  International organizations/ Regional organizations
 Recognition

Approximate Chronology of International Society

500-1000 BC Ancient Greek or Hellenic
1300-1500 BC Renaissance Italian
1500-1650 BC Early modern Europe
1650-1950 BC European-cum-Western
1950- Global

Time Society Description

500-1000 BC Ancient Greek or  The first historical manifestation of an
Hellenic international society is ancient Greece
 Features of ancient Greece
 Geographical Area
 Cultural unity
 Devoid of a single Political Entity or
State
 It comprised a large number of city-
states
 The common features of Greek Society(
AKA Hellenic International society) are
as follow:
 Common Ancestry
 Language
 Religion
 Way of Life
 Again it is pertinent to mention that
Greece was not a state.
 Hellenic International Society consisted
of city-states that were sovereign.
 International law was not drafted
because Greek didn’t conceive rights
and obligations in relation to one
another.
 Moreover, the concept of sovereign
equality, as now days, was not
recognized. Sparta and Athens were
considered superior to other city-states.
 “ Justice between states depends on
equality of power: ‘the strong do what
they have the power to do and weak
accept what they have to accept” --
Thycudides account of the Peliponesian
war elucidating the lack of sovereign
equality
 John Baylis, Author of Globalization of
World Politics, considers the Greek-city
state system as cultural-religious rather
than legal-political
 “ Among the ancient Greeks there
seems… to have existed a religious
sanction, mitigating the unrestrained
barbarities of war and analogous to our
Geneva Convention”-Harold Nicolson

 1330-1550  Italian  First ones to surge towards
Renaissance enlightenment in Europe.
 Furthered the work of Arabs in science
and arts.
 Prominent States of Italy:
 Venice
 Florence
 Milan
 Papal States
 Italians instituted their own political
institutions and broke free from
medieval religious-political authority
 The republic of Venice was the pioneer
of diplomatic practices in Europe. It set
standards for other Italian states, which
were later replicated by the entire
Europe.
 “The common man’s inner circle of
loyalty expanded, his outer circle of
loyalty shrank, and the two met and
coincided in a doubly definite circle
between, where loyalty before had
been vague. Thus the modern state
came into existence; a narrower and at
the same time a stringer unit of loyalty
than medieval Christendom.” –Martin
Wight
 The medieval ecclesiastical-political
order begun to unravel during the 16TH
century under the impact of the
protestant reformation and the new
political theology of martin Luther. As a
result authority of kings and legitimacy
of their kingdoms were enhanced.
 Paradoxically, Papacy (Pope) resisted as
well as helped foster the institution and
expansion of early modern international
society.
 Renaissance theory of statecraft
 Pioneered by Machiavelli
 Conduct
Interest of the
of the statecra
state ft

They ought to
be guided by
separate
Political ethics

 Anything, irrespective of morality and

ethics, which aims at empowering a
state or pursuing the stated goals, is a
Political virtue; and it ought to be
employed at any cost.
 This idea was a corner stone to the
classical theory of realism.
 The realist version of political thinking,
which values national interest above all
other things came to be known as the
reason of the state( AKA realpolitik)
 Italian city-states instituted a social
order based on diplomatic dialogue.
 Though Italians were cognizant of the
importance of Balance of power for
maintaining order but the agreements
they made were all too often based on
expediency—which wasn’t a good
foundation for the development of a
permanent international society.
 Moreover, it also encouraged
intervention by the external powers and
this ultimately led to the demise of
Italian city-states.
 Since they were divided, they were too
weak to overwhelm a foreign attack.
 1500-1950  European  Classical European international society,
International which emerged in the 16-17th century,
society gained its full form in the 20th century.
 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE AND THE
PROTESTANT REFOMATION

MODERN STATE-SYSTEM

 The political Theology of Martin Luther

 Disengaging Political elements from
religious modes of thought/ Religious
dictates
 Political legitimacy of the state should
be independent of religious sanction
 On account of these, Machiavelli and
Luther are important architects of the
modern society of states.
 The sovereign states, driven by national
interest, crafted the International
Relations.
 War, as a means to resolve conflicts
between the sovereign states, came to
be recognized as the legitimate tool.
 “ War made the state and the state
made war”—Charles Tilly
 Thirty Years War(1618-1648)
 One of the greatest and longest armed
contests of the early modern Europe.
 Holy Roman Emperor of Bohemia
endeavoured to curtail religious
freedom of his subjects.
 This sparked rebellion among his
protestant subjects.
 This was soon followed by the network
of alliances: Protestants Versus
Catholics.
 HABSBURG STATES AND
 ALLIES
 Holy Roman Empire
1) Catholic League
2) Austria
3) Bohemia
 Spanish Empire
 Hungary
 Kingdom of Croatia
 Denmark

VERSUS

 Anti-Habsburg States and

Allies
 Sweden
 France
 Denmark
 England
 Scotland
 Prussia

 Holy Roman Empire was a vast complex

of one thousand semi-autonomous
Political units under the suzerainty of
the Austrian Hapsburg
 It also happened to be the first place
whose map was redrawn as a result of
the conflict.

 Over the previous two centuries,

balance of power had kept the war at
bay. But the reformation and counter-
reformation had polarized Germany into
two camps: Protestants and Catholics
each prepared to seek foreign support
to defeat the other.
 With no conclusive end of the fight in
sight, both the contending parties finally
met at Westphalia to devise an exit
strategy from the war.
 Impacts of the War
 Balance of power in Europe had
radically changed.
 Habsburg Supremacy was curtailed
 States of Roman empire was declared
sovereign
 Denmark lost its status of the strongest
 military Power of Northern Europe.
 Protestant Princes were allowed to
continue Religious practices
 France emerged as the strongest
European power
 Feudalism declined
 Spain lost its dominant position in
Europe.
 The notion that Holy Roman Empire was
headed by pope and temporally by
Emperor was permanently abandoned.

 “That was not the first gamble for

political mastery in Europe and it
would not be the last. But after 1648
the language of international
justification would gradually change,
away from Christian unity and religious
orthodoxy and towards international
diversity based on a secular society of
sovereign states in Europe”- John Baylis
 “ The reformation and counter-
reformation conflicts made it clear by
the mid-seventeenth century that
protestant states and Catholic states
must co-exist.”- John Balyis
 The exact nature of the war wasn’t
purely religious. It was fought on
political-territorial lines with some
catholic states, such as France was
aligned by protestant states such as
Sweden in an alliance against the
Catholic Habsburgs.
 “ …Primacy of defensive technology
over offensive technologies made war in
early modern Europe less than decisive
and such developments helped make
possible a Europe of many states”-Paul
Hirst
 The anti-Habsburg alliance also
demonstrated the doctrine of the
balance of power: the organization of a
coalition of states whose joint military
power is intended to operate as a
counterweight against bids for political
hegemony and empire.
 This also shows that reason of state
 took precedence over any obligation to
support the Respublica Christiana.
 Such Secular outlook on matters of state
interest has been the cornerstone of
international society ever since.
 “ The treaties of Westphalia formally
recognized the existence of separate
NOTE: Treaty of Westphalia consisted sovereignties” –john Baylis
of two treaties:
TREATY OF WESTPHALIA
1) Signed between Emperor of
Holy Roman Empire and King  Recognition of state
of France sovereignty
2) Signed between the rulers of  Governments of the states
Sweden and .. have complete autonomy to
run the state of affairs within
their territorial limits.
 Medieval idea of the
respublica Christiana was laid
to rest for ever.

Seeds of state sovereignty and

non-intervention evolved in to
following bodies.

 Charter of the UN
 Geneva conventions
 Other contemporary bodies
of International law

 Other Side of the picture: Why

Westphalia is not the frontrunner of
international society
 “ Westphalia is the coming of age but
not the coming into existence of
European international society, the
beginning of which can be traced to the
council of Constance(1415) which, in
effect transformed the papacy into a
quasi-secular political power with its
own territory”—Martin Wight
 “ Modern International Society only
fully emerged in the 18th century,
because prior to that time the
Respublica Christiana was still in
existence. But however we choose to
look at it, the multinational treaties of
Westphalia, and those which came
after, were conceived as the foundation
of secular international law or what
came to be known as the ‘public law of
Europe’—F.H Hensley

 “ The charter of a Europe permanently

organized on an anti-hegemonial
principle”—Adam Watson

 POST TREATY OF WESTPHALIA

FEATURES OF EUROPEAN SOCIETY
 Political independence and juridical
equality was acknowledged by
International law
 Every member state was legitimate
 Diplomatic structures were put in place
to regulate the inter-state relation
 Though the religion of the international
society was Christianity, the culture that
emerged, especially in the wake of
treaty of Westphalia, was European
 Balance of power between member
states was conceived, which was
intended to prevent one state from
making a big for hegemony.
 The turf for competing for supremacy
drifted towards global south, which
paved way for colonialism( John Baylis)
 Threat to European Balance of Power
 Napoleonic wars( 1795-1815)
 Rise of Nazi Germany(1933-1945)
 Communism(1917-1990)
All these threats were confronted and
ultimately subdued, with USA and
Britain playing a great role in it.
 Assertion of Stephen Krasner
 Features associated with sovereignty:
1) Territory
2) Autonomy
3) Recognition
 4) Control
 According to him, these theoretical
version of sovereignty misrepresent the
actual state of affairs of Europe and rest
of the world
 He asserts that in the absence of
powerful international institutions and
power asymmetries between states
mean that Westphalia and international
legal sovereignty are best conceived as
organized hypocrisy.
 He further asserts that emperors or
rulers of the state only abide by such
principles when it is in their interest to
do so.
 Sovereignty of state is, therefore, has
been subject to many factors, and
contrary to popular assumption, it has
not been quiet sovereign.
 1950-  Global  History of European imperialism and the
globalization of international society are
fundamentally intertwined
 Imperialism paved way for the
globalization of international society
 European definitions of international
law, diplomacy and the balance of
power thus came to be applied to the
entire world
 States that did not fall under the
influence of imperialism also couldn’t
stay away from the diplomatic practices
of European-defined international
society. The great Ottoman Empire
being a case in point. Japan also
followed the footsteps of Ottomon
Empire but met with the same fate as
the latter.
 These powers could not stay out of the
influence of European ideas for much
longer. The rising might of Europeans
forced them to accept European
sanctioned diplomatic practices.
 The second stage of the globalization of
international society was via reactive
nationalism. European ideas of
democracy, sovereignty and self-
determination had seeped in their
colonies. And thus the colonies became
assertive with due course of time,
culminating in the phase of
decolonization.
 “ Anti-colonial revolt against the west
was the main vehicle by which
international society expanded after
WW11”—Hedley Bull
 Decolonization more than tripled the
membership of the society of states
from about 50 to 160
 The final act of European decolonization
that completed the globalization of
international society was the dissolution
of the Soviet Union at the end of the
cold war.

CONCLUSION: PROBLEMS OF GLOBAL INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY

 Core Values and norms of contemporary global society of states as Enshrined in the
 UN CHARTER
 International Peace and Security
 State sovereignty
 Self-determination
 Non-intervention
 Non-discrimination
 Sanctity , integrity and inviolability of all existing states regardless of their level of
development, form of government, political ideology etc

These features though represent a global covenant of contemporary international

society, do not always hold true and valid. Idea of State sovereignty is confronted by a
host of challenges. The following part of the answer would explain some of the
threats to the contemporary global system

Challenges Description
1) Lack of common  World is devoid of the common culture and
culture its socio-political dynamics are too diverse to
forge a consensus for a global international
society, sanctioned by western norms and
values.
 How can the support for International
Society be mustered:
 Universalization of Western norms and
capitalist School of thought
2) Clash of Interest of  Norms and values of Global society,
vast majority with sanctioned by west are not aligned with the
Western- vast majority of the world
sanctioned Ideas of  Example: KSA, Middle Eastern countries,
global society socialist republics and other quasi-democracy
republics do not endorse western conception
of democracy and liberalism. Moreover,
these ideas sometimes confront with the
interest of respective states.
 Capitalism sponsored culture has divided
world into two regions: Global North and
South, with the north maintaining a clear
leverage over south in economic domain.
3) Substantive  In Juridical terms, the world is divided into
inequalities sovereign states, which are theoretically
equal.
 However, the gross economic inequalities,
among the states, have given birth to a
relation dynamic, which is not based on the
idea of reciprocity and equality
 In such a scenario, wealthy nations maintain
an overall edge over poor countries resulting
in the global polarization, with economic gap
 between rich and poor states and people
growing.
4) Regional diversity  Regional diversity of contemporary global
social relations is far more pronounced than
that of European International society.
 Hence International pluralism is configured
according to the social construction of
regions, such as South-east Asia, Western
Europe and others, which share geographical
region and may have cultural affinities and
interconnected economic life.
 So in the backdrop of regional-cultural
pluralism, a specific brand of values cannot
be applied or imposed throughout the world.
5) International  Creation of international boundaries and
Boundaries preservation of sovereign jurisdiction has set
bar to any reshuffling of the existing
sovereign boundaries.
 This has contributed to conflicts as demands
for self-determination and altering the
existing sovereign boundaries has increased.
Baloch insurgency, bosnia-herzegovina and
others being the cases in point.

6) Non-intervention  Doctrine of non-intervention has created

quandary security dilemmas.
 Security threats that emanate from within
the weak states are difficult for the
international community to address on
account of non-intervention doctrine.
 Rebellion in Somali and other sub-Saharan
African countries being the cases in point.
7) Role of NGOs and  Emerging challenges of Human rights and
Emerging climate change has enhanced the role of
challenges of 21st NGOs and IOs.
century  NGOs and IOs now exert a great influence
over the sovereign states. And hence the idea
of absolute control of sovereign states over
their territories has blurred
 Furthermore, international protocols
surrounding climate change and
environmental issues is not honoured by the
powerful states that deem it against their
interest.
 A case in point is USA who refused to
participate in the International Criminal
Court
 8) Changing Dynamic  Idea of state sovereignty is not static; it is
of State dynamic and subject to evolution.
sovereignty  At one time dynastic families held state
sovereignty, but today it is the collective
entitlement of entire national populations
 “ Supranational institutions represent the
beginning of a new form of ‘international’
state power or a ‘global-western state
conglomerate’—Martin Shaw

Treaty of Westphalia: Origin and Impacts

Pre- Westphalia:
 In Medieval Europe, under feudalism, there was a hierarchical system of power and
authority instead of territorial sovereignty and sovereign equality
 Features of medieval idea of sovereignty
 Some sovereigns were universally recognized as independent, both de-facto and de-
jure
 Some were independent in practice but not altogether in juridical theory
 Some states were separately constituted with their own laws and institutions
 “ By the beginning of the 17th century the growing complexity of international
customs and treaties had given rise to a need for compilation and systemization…”-
Pugh
 Destruction caused as a result of 30 years war(1618-1648) warranted an alternate
system of governance
Post-Westphalia:
 Anti-Hegemonic principle prevailed
 Recognized the homogenial system
Sovereign equality was granted(power or weakness does not in this respect produce any difference. A
dwarf is as much a man as a giant; a small republic is no less a sovereign—Vattel)
 state than the most powerful kingdom
 Power of church was abolished
 “ The Westphalia settlement emphasized the separation and equality of states
rather than the unity of Christendom”- Dr Daud Hassan
 The idea that Pope or Emperor had universal authority was abolished
 Since the power of church to mediate and act as an arbiter in European affairs
dimished, a need for international law, regulating the inter-state affairs, was felt
 “So in modern sense the modern international law and sovereign territorial states
occurred at the same time”- DR Daud Hassan
 How did the Treaty of Westphalia emerge:
 It emanated from the triangular struggle:

Kings Emperor

Pope
 Treaty of Westphalia

 “ It gave the formal sanction of territorial and equal sovereignty of secular states
and coordination between them”- Dr hasan Daud
 “ The Westphalia settlement legitimized a sort of commonwealth of sovereign
states”- Dr daud hasan
 “ At this stage, there emerged the idea that co-existence of territorially separate and
equally sovereign states afforded a better guarantee of peace than the Holy Roman
empire”- Dr Daud Hasan
 Two Dominant conceptions of the treaty of Westphalia have been embedded in
Article(2) of the United Nations Charter
 Article2(1): The organization is based on the principle of sovereign equality of all its
members
 Article2(7): Nothing contained in the present charter shall authorize the UN to
intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state
or shall require the members to submit such matters to settlement under the present
charter
 Treaty of Westphalia: Impacts on the Growth of National Consciousness
 It has a profound impact on the growth of national consciousness. It pioneered the
idea of national interest , which ultimately gave birth to diplomatic institutions
 Relevance of Westphalian Agreement in contemporary world
 The idea of Globalization dominates the international arena
 Hence the idea of interdependence has a precedence over the idea of independence
 The idea that contemporary problems and emerging challenges require collective
effort has curtailed state sovereignty to some extent
 THE NATION-STATE SYSTEM

 CONTENTS
1) Idea and features of Nation state
2) Brief History
3) Challenges to the Nation-state system in contemporary settings
 REASONS THAT CONTRIBUTED IN THE FORMATION OF NATION-STATES
 Nation –states first emerged on the western edge of Europe for following reasons:
REASON EXPLANATION
1) Weakness of 4) It was quite weak to interfere with the states to its west
The Holy 5) And it was strong enough to protect eastern states from the west
Roman 6) As a result, it gave social space to western European states to seek
Empire communal identity
2) Role of Trade 7) West European states benefited from the trade with city-states
and adjacent to the Roman Empire.
agricultural 8) This enhanced their economy out of which a civil society was born,
productivity which later sought communal identity
3) Socio-Political 9) The long ruling dynasties of these states provided sufficiently stable
Stability and effective government

4) Decline of 10) Church’s position as the supreme authority diminished.

Church power 11) And as a result, its hold on the European affairs loosened

BRIEF HISTORY OF NATION STATES

12) Assertion of Benedict Anderson
 Nation states emerged because of advent of print media in 16th century
 It helped increase literacy rate and spread the information
 Owing to which, people-people contact was established in a new way altogether giving
them a sense of commonality
13) Assertion of Ernest Gellner
 Other Scholars, however, argue that the advent of map-making technologies and the
ensuing age of exploration and discovery resulted in change in the way people understood
boundaries and borders.
 Moreover, they also came to realize the socio-cultural variations in the world and became
more aware of their socio-cultural and politics identities.
14) Assertion of Meyer
 Growing hegemony of Nation-states encouraged the formation of new nation-states
 Emphasis on diffusion theory --role of external influences

WHAT IS A NATION STATE—FEATURES OF A NATION STATE

STATE NATION

 Sovereign  Group of people having one or all of

 Occupying a distinct territory the features in common
 Under the control of a 1) Language
government 2) Historical Experience
 Having a permanent Population 3) Culture
4) Religion
 For all practical purposes,  So Nation is a cultural or ethnic term
STATE is a legal and  Sense of nationality, which has a
geopolitical identity cultural or social underpinning
 NATION-STATE

 Occupying a distinct territory

 Having a permanent population, which shares
one or all of the following features:
1) Language
2) Culture
3) Religion
4) Historical experience
 Controlled by a central government
 Enjoys sovereignty and autonomy over its
affairs

SIGNIFICANCE OF NATION STATE

SIGNIFICANCE EXPLANATION
1) International 15) Nation-state, once consolidated around a particular nation, is a
Peace stable form of state organization
16) Major wars of the past have been fought between Empires or
between Empires and Nation-state.
17) Examples from history:
1) French vs British
2) Austro-hungarian VS ottoman
18) Spread of Nation-states has contributed to a durable world
peace, which previously, under empires, was in jeopardy
2) The growth of 19) PRE Nation State forms of rules
Democracy  Personal Rule
 Theocracy
 City-states
 Military rule
 Oligarchs
20) All these forms of rules did not derive their legitimacy from their
subjects, against the spirit of democracy which seeks consent in
matters of governance through a particular way, usually elections.
21) However, with the advent of Nation states, the rulers were bound
to seek legitimacy from the nation for whom the state was
created in the first place.
22) Hence the nation states forge political environments that are
 more conducive to the growth of democracy
3) Development 23) Pre-national states were highly centralized and they maintained a
and economy tight grip on the economy. And since the rulers did not require
approval or consent of the people, role of people in economic
affairs or other affairs for that matter remained non-existent
24) After the advent of Nation-States, with ruler now requiring the
legitimacy from the nation, the nature of economic system was
changed. It was liberalized, which entailed economic
development.

CHALLENGES TO NATION STATE IN CONTEMPORARY SETTINGS

 “ Nation State is in some sense self-replaceable”—Poulantzas
 “State’s goal is to provide good”—Aristotle
 The greatest threat to nation state system is from the globalization
 Economic globalization most threatens the authority of nation states
 “ it is probable that the 21st century may witness a historic shift from strategic competition
to comprehensive cooperation”-Munir akram

PRE GLOBALIZATION POST-GLOBALIZATION

 State enjoyed complete Globalization of following:

control of its territory,
administration and economy 1) Production
2) Transport
3) Communication
4) Finance

SPLIT

State as State as
territorial and Economic
administrative unit
unit

 THREAT TO NATION-STATE SYSTEM IS FROM GLOBALIZATION, ITS PRODUCTS AND THE

RESISTENCE FACED BY IT:
1) Economic Realm
2) Security Realm
3) Diseases and Epidemics
4) Environment
5) Ideology, identity and culture

THREATS THAT EXPLANATION

EMANATE FROM
GLOBALIZATION
Economic Realm  Transnational economic system has dampened the
authority of states over their economic matters.
 “This is due to the creation of a transnational economy
in which states are primarily located within the market
rather than a national economy located inside the
borders”—Juger Habermas
 After Dollar replaced Gold as the standard currency,
control on the flow of international capital was
abolished. With this, unfamiliar financial instruments
appeared having far-reaching impacts on the national
economic policy, especially in three areas: monetary,
fiscal and also exchange rate.
 So in order to attract capital investment states were
forced to make their economic policies more
attractive, business friendly and compatible with
market forces.
 “Capital will tend to avoid countries where
unemployment is heavily taxed or heavily
protected”—George Soras
 Race to Bottom (RTB) Hypothesis: Deregulation of
economies must be done by the respective states in
order to attract investment from international
markets. Saskia Sassen terms vast regulation as the
deterioration of the state
 The Macroeconomic authority of the state is largely
limited. State is more concerned about international
capital flows and policies of international monetary
organization than its own domestic needs
 European Union serves as the perfect example in this
regard. Nation-States have handed over their
economic control (mainly Monetary Policy) to the
European Central Bank (ECB) . Romano Prodi argues
that this has snatched the basic right of state to print
money, which is a feature of state sovereignty.
 Nation states have, in the wake of globalized finance,
lost control of financial matters. World’s financial
 markets are integrated and in an event of crisis in any
one part of the world, the entire world has to face the
brunt of it. 2008 Financial crisis being the case in point.
 “Long term national planning is greatly compromised
by the process of globalization”—Anthony Giddens

Security Realm  Assertion of Sociologists

 Central Reason for the rise of the state was national
security. Their primary objective is to preserve national
borders and preserve their territorial sovereignty
 In light of this assertion, it can be rightly pointed out
that contemporary security threat are transnational in
nature and are products of globalization. The threats
that world confront are as following:
 Terrorism
 Organized crime
 Proliferation of weapons of mass destruction
 Disease
 Environmental Threats
 So the nature of threats, which are by nature
transnational have made states vulnerable and inter-
dependent, owing to which individual states’ ability to
protect themselves have subdued, which compels
them to seek regional cooperation in order to meet
them. And that, strictly speaking, amounts to a
compromise on the very idea of Nation States.
 Ripsman and Paul write in their book, Globalization
and the National Security State, “ and as soon as the
state seeks assistance from outside the country, this
means that it is not capabl8e of ensuring security
anymore”
 Globalization of communications , technology and
transport & the New Security Dilemma
 With the advent of globalized communication and
transport networks, state’s ability to control activity in
its border has significantly reduced. Emergence of
global terrorism, crime network and accessibility to
the weapons of mass destruction have endangered
entire world. In some cases, weak states with meager
financial resources pose a security challenge to strong
states on account of having nuclear weapons. North
Korea being the case in point.
 So this shows that states cannot pursue national
interest in isolation. Regional interests and global
interests need to be catered for too.

Diseases and  Emerging Diseases & Epidemics

Epidemics  Health is the cornerstone of the material power of the
state.
 Every epidemic disease represents a direct threat to
the state’s power
 Global microbial proliferation is greatly facilitated by
tourism, migration and immigration-legal and illegal
both.
 Diseases such as Polio and epidemics such as Ebola,
owing to their contagious nature, have not remained
confined within the geographical boundaries of a
country, endangering masses and sometimes
continents.
 Spread of epidemic or disease has a profound impact
on the power structure of a state and people-state
relation. It can prove to be highly destabilizing and it
also shows that states are increasingly losing their
ability to protect their subjects.
Again such threats require states to seek external help and
cooperation, usually from International Organizations, which
compromises the idea of nation states
Threat to the core  Post Cold war states were able to keep the army at
of the idea of bay , but everything else, ideas, products and
Nation technology easily exceeded the limits”—Michael
Mandelbaum
 Nation-states, as the word implies, is about a nation
sharing culture, ideology, language and history. These
features of nationalism are under great threat owing
to globalization. In age of free information and
globalized system, people do not necessarily identify
themselves with particular culture or ideology or even
a geographical area for that matter. Formation of
European Union, for example, has radically changed
identities of European people. People, now, identify
themselves more with Europe than with their
respective countries.
 Furthermore, the business interests of people all over
the world force them to accept all ranges of culture
and norms, thereby diluting their own.
So Globalization has also altered the very idea of Nation, which
poses a great threat to nation-state system.
Environment  Global warming and Environmental threat is a new
phenomenon.
 Rapid industrial growth and consumption of carbon
fuels have affected precipitation patterns, temperature
and other associated features.
 This has given birth to the phenomenon of Global
warming, which has resulted in unusual precipitation
 patterns and melting of snow peaks.
 Though, contribution of nation-states to
environmental degradation varies, with some having
extremely little or no part in it, still this presents a
global challenge. Some states like Maldives and
Philippines are more endangered from global warming
than others. This poses a great threat to their security
and warrants external help, notably from international
organizations.
 Agreements such as Kyoto protocol, which aims at
regulating carbon consumption of respective
countries, has constrained the freedom of nation-
states in economic and development matters.
 So Environment, mainly a global phenomenon, poses a
great threat to the nation-state system.

RESISTENCE TO IDEA OF NATION STATE AND GLOBALIZATION

 Unfortunately, world does not have a consensus on the idea of Nation state
and all the norms of 21st century.
 Terror groups such as ISIS, Al-Qaedah and their apologists do not agree with
western conception of Nation State and Globalization. They seek to
implement a demented version of Pan-Islamism with regressive system in
place—totally incompatible with the contemporary norms and values.
 So their rise poses a great threat to the system of nation states.
 Furthermore, Russia’s annexation of Crimea also indicates that Russia does
not respect global values and have little respect for territorial integrity of
other states—a feature which is central to the idea of nation-states

CONFLICTING INTERESTS OF GREAT POWERS

 Though the contemporary system of Nation State is inspired and sponsored
by West, still it does not deter them from violating it when their interests
dictate them otherwise.
 US invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq serves as the perfect examples in this
regard, where all the global norms of international system were out rightly
violated to unleash what they termed as war on terror.
 So this suggests that this system is at the mercy of powerful entities who
would only uphold international values when it is in their own interest.
Clash of Civilizations

Introduction:

Samuel Phillips Huntington (April 18, 1927 – December 24, 2008) was an influential American
conservative political scientist, adviser and academic.

He spent more than half a century at Harvard University, where he was director of Harvard's Center for
International Affairs. During the Carter administration, Huntington was the White House Coordinator of
Security Planning for the National Security Council.

He is most well-known by his 1993 theory, "The Clash of Civilizations", of a post-Cold War new world
order. He argued that future wars would be fought not between countries, but between cultures, and
that Islamic extremism would become the biggest threat to Western world domination. He came up
with this theory in response to his former student Francis Fukuyama's 1992 book, The End of History and
the Last Man. Huntington later expanded his thesis in a 1996 book The Clash of Civilizations and the
Remaking of World Order.

Huntington is credited with helping to shape U.S. views on civilian-military relations, political
development, and comparative government.

Main Argument:

 Primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines.
 Concept of different civilizations, as the highest rank of cultural identity, will become
increasingly useful in analyzing the potential for conflict.
 Development of History: In the old time, the history of international system was mainly about
the struggles between monarchs, nations and ideologies. Those conflicts were primarily seen
within Western civilization. But after the end of the cold war, world politics had been moved
into a new aspect in which non- Western civilizations were no more the exploited recipients of
Western civilization but become another important actor joining the West to shape and move
the world history.

Huntington argues that major conflict will be between the Muslims and Non-Muslim states
because Islam defines ‘’Bloody borders’’ between Islamic and non-Islamic civilization

Huntington also believes that some of the factors contributing to this conflict are that both
Christianity (which has influenced Western civilization) and Islam are:

 Missionary religions, seeking conversion of others

 Universal, "all-or-nothing" religions, in the sense that it is believed by both sides that only
their faith is the correct one
  Teleological religions, that is, that their values and beliefs represent the goals of existence
and purpose in human existence.
 Religions that perceive irreligious people who violate the base principles of those religions
to be furthering their own pointless aims, which leads to violent interactions.
 More recent factors contributing to a Western-Islamic clash, Huntington wrote, are
the Islamic Resurgence and demographic explosion in Islam, coupled with the values of
Western universalism—that is, the view that all civilizations should adopt Western values—
that infuriate Islamic fundamentalists.

Why Civilizations will Clash

Huntington offers six explanations for why civilizations will clash:

1. Differences among civilizations are too basic in that civilizations are differentiated from each
other by history, language, culture, tradition, and, most important, religion. These fundamental
differences are the product of centuries, so they will not soon disappear.
2. The world is becoming a smaller place. As a result, the interactions across the world are
increasing, and they intensify civilization consciousness and awareness of differences between
civilizations and commonalities within civilizations.
3. Due to the economic modernization and social change, people are separated from
longstanding local identities. Instead, religion has replaced this gap, which provides a basis for
identity and commitment that transcends national boundaries and unites civilizations.
4. The growth of civilization-consciousness is enhanced by the dual role of the West. On the one
hand, the West is at a peak of power. At the same time, a return-to-the-roots phenomenon is
occurring among non-Western civilizations. A West at the peak of its power confronts non-
Western countries that increasingly have the desire, the will and the resources to shape the
world in non-Western ways.
5. Cultural characteristics and differences are less mutable and hence less easily compromised and
resolved than political and economic ones.
6. Economic regionalism is increasing. Successful economic regionalism will reinforce civilization-
consciousness. Economic regionalism may succeed only when it is rooted in a common
civilization.
Criticism:
Noam Chomsky has criticized the concept of the clash of civilizations as just being a new justification for
the United States "for any atrocities that they wanted to carry out", which was required after the Cold
War as the Soviet Union was no longer a viable threat

Amartya Sen argues that "diversity is a feature of most cultures in the world. Western civilization is no
exception. The practice of democracy that has won out in the modern West is largely a result of a
consensus that has emerged since the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution, and particularly in
the last century or so. To read in this a historical commitment of the West—over the millennia—to
democracy, and then to contrast it with non-Western traditions (treating each as monolithic) would be a
great mistake"

In his 2003 book Terror and Liberalism, Paul Berman argues that distinct cultural boundaries do not
exist in the present day. He argues there is no "Islamic civilization" nor a "Western civilization", and
that the evidence for a civilization clash is not convincing, especially when considering relationships
such as that between the United States and Saudi Arabia. In addition, he cites the fact that many
Islamic extremists spent a significant amount of time living and/or studying in the Western world.
According to Berman, conflict arises because of philosophical beliefs various groups share (or do not
share), regardless of cultural or religious identity.

Edward Said issued a response to Huntington's thesis in his 2001 article, "The Clash of Ignorance". Said
argues that Huntington's categorization of the world's fixed "civilizations" omits the dynamic
interdependency and interaction of culture. A longtime critic of the Huntingtonian paradigm, and an
outspoken proponent of Arab issues, Edward Said (2004) also argues that the clash of civilizations thesis
is an example of "the purest invidious racism, a sort of parody of Hitlerian science directed today
against Arabs and Muslims"
End of History
At the end of Cold War in 1989, Francis Fukuyama (who is an American political scientist and
author and is currently working as a senior fellow at Stanford University, aged 63) wrote an
Essay called The End of History and later came up with a book in 1992 called The End of History
and The Last Man.

Main Argument:

Fukuyama argues that the advent of Western liberal democracy may signal the endpoint of
humanity's sociocultural evolution and the final form of human government.
"What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular
period of post-war history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind's
ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of
human government’’.
To build up his argument he refers to the theories of Karl Marx, Hegel and Alexander Kojeve.
Discussing Marx he argues that:
“The notion of the end of history is not an original one. Its best known propagator was Karl
Marx, who believed that the direction of historical development was a purposeful one determined
by the interplay of material forces, and would come to an end only with the achievement of a
communist utopia that would finally resolve all prior contradictions”.

1) The end of history was discussed by Marx

2) But he believed that Communism will bring the end of history as being the universal
system of government
3) But this has not been true as communist states of Soviet Union have broken apart to
liberal democracies
4) And other communist states like China are also switching to liberalizing their markets
5) And so communism has failed as a system

He also refers to Hegel by arguing that in today’s world Hegel (also a philosopher and political
scientist) is known because Karl Marx took inspiration from his work. He refers to the works of
Hegel through another philosopher named Alexander Kojeve who was a Russian emigrant in
France teaching philosophy. Fukuyama writes,
“Kojève sought to resurrect the Hegel of the Phenomenology of Mind, the Hegel who
proclaimed history to be at an end in 1806. For as early as this Hegel saw in Napoleon's defeat
of the Prussian monarchy at the Battle of Jena the victory of the ideals of the French
Revolution, and the imminent universalization of the state incorporating the principles of
liberty and equality. Kojève, far from rejecting Hegel in light of the turbulent events of the next
century and a half, insisted that the latter had been essentially correct. The Battle of Jena
marked the end of history because it was at that point that the vanguard of humanity (a term
quite familiar to Marxists) actualized the principles of the French Revolution. While there was
considerable work to be done after 1806 -- abolishing slavery and the slave trade, extending the
franchise to workers, women, blacks, and other racial minorities, etc. -- the basic principles of
the liberal democratic state could not be improved upon”.

“The two world wars in this century and their attendant revolutions and upheavals simply had
the effect of extending those principles spatially, such that the various provinces of human
civilization were brought up to the level of its most advanced outposts, and of forcing those
societies in Europe and North America at the vanguard of civilization to implement their
liberalism more fully.”

So basically in the End of History Fukuyama argues that history has ended in the sense that
 Liberal democracy has been the utmost and best evolution of human system of
governance possible
 Since it is the best system, it will be replicated in all states
 Liberal democracy will be the ultimate system through which all states in the world will
function
 All other system of governance like communism, fascism etc will vanish from the face of
the earth

Criticism:

1) Critics of Liberal Democracies:

 Some disagreed with the thesis on the ground that liberal democracies are not the best
system like Fukuyama claims.
 They are purely western and exploitative in nature.
 Capitalism favors the west while exploits the rest and so it is certainly not the end.
  Marxists like Perry Anderson have been among Fukuyama's fiercest critics. Apart from
pointing out that capitalist democracies are still riven with poverty, racial tension, and
the like, Marxists also reject Fukuyama's reliance on Hegel. According to them, Hegel's
philosophy was fatally flawed until Marx "turned it on its head" to create historical
materialism.
To these assertions, Fukuyama argues that even though there is poverty, racism, and sexism in
present-day democracies, there is no sign of a major revolutionary movement developing that
would actually overthrow capitalism.
While Marxists disagree with Fukuyama's claim that capitalist democracy represents the end
of history, they support the idea that the "end of history" will consist of the victory of
democracy: communism, in the Marxist view, must necessarily involve a form of direct
democracy. (Marxist believes that the labors of the world will revolt and take over the capital
of the world and will establish a system of communism in which everyone will be equal and
everyone will own all the property equally and there will be no exploitation. Since labor class
is in majority that will be the real kind of democracy as their say will be heard).

2) Radical Islam, tribalism, and the "Clash of Civilizations":

 Various Western commentators have described the thesis of The End of History as
flawed because it does not sufficiently take into account the power of ethnic loyalties
and religious fundamentalism as a counter-force to the spread of liberal democracy,
with the specific example of Islamic fundamentalism, or radical Islam, as the most
powerful of these.
 Benjamin Barber wrote a 1992 article and a 1995 book, Jihad vs. McWorld, that
addressed this theme. Barber described "McWorld" as a secular, liberal, corporate-
friendly transformation of the world and used the word "jihad" to refer to the
competing forces of tribalism and religious fundamentalism, with a special emphasis
on Islamic fundamentalism.
 Samuel P. Huntington wrote a 1993 essay, "The Clash of Civilizations", in direct
response to The End of History; he then expanded the essay into a 1996 book, The
Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. In the essay and book,
Huntington argued that the temporary conflict between ideologies is being replaced by
the ancient conflict between civilizations. The dominant civilization decides the form
of human government, and these will not be constant. He especially singled out Islam,
which he described as having "bloody borders".
  After the September 11, 2001, attacks, The End of History was cited by some
commentators as a symbol of the supposed naiveté and undue optimism of the Western
world during the 1990s, in thinking that the end of the Cold War also represented the
end of major global conflict. In the weeks after the attacks, Fareed Zakaria called the
events "the end of the end of history", while George Will wrote that history had
"returned from vacation".

In response to the criticisms, on a 2008 Washington Post opinion piece, Fukuyama wrote:
“Democracy's only real competitor in the realm of ideas today is radical Islamism. Indeed, one
of the world's most dangerous nation-states today is Iran, run by extremist Shiite mullahs. But
as Peter Bergen pointed out in these pages last week, Sunni radicalism has been remarkably
ineffective in actually taking control of a nation-state, due to its propensity to devour its own
potential supporters. Some disenfranchised Muslims thrill to the ranting of Osama bin Laden
or Former Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, but the appeal of this kind of medieval
Islamism is strictly limited”.

3) The resurgence of Russia and China:

 Unlike what Fukuyama said, Communism is again coming to power in the face of
states of Russia and China.
 Both Russia and China are growing and thriving economy
 China is particularly a case study example

4) Failure of Political society and decay:

o In 2014, on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the publication of the original
essay Fukuyama wrote a column in The Wall Street Journal again updating his
hypothesis.
o He wrote that, while liberal democracy still had no real competition from more
authoritarian systems of government "in the realm of ideas", nevertheless he
was less idealistic than he had been "during the heady days of 1989."
o Fukuyama noted the Orange Revolution in Ukraine and the Arab Spring, both of
which seemed to have failed in their pro-democracy goals, as well as the
"backsliding" of democracy in countries
including Thailand, Turkey and Nicaragua.
o He stated that the biggest problem for the democratically-elected governments
in some countries was not ideological but "their failure to provide the
substance of what people want from government: personal security, shared
economic growth and the basic public services... that are needed to achieve
individual opportunity." Though he believed that economic growth and
improved government and civic institutions all reinforced one another, he wrote
that it was not inevitable that "all countries will... get on that escalator."
Economics as a Foreign Policy Tool

Basic Concept:

Offering economic rewards or withholding economic advantages in order to make other international actor(s)
do what they would not otherwise do means using economics as an instrument of politics and is best labeled
as economic statecraft.

The economic techniques of statecraft are defined as governmental influence attempts that have three
basic components:

1) Economic policy instrument, as opposed to other means of statecraft relying primarily on

negotiation (diplomacy) or force (military statecraft), economic statecraft relies on instruments
primarily aimed at affecting other actor’s- production and consumption of wealth, for example,
denying or promising aid or trade boycott

2) Secondly, there is the domain of the influence attempt where other international actors upon which
influence attempt is targeted and is often referred to as the -target.

3) Finally, the scope of the influence attempt applies to some dimension of target’s behavior that
the sender(s) country(ies) perceives as objectionable and wants to change. The scope can range
from humanitarian concerns to tariff policies to any domestic policies that other states find
objectionable. For example Iran suffered from severe sanctions after it violated NPT and refused
inspection of its nuclear sites.

Economic statecraft is usually deployed to exercise economic power. It is used to threaten or damage the
wealth of the target, leading to compliance by making the objectionable policy more expensive and/or
provoking political disintegration. However, the sanctions need not bite in order to work implying that
they might work through noneconomic power bases. Trade restrictions can successfully convey a
threat of invasion even if their economic impact is negligible, while human rights offenders might care
more about their moral standing in the international community than the effects of sanctions on their
economic welfare.

Criticism:

Economic techniques of statecraft are often accused of not working, which raises the question of how
their usefulness is measured. This can be done by employing one of two alternative criteria:

1) Effectiveness: The first step in assessing effectiveness is establishing the intended goals and targets
(scope and domain). However, the evaluation of effectiveness can be diluted with the importance of
secondary, implicit or unstated goals, as well as third parties. Therefore, instead of considering
economic statecraft strictly in terms of securing compliance with explicit and publicly stated demands,
the approach which recognizes that there are usually a multitude of targets and goals is likely to bear
more fruit. Another problem is that some of the best known applications of economic statecraft
involve extraordinary levels of difficulty. One example of this is promoting economic development
and democracy in countries that have never known either. Moreover, not all effects of statecraft are
easy to observe because they are less glamorous than diplomacy and less decisive than war, the effects
of economic statecraft tend to be underestimated since they are seldom sudden or dramatic.
2) Efficiency: Given that the concept of effectiveness involves only the achieved benefits while
ignoring the cost sustained by the sender, a more appropriate criterion would be efficiency.
Efficiency implies that economic statecraft is always chosen among alternative courses of action,
such as negotiations or military action, depending on the basis of their cost and benefits.
However, this concept is not without its problems as analytical pitfalls frequently occur, such as
completely ignoring cost or misleading cost comparisons.

Economic statecraft, as defined here, is intentionally broad, since it has to include all economic forms of
influence. However, the distinction can be made between negative sanctions (withholding economic
advantages) and positive sanctions (offering economic benefits), as well as trade and financial
sanctions.

Government wields the economic instrument of power directly through:

1. Negotiations with other states:

The primary use of the economic instrument of power is through negotiations. This
diplomatic process is the basis for economic relations between states and international
institutions. Out of this process arise the economic treaties, creation fo institutions,
cooperative relationships, coordinated use of the economic instruments of power, and
efforts to coordinate economic policies.

2. Tariffs and quotas:

Tariffs are duties placed on goods and services to increase their price within the
country, and quotas are limits placed on the amount of goods that can be imported into
the country. Both of these are means to try to influence the behavior of other states
and their producers and to protect specific industries.

Although the usual purpose is economic, tariffs and quotas can also be aimed at non-
economic state behavior and policies. The effect of such controls is usually a two-
edged sword. Import controls can help some industries, but others that rely on
imported supplies can suffer. Additionally, such controls raise the price of goods for
all consumers.

3. Domestic regulations :

The primary purposes of domestic regulations are to control domestic economic

activity of a country. These can include safety, health, labor, market power, patents,
control of technology, among many other purposes. These regulations also affect
international trade. The effect can sometimes appear to be similar to that of tariffs and
quotas.

4. Economic sanctions:

Economic sanctions are the withdrawal or threat of withdrawal of trade or

financial relations with a state. The purposes are to cause changes in the political
or military policies of the sanctioned state through compellence or deterrence.
States, working alone, in ad hoc coalitions, or through the UN, impose sanctions to
achieve of foreign policy goals. Examples are the sanctions on Iraq prior to the US
 invasion, sanctions on North Korea, and sanctions on Iran. These were/are all aimed at
nuclear non-proliferation and limiting military capabilities. Sanctions, however, are
used even when there is no expectation of change and the effect on the sanctioned
state is secondary. These purposes are:

1) demonstrating resolve and signaling displeasure to the sanctioned

2) assuaging domestic constituencies, making moral and historical statements,

and sending warnings to future offenders of the international order.

States often decide that the alternatives to economic sanctions are unsatisfactory;
military action would be too violent and unpredictable and diplomatic protest too
meager. Sanctions can provide a satisfying theatrical display, yet avoid the high
costs of war. This is not to say that sanctions are costless, just that they are often far
less costly than the alternatives. Some call this the least-bad policy.

Types of sanctions are:

1) blockades, stopping all external commerce with the sanctioned state

2) embargoes, limiting exports to the sanctioned state

3) boycotts, limiting imports from the sanctioned state

4) freezing financial assets of the sanctioned state

5) banning private bank lending and direct foreign investment to the sanctioned state

5. Economic incentives:

Whereas sanctions try to cause change by negative means, economic incentives try to
cause change by positive means. The purpose is to get the receiving state to do
something in exchange for economic benefits.

The three primary approaches, other than foreign aid, are:

1) providing economic assets. We will see when we study the unification of Germany
how providing economic assets to the USSR by Germany helped the movement to
agreement.

2) granting access to markets. This approach played a significant role in the Nixon-
Kissinger policies toward the USSR and China in the 1980s.

3) granting access to international economic institutions. This approach has been part
of the US policies toward Russia and China

6. Foreign economic aid:

There are five major categories of foreign assistance:

 1) bilateral development aid,

2) economic assistance supporting political and security goals,

3) humanitarian aid,

4) multilateral economic contributions

5) military aid.

Bilateral development assistance has become the largest category of US aid in the
recent years. The United States provides some form of foreign assistance to about
150 countries. Since the late 1970's, Israel and Egypt have been the largest recipients.
The importance of the Latin America counter-narcotics efforts has made Bolivia, Peru,
and Colombia major US aid recipients. The use of foreign aid to support the “war
on terrorism” is significant part of our relations with Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan,
Turkey, Jordan, and Indonesia. The United States is the largest international economic
aid donor in dollar terms but is the smallest contributor among the major donor
governments when aid is calculated as a percent of gross national income. The U.S.
Agency for International Development (USAID) manages the bulk of bilateral
economic assistance; the Treasury Department handles most multilateral aid; and the
Department of Defense (DOD) and the State Department administer military and other
security-related programs.

Are economic sanctions an effective instrument of foreign

policy?

As we look up the history, there was generally three ways to enforce a country to switch the regime or to
change the policy, that are, by diplomacy pressure, by economic sanction and by military force.

Economic sanctions were increasingly imposed by the UN Security Council to prevent, manage or
resolve violent conflict. Compared with using military force economic sanctions are definitely running more
compatibility, as they are less expensive and low-risk way of showing concern. After the end of Cold War, the
Security Council has imposed comprehensive economic sanctions four times; partial sanctions six times;
targeted financial measures twice; and arms embargoes eleven times. Nevertheless in these many times of
implementing economic sanctions, there is rare a successful case.

Case 1: UN imposed comprehensive sanctions on the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY Govt) . Aimed at
halting the war Bosnia, UN freezes the FRY government’s financial assets, a ban on maritime and air traffic
and a ban on participation in international sporting and cultural events. FRY was indeed vulnerable to the
sanctions, although private citizen had substantial foreign-currency reserves to mitigate the initial effect of the
sanctions. However, UN and EU endorsed a peace plan for Bosnia and claimed to tighten the sanctions if the
plan was not accepted. The plan though initially agreed by Milosevic, the disagreements among the Western
allies made it without any changes. In FRY case, military action was at last coupled with more tightened
sanctions against the Bosnian Serbs to ended the Bosnian war. FRY case told us economic sanctions
combined with the threat of military force was the key to changing Milosevic’s behaviors that is to
achieve the goal. Yet different country has it own unique situation, different proper ways should be used.

Case 2: Sanctions are another case for some countries which depend on “specialized” trade, such as UNITA in
Angola and Sieraa Leone. Since UNITA guerrilla groups in UNITA was not engaged in normal trade, which they
had access to diamonds enabling it to keep its military campaign alive, sharpened the impact of sanctions
greatly. The same case is Sieraa, which cooperated with Libya to passé through the diamonds. Sanctions
again got little effect. These cases demonstrated that true ownership of assets can be concealed in many
ways, and therefore monitoring and enforcement mechanisms are essentials for a sound sanctions.

From the above cases, we see that using economic sanction alone to switch one’s country politics
never succeeded. Economic sanctions are more likely as a warning signal before using military force
then an authentic method. And some may argue that economic sanction would work if implemented
soundly. It may be the truth, however, when economic sanctions were carryied out comprehensively,
there would also be humanitarian problems or causing backfires.

The comprehensive sanctions against Iraq in 1990 in Iraq greatly deteriorated the economic life of the
country but the political environment didn’t change. Saddam remained in charge in Baghdad and sanctions
did not have the desired effect. But they backfired as hundreds of thousands of Iraqis, disproportionately
children, died as a result of lacking food and medicine. UN later adopted Oil for Food programme, however it
did not prevent the Iraqi population from suffering.

However sanctions do work in cases if imposed compatibly, just like the case of Libya, which Quaddafi
gave up the nuclear weapons scheme in 2003.

Case of Iran:

US-Iran Nuclear deal is a success story of sanctions to maintain world peace. Economic sanctions forced
Iran to talk to US and resolve the sensitive issue of nuclear enrichment.

Military force must always be the last resort to maintain world peace. And world peace should be the only
reason of using military force.
 APPROACHES TO PEACE

CONTENTS
Areas of thrust:
> Introduction and Definition of International law
> Role of International law in regulating the international affairs/inter-state relations
> Challenges to International law
> Definition of diplomacy
> Importance of Diplomacy in regulating inter-state relations and mitigating conflicts
>Tools of diplomacy/types of diplomacy
> How can peace be ensured in contemporary world
INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
REFERS NOTES

ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW IN REGULATING THE INTER-STATE RELATIONS/ REGULATING THE

INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS/IMPORTANCE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

IMPORTANCE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW ACCORDING TO SIR ARTHUR WATTS ( The role of law in
International Politics by Michael Byers)
COMPARISON OF STATE LAW VERSUS INTERNATIONAL LAW
Why is State law important? Why is International law not so important?
 It is an important element in the  All the factors, which make state
fabric of society law important are questionable
 Society assumes, correctly to a when it comes to international law
certain degree, that law generally
exist in practice
 Law is just and is important to
protect the interests of competing
parties of the society

ARGUMENTS PUT FORWARD BY DESCRIPTION

ARTHUR WATTS
Do States accept that an effective  Sir Arthur suggest that the will of states to
international legal system is an accept an effective international legal system is
important element in the fabric of not very resolute.
the international community  The idea of sovereignty appears to prevent
states from submitting to international law
 States that wield real international power do not
pay any heed to International law. For them,
their wish and action defines the law
 International law is much a nuisance for state as
its utility
 International Law enshrines rights and
obligations of states with respect to each other
 How Tolstoy views the idea of sovereignty in his
book War and Peace: It is now necessary to
renounce a freedom that does not exist, and to
recognize a dependence of which we are not
conscious
 States do acknowledge the importance of
effective international legal system but would
never relegate their interests to them. Interest
of the state is always supreme, and is above the
 canons of international law
 For International law to become an effective
legal organization or institution, it must be
supported by strong states
 " The international community prospers when
law and power are in partnership, not when they
are in conflict"--Sir Arthur
 Why should states endeavor to make
International law an effective institution:
1. To avoid anarchy--it is in no one's
interest
2. Globalization and its products such
as International trade and
commerce, international finance,
and international communications--
-all are crucial to the survival of the
state in 21st century . So a legal
framework is crucial to allow states
to conduct themselves.
 The occasional constraints and disadvantages of
the international legal system are
overwhelmingly outweighed by the advantages
which it confers on states
 International law, despite all the attempts to
make it perfect, is imperfect, uncertain, and un-
enforceable.
 "IF politics is the art of the possible then
international law is merely the art of the
plausible" --Dr Arthur

DOES AN EFFECTIVE  International law does exist.
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF LAW,  It regulates the international issues such as
INCORPORATING RULE OF LAW, IN territorial sovereignty, freedom of the high seas,
FACT EXIST? territorial waters, rights over aliens, and the
application of treaties
 " Globalization came upon states largely
unnoticed, and how that they have noticed, they
are finding that the traditional tools are no
longer appropriate for the Job....The
consequences of globalization cannot be
adequately regulated by reference to a legal
order which is based on sovereignty and
territory, the very concepts that are being
outmoded by that same globalization"--Dr
Arthur
 Resorting to force is not permitted---this is
accepted by every state( Though use of force for
 self-defense is permitted)
 " The relative weakness of the international
judicial system inevitably reduces the
effectiveness of international law and this its
importance as a regulator state behavior"-Sir
Arthur
Do the rules of international law  Existence of competing interests
represent a fair balance between at the international level is quite
the competing interests within the normal
international community?  World has witnessed
competition at various levels:
military, economic, and even
ideological
 International law ought to take
these competing interests into
account and find a way to
accommodate every entity,
while maintaining order.
 International law is therefore
dynamic and subject to change
with the overall balance of
competing interests in the
international arena

International law in and with International Politics by Onuma Yasauki

 International law is not law in the proper sense of the term but positive morality--John
Austin
FUNCTIONS/ DESCRIPTION
ROLES OF
INTERNATIONAL
LAW
 Binding  The raison detre of international law is to impose rights and obligations
Function of on states in their conduct with each other and other entities
law  Many Scholars have ignored the utility of the international law.
According to them, the role of international politics is confined to low
level politics such as economic cooperation, social development and the
like. While in the domain of high politics such as the use of force and
interventions, strong states hardly honor the canons of international law.
Nevertheless, importance of i law in regulating "low politics" issues, as Dr
Onuma calls it, is of immense importance in contemporary globalized
world as they have a great influence on "high political" issues
 International law is an attempt to bring the whole world together on one
page. It is an effort to make the interests of the state compatible with
each other and other international organizations, so that a system of fair
play and justice could be forged
  Henry Kissinger points out in his book, World Order, that world has
remained in a perpetual conflict between legitimacy and power.
International Law provides a medium that can reduce the gulf between
legitimacy and power.

Principles and Values embedded in International law

1) Exemplifies the rule of law rather than the rule of force
2) Demonstrates constructive management of conflict through peaceful settlement of
disputes within and among nations
3) Stand up for the protection of children and rights of future generations as heirs to the
future of humanity
4) Advocates peace and nonviolence
5) Encourages diversity and fellowship
6) Promotes respect for all, advocates equality and compassion
7) Fosters cooperation: International law governs and facilitates both the internal and
external affairs of a country .Deals with following problems
 Human welfare
 Health
 Transport
 Outer space
 Environment
 International travel
 Disaster relief
8) Upholds Human dignity through the principles of the UN Universal declaration of human
rights of 1948

How International law determines the behavior of nation states

 International law comprehensively deals with following entities:
1. Environment
2. Health
3. Industry
4. Postal service
5. transportation
6. occupational safety standards
7. Peace and security
 War has been outlawed by the UN charter except on the limited situation of self defense
and that too is regulated under strict limitations
 Security council is also authorized by the Un charter to direct the use of force to maintain
or restore international peace and security
 ENFORCEMENT MECHANISM
1. International law is devoid of comprehensive enforcement mechanism. The
International court of Justice( ICJ) can only arbitrate matters if states provide their
 consent
2. However, in a world that is increasingly becoming inter-dependant violations of
international law cannot go unpunished. Russian annexation of Crimea was
followed by grave economic sanctions and it also lost its membership of G8.
Similarly, Libya, North Korea, and Iran also succumbed under the pressure of
economic sanctions. So it can be argued that though world is devoid of
enforcement of international law mechanism, tools such as economic sanctions,
embargoes, and others are increasingly becoming important in enforcing
international law

Significance of International law in Global Governance

 Since the inception of modern international system, international law has undergone great
changes in its scope and enforcement
 Public international law has considerably extended its scope of application to areas that
were previously thought to be in the exclusive competence of states, such as the following:
1. International protection of human rights
2. international protection of core labour and social standards
3. Environment protection laws
4. Prosecution of the worst of crimes and the legitimacy of governments

Relevance of International law in present context

In this modern age the world has greatly shrunk as a result of scientific and technological developments drastically.
As a consequence events in one part of the world have an immediate impact on the rest of the world. For this we can
take an example of global economic or financial crisis which started in America and its impact was seen by the
whole world including India, China and many other developed and developing countries. It resulted in the collapse
of large financial institutions, the bailout of banks by national governments and downturns in stock markets around
the world.

Similarly there are other issues such as maintenance of peace, security and sovereignty of states, Environment
degradation, Terrorism, Piracy, Air and Space law, Law of seas, Airplane Hijacking, International trade and
commerce and disputes related thereto, Economic-Social and Cultural developments of states, promotion, protection
of Human Rights and International trade and business etc. These issues are global in nature and cannot be confined
to and solved within territorial or political boundaries. Therefore, States maintain regular relations with other states
because a modern State cannot lead an isolated life in the present context of world affairs. The more a State is
civilized and perfect in its organization, the greater and more familiar shall be its intercourse with other States. This
leads to that a Government of a State must not only conduct its internal affairs but also regulate its conduct towards
the Governments and citizens of other States.

The harmony in political ideas, art and literature, scientific discovery, the exchange of embassy for the purpose of
carrying on International intercourse and commerce all tends to knit States together in a social bond. Wendell
Willkie's conception of "One World" is no more a wishful thinking of a vain politician, but a hard reality and a plain
truth, which cannot be ignored. Normally the inhabitants of one country frequently visit the territory of another, and
no State can with any degree of practicability or effectiveness close its frontiers so as to prevent its citizens from
travelling abroad or to exclude foreigners from its own territory. The need of foreign trade further necessitates the
maintenance of relations with other States.

Just as men could not live together in a society without laws and customs to regulate their actions, so States could
not have mutual intercourse without usages and conventions to regulate their conduct. International Law impinges
on state sovereignty by creating new structures for regulating relations across international boundaries. International
Law and International Norms limits the state sovereignty in another way. They create principles for governing
international relations that compete with the core realist principles of sovereignty and anarchy. International Law
derives not from actions of any legislative branch or other central authority, but from traditions and agreements
signed by states. It also differs in the difficulty of enforcement, which depends not on the power and authority of
central government but on reciprocity, collective action and international norms.

Without International laws and customs, it is impossible for states to maintain relations on the basis of peace,
harmony and mutual co-operation. Rather, then the rule 'might is right' will prevail that would be destructive for the
global peace and humanity

The harmony in political ideas, art and literature, scientific discovery, the exchange of embassy for the purpose of
carrying on International intercourse and commerce all tends to knit States together in a social bond. Wendell
Willkie's conception of "One World" is no more a wishful thinking of a vain politician, but a hard reality and a plain
truth, which cannot be ignored. Normally the inhabitants of one country frequently visit the territory of another, and
no State can with any degree of practicability or effectiveness close its frontiers so as to prevent its citizens from
travelling abroad or to exclude foreigners from its own territory. The need of foreign trade further necessitates the
maintenance of relations with other States.

Just as men could not live together in a society without laws and customs to regulate their actions, so States could
not have mutual intercourse without usages and conventions to regulate their conduct. International Law impinges
on state sovereignty by creating new structures for regulating relations across international boundaries. International
Law and International Norms limits the state sovereignty in another way. They create principles for governing
international relations that compete with the core realist principles of sovereignty and anarchy. International Law
derives not from actions of any legislative branch or other central authority, but from traditions and agreements
signed by states. It also differs in the difficulty of enforcement, which depends not on the power and authority of
central government but on reciprocity, collective action and international norms.

Without International laws and customs, it is impossible for states to maintain relations on the basis of peace,
harmony and mutual co-operation. Rather, then the rule 'might is right' will prevail that would be destructive for the
global peace and humanity.

>WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL LAW?

Body of rules, norms, and standards that apply between sovereign states and other entities that are legally recognized
as international actors. The term international law was coined by the English philosopher Jeremy Bentham.
Important elements of international law include sovereignty, recognition (which allows a country to honour the
claims of another), consent (which allows for modifications in international agreements to fit the customs of a
country), freedom of the high seas, self-defense (which ensures that measures may be taken against illegal acts
committed against a sovereign country), freedom of commerce, and protection of nationals abroad.

In other words International law is the body of rules that governs the legal relations among international subjects.
Earlier states were the only subjects of international law but now the position has changed gradually and now
individuals, international organizations and non-state entities are also treated as subjects, which were earlier treated
as objects of international law.

International law can be divided into three distinct legal disciplines:

>Public international law:

>It governs the relationship between provinces and international entities, either as an individual or as a group.

>Branches of public international law

Consular law

Diplomatic law

International aviation law

International criminal law

International environmental law

International human rights law

International humanitarian law

International space law

International trade law

Law of state responsibility

The law pertaining to use of force

Law of the seas

Private international law or conflict of laws :

>This branch address the question of

>-in which legal jurisdiction may a case be heard, and

-the law concerning which jurisdiction apply to issues in the case.

The three branches of conflict of laws are

>Jurisdiction – whether the forum court has the power to resolve the dispute at hand

>Choice of law – the law which is being applied to resolve the dispute

>Foreign judgments – the ability to recognize and enforce a judgment from an external forum within the jurisdiction
of the adjudicating forum

>Supranational law:

This branch of international law is related to regional agreements where the special distinguishing quality is that
laws of nation states are held inapplicable when conflicting with a supranational law. For example-at present
European Union law is the only example of a supranational legal organization.

>There are also two traditional branches of the field are:

>Jus genetium or Laws of nations.

>Jus intergentes or agreements among nations.

>Sources of international law.

>Sources of International Law are the materials and processes out of which the rules and principles regulating the
international community developed. They have been influenced by a range of political and legal theories

Similarly Article 38(1) of the ICJ Statute enumerates the sources of international law and provides that international
law has its basis in international custom, international conventions or treaties, and general principles of law. A rule
must derive from one of these three sources in order to be considered international law.

>Article 38

>1. The Court, whose function is to decide in accordance with international law such disputes as are submitted to it,
shall apply:

>a. international conventions, whether general or particular, establishing rules expressly recognized by the
contesting states;

>b. international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law;

>c. the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations;

>d. subject to the provisions of Article 59, judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists
of the various nations, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law.

>2. This provision shall not prejudice the power of the Court to decide a case ex aequo et bono, if the parties agree
thereto.

>Article 59

>The decision of the Court has no binding force except between the parties and in respect of that particular case.

>The INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE (ICJ) was established in 1945 as the successor to the Permanent
International Court of Justice (PICJ), which was created in 1920 under the supervision of the LEAGUE OF
NATIONS (the precursor to the United Nations). The PICJ ceased to function during WORLD WAR II and was
officially dissolved in 1946. The ICJ is a permanent international court located in the Hague, Netherlands, and it is
the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (UN). It consists of 15 judges, each from a different state. The
judges are elected by the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council and must receive an absolute majority
from both in order to take office.

>The ICJ has jurisdiction only over states that have consented to it. It follows that the court cannot hear a dispute
between two or more state parties when one of the parties has not accepted its jurisdiction. This can happen even
where the non-consenting party adheres to the court's statute, for mere adherence to the statute does not imply
consent to its tribunals.

>Evolution of International Law

>Beginnings

>There was little scope for an international law in the ancient and medieval period, and its modern beginnings
coincide, therefore, with the rise of national states after the Middle Ages. Rules of maritime intercourse and rules
respecting diplomatic agents soon came into existence. At the beginning of the 17th century, the great number of
small independent states, which were finding international lawlessness intolerable, prepared the way for the
favourable reception given to the De jure belli ac pacis [concerning the law of war and peace] (1625) of Hugo
Grotius, the first broad formulation of international law. Though not formally accepted by any state, his thoughts and
observations were afterward regularly consulted, and they often served as a basis for reaching agreement in
international disputes. The most significant principle he gave was the notion of sovereignty and legal equality of all
states. Other important writers on international law were Bynkershoek, Martens, Wolff, and Vattel.
>Development to World War I

>The treaties concluded between the states contributed a lot to the growth of international law; these treaties include
the states of Western Europe, then the states of New World, and at last the states of Asia and other parts of the
world. The United States of America contributed much to the laws of neutrality and aided in securing recognition of
the doctrine of freedom of the seas. The provisions of international law were negelected in the Napoleonic period,
but the Congress of Vienna re-established and added much, particularly in respect to international rivers and the
classification and treatment of diplomatic agents. The Declaration of Paris abolished privateering, drew up rules of
contraband, and stipulated rules of blockade. The Geneva Convention (1864) provided for more humane treatment
of the wounded. The last quarter of the 19th century saw many international conventions related to prisoners of war,
communication, collision and salvage at sea, protection of migrating bird and sea life, and suppression of
prostitution. Recource to arbitration of disputes became more frequent. The law making conventions of the Hague
Conferences represent the chief development of international law before First World War. The Declaration of
London contained a convention of prize law, which, although not ratified, is usually followed. Similarly at the Pan-
American Congresses, many law making agreements effecting the Western countries have been signed.

Modern treaty law

>Treaties are agreements or contracts among states. They are agreements by which the parties intend to be bound. If
treaties are broken, their effectiveness is weakened because there is no assurance that future promises will be kept.
Hence there is a strong incentive for states or parties to take treaties very seriously.

>Modern nations engage in a two-step process for entering into treaties. The first one is signing the treaty. Being a
signatory to a treaty means that a country is willing to enter into an agreement. The second step is ratifying the
treaty. A country that has ratified a treaty has gone beyond merely willing to enter into the agreement, and the
country is now bound by it. This is a critical distinction, and sometimes a point of chaos. A country may be a
signatory to a treaty for many-many years without ever having ratified it.

>Each country ratifies treaties in its own way. The United States Of America, requires the two-third majority of the
Senate(the upper body of its legislature), for a treaty to be ratified; both the executive and the legislature must agree.
While in Canada, on the other hand, ratification is strictly an executive action, and no approval of legislature is
required before the country is bound by it.

>In this 21st Century treaties are interpreted according to the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties,1969. This
convention is so widely accepted that even nations that are not parties to the convention follow it. The most
important and sensible rule of this Convention is that a treaty should be interpreted literally and in the context of its
aim,purpose, and in good faith. It also makes treaty authors spell out what they are trying to accomplish, to make
interpretation easier, in a non-binding "preamble."

>In the modern age, international law is more important than ever. Even the most powerful countries of the world
rely thereon, seek to comply with it,and suffer consequences if they ignore it.

International law

International law governs relations between states. It provides the basis for peace and stability and aims to protect
and ensure the wellbeing of humankind.

Globalisation has not only increased the importance of international law but also the complexity of international
legal issues. Switzerland, which is not a major power politically or militarily, is committed to ensuring that
international relations are governed by law and not by force. For this reason, it takes an active part in the
development of international law. This is in fact one of the main objectives of Swiss foreign policy: to safeguard the
country’s interests.

>International law encompasses the various fields, including:

The prohibition of the use of force: States must resolve their differences by peaceful means.

Human rights: Every individual can demand certain fundamental rights (the right to life, freedom from bodily harm,
personal freedom, freedom of opinion and conscience, etc.).

The protection of individuals during wars and armed conflicts: International humanitarian law defines the rules of
war and especially those concerning the protection of civilians, the wounded and prisoners of war.

The fight against terrorism and other serious crimes: Efforts to deal with such threats can only be effective if they
are founded on international law.

Environment: The more universal the rules on protecting climate and preserving natural resources are, the more
efficient they are.

Trade and development: The Swiss economy earns every second franc abroad. A stable international order is an
essential prerequisite for achieving this.

Telecommunications: A telephone call abroad would be impossible without a body of international law.

Transport: International treaties are essential for ensuring the safety of international air and rail travel.

International law is binding on a state inasmuch as it agrees to comply with specific international obligations. This
condition is inherent in state sovereignty. In Switzerland, it is the two houses of the federal parliament and, through
the institution of the obligatory or optional referendum, the people who decide on whether or not to accept
international laws. For example, international treaties which affect national law are, like federal laws, subject to an
optional referendum.

>General international law

General international law applies to relations between all states and subjects of international law, such as
international organizations. It is universally binding. Its legal basis is normally international customary law and
multilateral agreements.

Unlike general international law, particular international law – which is based on bilateral agreements or regional
conventions – imposes obligations only on certain states or subjects of international law.

>As well as relations between states, modern international law also regulates:

>non-sovereign territories such as the oceans and outer space

>international organizations

>the rights and obligations of private individuals within individual states, for example with regard to human rights or
offences against international law.

>International humanitarian law

International humanitarian law applies in armed conflicts and seeks to restrict suffering and unnecessary damage. It
can be applied to all armed conflict, regardless of the legitimacy of the use of force or its cause.

International humanitarian law lays down particular obligations for the parties to the conflict:

The Four Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocols protect persons who are not participating in the hostilities
or who are no longer combatants. Civilians, prisoners and other vulnerable persons must not be mistreated and the
wounded must be cared for.

International humanitarian law restricts the means and methods of warfare. Most of the rules of international
humanitarian law are regulated in the First Additional Protocol of 1977, the Hague Convention of 1907 and in the
1980 Conventional Weapons Convention and its five protocols.

>Rules of international humanitarian law

>Civilians and civilian objects may not be attacked in any circumstances. At all times, parties to the conflict must
distinguish between “military targets” and civilians and civilian objects.

>Attacks on military targets are prohibited if they are likely to involve superfluous or unnecessary casualties among
the civilian population or excessive damage to civilian objects or the environment. When attacking, the parties to the
conflict must take all possible precautions to protect the civilian population and civilian property.

>It is prohibited to use civilians as protective shields.

It is prohibited to misuse the emblems of the Geneva Convention.

>Weapons that cause unnecessary suffering of severe damage to the environment are prohibited. This includes e.g.
biological and chemical weapons, anti-personnel mines and incendiary bombs and bullets.

>

>Application of humanitarian international law

>In the event of an armed conflict or occupation all parties to the conflict, whether states or non state armed groups,
must observe International Humanitarian Law:

>Armed conflicts between states (international armed conflicts) are subject to the rules set out in the four Geneva
Conventions, Additional Protocol I of 1977 and the Hague Convention of 1907.

>A more limited range of rules apply to armed conflicts restricted to the territory of a single state as laid down in
Article 3 common to the four Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol II of 1977.

>In addition, numerous rules of customary law apply in internal and international armed conflicts.

>War crimes

All individuals participating in armed conflict must comply with international humanitarian law. As a rule, severe
violations of humanitarian international law are war crimes. Examples of war crimes include:

>torture and inhumane treatment of captives

>rape

>attacks on the civilian population

>unlawful expulsion of the civilian population

>taking of hostages

>deployment of children as soldiers

>In the event of severe violations of the Geneva Conventions, every state has a duty

to prosecute the suspected perpetrators or

to hand them over to another state or an international criminal court for prosecution.

>Geneva Conventions

The four Geneva Conventions of 1949, the two Additional Protocols of 1977 and the Additional Protocol of 2005
form the core of international humanitarian law. Today, all the states in the world are bound by the four
Conventions.

The Geneva Conventions protect in particular persons who are not or no longer participating in hostilities: civilians
and persons taken captive in military conflict. Persons under the authority of an adverse party to a conflict are
entitled to respect for their life and for their physical and mental integrity.

>The Geneva Conventions and the Additional Protocols

Under the First and Second Geneva Conventions of 1949 the Contracting States undertake to protect the wounded,
sick and shipwrecked members of armed forces and medical personnel, ambulances and hospitals. They must be
collected and cared for by the party to the conflict which has them in its power.

The Third Geneva Convention contains detailed rules on the treatment of prisoners of war.

>The Fourth Geneva Convention protects civilian persons in the power of an adverse party or in an occupied
territory against acts of violence or reprisal.

The First Additional Protocol of 1977 supplemented the rules of the Fourth Geneva Convention on international
armed conflicts. In addition, it contains rules governing the conduct of hostilities, such as the prohibition on attacks
on civilian persons and civilian objects and limitations on the permissible means and methods governing the conduct
of hostilities.

The Second Additional Protocol of 1977 supplements the sole article of the Geneva Conventions also applicable to
non-international hostilities (Article 3, which is common to the four Geneva Conventions). In local hostilities, too, a
distinction must be made between military targets and protected civilian persons and objects.

In December 2005, a Diplomatic Conference convened by Switzerland adopted a Third Additional Protocol. It
adopted the red crystal as an additional emblem of protection. Since 14 January 2007, this emblem can be used
alongside the Red Cross and the Red Crescent already recognized by the Geneva Conventions to identify persons
and objects that enjoy special protection (the red lion and sun emblem is no longer used).

Today, the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the two Additional Protocols of 1977 are by and large regarded as
customary international law binding on all states and all parties to conflicts.

The term "international law" can refer to three distinct legal disciplines:

 Public international law, which governs the relationship between states and international entities. It
includes these legal fields: treaty law, law of sea, international criminal law, the laws of
war or international humanitarian law, international human rights law, and refugee law.[5]
 Private international law, or conflict of laws, which addresses the questions of (1) which jurisdiction
may hear a case, and (2) the law concerning which jurisdiction applies to the issues in the case.
 Supranational law or the law of supranational organizations, which concerns regional agreements
where the laws of nation states may be held inapplicable when conflicting with a supranational legal
system when that nation has a treaty obligation to a supranational collective.
 CHALLENGES/LIMITATIONS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
Assertion of Jack L Goldsmith, Law professor at Harvard University

 Main Argument of Jack L Goldsmith

1. The authors argue that international law is largely a product of states pursuing their
own interests on the international stage
2. Role of international law in international relations and American foreign policy has
received a great deal of attention since the end of the cold war
3. The end of cold war generated extraordinary optimism about the ability of
international law to prevent war, preserve peace, and regulate economic and
cultural relations among states
4. The UN security council became much more active and authorized the use of force
against Iraq in the first gulf war.
5. Nations entered new, ambitious treaties governing the environment, human rights,
and economic relations, including the creation of the World Trade Organization
6. These treaties created the first major international criminal tribunals since WW11,
including tribunals to resolve cases arising out of civil war in Yugoslavia and the
genocide in Rwanda.
7. The optimism ended with 9/11
8. Even before the 9/11, International law could not address the most pressing issues.
UN played a relatively minor role in bringing the conflicts on the Balkans to an end.
Members of the security council could not agree on the use of force in Kosovo, and
the NATO intervention was thus a violation of international law
9. The international criminal tribunals turned out to be cumbersome and expensive
institutions.
10. Aggressive international trade integration produced violent backlash in many
countries
11. Treaty mechanisms seemed too weak to solve the most serious global problems,
including environmental degradation and human rights abuses.

AMERICAN REUCTANCE ON TREATIES: Blow to the efficacy of international law

 USA, the most powerful country has been very reluctant in signing the treaties
 USA has ended up opposing the international Criminal Court
 It has refused to enter the Kyoto Global Climate change treaty
 It refused to enter a treaty that banned landmines
 It has refused to enter several human rights treaties
 It did the illegal intervention in Kosovo
 MATTERS TOOK A HORRIBLE TURN AFTER 9/11
1. USA's response to al-Qaeda and invasion of Iraq raised eyebrows over the
international law
2. USA's invasion of Iraq was in blatant violation of US charter
 3. Bush administration forcefully reiterated American opposition to the ICC and to
Kyoto, and withdrew from the ABM treaty with Russia
4. Many of US officials have shown skepticism about the value of international law
for American foreign policy

Relations between Self-interested States--The limits of international law

 States enter into treaties and honor international law only when they deem it in their
interest or when they consider it within the line of their national interest
 " International law is intrinsically weak and unstable, because states will comply with
international law only when they fear that noncompliance will result in retaliation or
other reputational injuries"--Goldsmith and Posner
 The problem with treaties is that they treat states as equals, when, in fact, they aren't.
 Treaties tend to limit state's freedom while states prefer free ride
 Many human rights treaties are generally not enforced, and so they have little effect on
states behavior.
 International trade system is mainly a framework in which bilateral enforcement occurs, so
powerful states may cooperate with other powerful states but not with weaker states,
whose remedies for trade violations are valueless.
 "What it does suggest, however, is that international law has no life of its own, has no
special normative authority; it is just the working out of relations among states, as they
deal with relatively discrete problems of international cooperation"-- Jack L Goldsmith

HOW JOHN BAYLIS VIEWS INTERNATIONAL LAW

 Four Characteristics of international law
1. states were the primary subjects of international law
2. States are primary agents of international law, the only actors empowered to
formulate, enact, and enforce international law
3. International law was concerned with the regulation of inter-state relations
4. Scope of international law was confined to questions of order not justice

 The principal objective of international law was the maintenance of peace and stability based
on mutual respect for each states territorial integrity and domestic jurisdiction
 International law is , however, spreading and expanding in its scope
 Individuals, groups, and organizations are increasingly becoming recognized subjects of
international law
 International law , in recent years, has become increasingly enforceable
 Development of the body of international human rights law has given individuals clear rights
under international law
 Individuals have been held accountable for their criminal actions. Perpetrators of Rwanda
genocide and Yugoslavia have been held accountable by the international criminal court
 Similarly, Augusto Pinochet, the former Chilean dictator, was arrested in London for his
crimes against humanity
 International law is increasingly concerned with global, not merely international, regulation.
 Because of these changes, it has been suggested that international law may be gradually
transforming into a system of supranational law
 THE LAWS OF WAR
 jus as bellum: Law governing when states may use force or wage war
 jus in bello: law governing the conduct of war once launched

DIPLOMACY
CONTENTS:
 Definition of diplomacy
 Importance of Diplomacy in regulating inter-state relations and mitigating conflicts
 Tools of diplomacy/types of diplomacy
NOTE: SEE REGISTER FOR NOTES

IMPORTANCE OF DIPLOMACY IN REGULATING INTER-STATE RELATIONS AND MITIGATING CONFLICTS

>>>CHANGE IN THE NATURE OF DIPLOMACY<<<<<
 " Diplomacy has become more global, complicates and fragmentary"--Brain White
 Emergence of new actors in the global arena has substantially changed the nature of diplomacy
 Refer Chart from the notes
 " Diplomacy, one of the last monopolies of a government, is now accessible to and performed
by nongovernmental organizations as well as individuals who have one main characteristic:
credibility"--Giandomenico Picco
 The change in the role of the state, effected by the rapidly changing international environment
and the involvement of new actors, has accompanied the change in diplomacy.
 Multilateral processes connected to security, economic. social, technological and other changed
influence the essence of modern diplomacy
 Contemporary diplomacy has become a transnational process of social relationship realized by
an enlarged diplomatic community
>>>THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN INFLUENCING DIPLOMACY<<<
 The use of advanced information technologies in modern communication has greatly
altered the character of diplomacy
 The free flow of information and the presence of assertive social media warrants faster
and effective diplomacy
 Moreover, the 21st century agenda requires experts in various fields:
1. energy issues,
2. environment,
3. finance,
4. economics,
 5. human rights,
6. health
7. Information and communication technology
8. Organized crime
9. Security issues and terrorism
 CHANGES IN DIPLOMACY POINTED OUT BY GRAHAM EVANS AND JEFFREY
NEWNHAM
1. Expanded diplomatic dialogue
2. Changes in emphasizes
3. Multilateral diplomacy
4. Large numbers of involved experts and specialists
5. Growing importance of mass media
6. Growing importance of international community
7. Growing importance of nongovernmental actors

ASSESSMENT OF USA'S DIPLOMACY

 USA has a pretty mixed account of its diplomacy.
 Where on one hand, it has showed its diplomatic strength and prowess, on the other hand, it
has miserably failed to uphold the values it has always stood for.
 DIPLOMATIC VICTORIES  DIPLOMATIC DISASTERS
 OSLO accord  Iraq war
 Gulf war against Iraq  Vietnam war
 German unification
 Bosnia
 Iran nuclear deal
 6 party talks with North Korea

 According to Ross, Diplomacy, contrary to the current misconception, is not about making
nice, exchanging happy talk, and offering concessions. It is the engine that converts raw
energy and tangible power into meaningful political results
 HOW CAN USA'S DIPLOMATIC FAILURES BE EXPLAINED
> " Condoleezza Rice warned against overestimating diplomacy's role in international
affairs, arguing that diplomacy is inextricably tied to underlying power dynamics and is not
particularly useful tool at the wrong historical moment or in the wrong strategic
environment"

Foreign policy is the extension of domestic policy. Thus goes a Marxist cliché

ROLE/SUCCESS/EFFICACY OF DIPLOMACY IN REGULATING INTER-STATE RELATION AND MITIGATING

CONFLICTS
 OUTLINE
1. Introduction
2. How far diplomacy has been successful in mitigating conflicts and ensuring peace
2.1 Triumph of Diplomacy
2.1.1 Concert of Europe: Metternich system; Vienna conference , the first multilateral
conference, peace in Europe for a century
2.1.2 Cold War: Economic system( Marshall plan, WTO, World Bank, IMF, Foreign loan,
Foreign Aid); establishment of security council and other multilateral organizations; Role of
these organizations in effecting peace and mitigating conflicts Indo-Pak Indus water treaty as
an example. NPT, Successful containment of USSR without major war or nuclear catastrophe,
Opening to china, Decolonization and other waves of self-determination.
2.1.3 Post Cold War: First Gulf war: Triumph of international law, Reunification of
Germany, Oslo accord, Bosnia agreement Dayton accord, Iran-Nuclear deal, 6 part talks with
North Korea
2.2 Failure of Diplomacy
2.2.1 Failure to solve Kashmir and Palestine issues, Afghanistan war, Iraq war, failure to
deter or prevent the annexation of Crimea by USSR
3 Conclusion
 REALISM

Contents
 Arguments of realism
 How relevant it is to contemporary global politics
 Application of realism in International Relations

-
 INTRODUCTION: The timeless wisdom of Realism
 Emerged in response to Idealist school of thought.
 Realists believed that idealists had an erroneous conception of global politics
 Inter-war approach of idealist scholars’ was flawed in many ways:
1) Ignorance of the role of power
2) Overestimated the degree to which human beings were rational
3) Mistakenly believed that Nation-states shared common interests
4) Overestimated the importance of humankind
 Pioneers of Realism
 Hans J Morgenthau
 Reinhold Niebuhr
 Their Assertion:
 Ubiquity of power
 Competitive nature of global politics
 Realism provides a path for maximizing the interests of the state in a hostile environment
 It also provides a way for peaceful co-existence of competing superpowers with different
ideologies
 It teaches to focus on interests rather than ideology—a principle to which USA has had adhered
to
 Realist line of thinking claim to have inspired from the works of following figures:
 Machiavelli
 Thomas Hobbes
 Jean-Jacques Rosseau
 Raison d’état( reason of the state) is the fundamental principle of international conduct,
according to Friedrich Meinecke
 States ought to attain power to survive in a perilous environment—a fundamental principle of
Realism
 According to Realists, universal moral principles have no relevance in global politics
 Three core elements of Realism:
1) Statism: States is the legitimate representative of the collective will of the people
2) Survival
3) Self-help: Each state actor is responsible for ensuring its own well-being
 Outside the borders of sovereign states, anarchy(Absence of central authority) exits
 To ensure survival and security, state ought to enhance its power capabilities
 Embarrassment of Realists:
 Peaceful conclusion of cold war
 Regional integration
 Humanitarian intervention
 Emergence of a security community
 Intra-state war or unrest
  Rise of non-state actors
 Realists believe that though the political conditions may have changed in the aftermath of the
end of cold war, world still operates according to the logic of realism

HOW REALISTS EXPLAIN INTRA-STATE WAR

 Post cold war era is dominated by intra-state conflicts
 Realists have traditionally not catered for conflicts of such nature
 However, realists have now come up with explanations of intra-state wars
 What causes intra-state war?

State loses its sovereign authority

State loses the legitimacy to rule

Breakdown of domestic order

(Anarchy)

Groups driven by varying interests would

vie for power and influence as a means to
ensure their security and survival (Barry
Posen’s security dilemma)

 Solutions suggested by realists:

 A liberal would suggest power-sharing and political pluralism as a remedy for intra-state war
 Realists, however, anarchy cannot be eliminated by power-sharing agreements.
 Realists argue that multi-ethnic states or political pluralism does not guarantee stability and
order in the longer run
 Homogeneous societies, according to realists, are less vulnerable to instability.
 HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF REALISM

CLASSICAL REALISM
 Assertion of Thucydides
 Power politics as a law of human behavior
 Human beings are driven by power and will to dominate
 Since human nature is such, the state, which is composed of group of people also behaves
the same way
 State, therefore, reflects the characteristics of the people
 Human nature explains why International Politics is about power politics( Hans J
Morgenthau endorses this)
 Hans J Morgenthau asserts that essential features of International Politics such as the
following:
1) Fear
2) Competition
3) War
These can be explained by human nature
  To sum up the argument of Thucydides and Hans J Morthengau
Human nature(Biological drives):

 Competitive
 Fear
 Insecure
 Driven by power and the will
to dominate

Power-seeking behavior of the state

MORGENTHAU AND REALISM---HIS SIX PRINCIPLES

1) Politics, like society in general, is governed by objective laws that have their roots in
human nature which is unchanging. Therefore, it is possible to develop a rational
theory that reflects these objective laws
2) Interest is defined in terms of power:
3) Though interest is defined as power and is universally valid, it is still subject to
change and assumes different meanings in different time and age
4) Universal moral principles cannot be applied to the actions of states
5) The moral laws that govern the universe are distinct for the morals of any one
nation
6) The difference between political realism and other schools is real and profound

 The second distinguishing characteristic of classical realism is that it unequivocally

distinguishes power with ethics, with former having no relation with the latter
 Thucydides and Machiavelli emphasized on the amorality of the statesman.

Structural Realism
 Structural realists differ from classical realism in following way:
 Human Nature has nothing to do with the power politics of International affairs
 Lack of overarching authority over states and relative distribution of power in the
international system can be accounted for security competition and inter-state conflict
 Structure of international system according to Kenneth Waltz:
1) Organizing principle
2) Differentiation of units
3) Distribution of capabilities
Structure of International System Description
1) Organizing principle  Anarchy: Decentralized realm of
international politics
  Hierarchy: Basis of domestic order

2) Differentiation of units  State is the fundamental unit of

international politics
 This parameter is however not
relevant in explaining the
international outcomes
3) Distribution of capabilities  The most important component of
international system
 Distribution of capabilities across
units is the key determinant of
international outcomes:
1) War
2) Peace
3) Alliance Politics
4) Balance of power
 Impact of international
distribution of power on the
behaviors of the states
 “because power is a possibly
useful means, sensible
statesmen try to have an
appropriate amount of it”—
Kenneth waltz
 It has a great impact on states’
power-seeking behavior
 The great powers have to be
sensitive to the capabilities of
other states
 States are pre-occupied by
security concerns and not
power

 John Mearsheimer’s theory of offensive realism

 Defensive realism(Waltz structural realist theory) differs with offensive realism in one way:
The question of how much power a state wants
 Mearsheimer believes that the structure of the international system compels states to
maximize their relative power position
 Since states are skeptical of other states, they remain in a perpetual quest for attaining power
 He further asserts that the best way to achieve peace is by maximizing power and that the
ultimate goal of all states is to achieve a hegemonic position in the international system

The Core of Realism

Statism  State is the main actor
 Sovereignty is the distinguishing trait of
 a state
 “The monopoly of the legitimate use of
physical force within a given territory”-
Max Weber
 People surrender their freedom to the
state, which in turns makes laws for
them and provides security( Hobbes)
 Security is the pre-requisite of a society
 Security-Organization of power
domestically-Beginning of
communityAccumulation of power
internationally
 Though the states are internally
organized in hierarchy and there is order
and security . Externally, inter-state
relation lacks order
 Sovereignty is missing altogether from
the international realm
 Owing to anarchy, states are in a
perpetual quest for attaining power
 Anarchy results in continuous
competition between the states for
power and security
 This competition also overruns the basic
features of international system based
on the idea of nation-states, such as
non-intervention. The invasion of Iraq
and Afghanistan by USA is a pertinent
example in this regard
 Morhenthau’s definition of power: “
Man’s control over the minds and
actions of other men”
 Idea of power as explained by realists:
 Relational power( Exercise of power
in relation to another entity)
 Relative power( Powers of other
states)
 Idea of power as explained by structural
realists
 Their focus is on capabilities rather
than power
 Capabilities can be gauged by
measuring strength in following
areas:
1) Size of Population and territory
2) Resource endowment
3) Economic capability
 4) Military strength
5) Political stability and
competence
 So state’s ability to control or
influence environment in its favor is
an adequate way to gauge its
capabilities/power
 Criticism:
 Realists total emphasis is on state power
 They believe that state is the permanent
force and would to continue to wield
power for ever
 However, it does not takes the power of
international organizations and other
non-state actors in to account
 So state-centric assumption of realism is
subject to further debate
Survival  All realists have a consensus on one
thing: Survival is the key driver of states
and it’s the precondition for attaining all
other goals
 “Beyond the survival motive, the aims of
states may be endlessly varied”—
Kenneth waltz
 “ A nation’s survival is its first and
ultimate responsibility, it cannot be
compromised or put to risk”—Henry
Kissinger
 Realism provides an alternate code for
state leaders, which is guided by interest
and ethic of responsibility; and this
normally transcends the universal
conception of morality

Self-help  Kenneth Waltz in his book, Theory of

International Politics, asserts that
international system is in a perpetual
state of anarchy, i.e. the absence of
centralized authority over states
 Security can, therefore, be analyzed in
self-help system
 “Self-help is necessarily the principle of
action”—Kenneth Waltz
 The self-help system inadvertently gives
rise to the phenomenon of balance of
power. States strive for achieving
security which conversely fuels
 insecurity among other states. Hence in
order to achieve parity and avert any
possible aggression, states strive for
achieving balance of power.
 “In the self-help system of international
politics, the logic of self-interest
mitigates against the provision of
collective goods, such as “security” or
“free trade”
 Cooperation is quite difficult to achieve
in self-help system
 Relative gain and self-interest always
transcends cooperation and common
good

CRITICISMS OF REALISM
 Realism is lopsided and stresses solely on power and power struggle
 “ Neither realistic not consistent with itself”—Stanley Hoffman
 “ Realist theory has ignored the impact of values on national policy”—Quincy Wright
 “ inconsistent both with itself and reality”—Robert Tucker
 “Over 90% of the 7000 realist hypotheses were falsifies”—Ghosh
CRITICISMS/SHORTCOMINGS DESCRIPTIONS
1) Neither fully  Morgenthau has not employed empirical evidence
empirical and nor to support his claims
fully logical  His several generalizations, like, “nations, like man,
always seek power and domination over others”
is taken for granted and no evidence has been
presented to back this

2) A Partial Approach  Morgenthau defines politics as a struggle for

power generated by conflict of interest
 In claiming this, he has totally ignored that other
factors such as cooperation are also at play in
International Relations
 So his view of IR is unidirectional/ partial
3) Unscientific  Influenced by Hobbes and Machiavelli,
Morgenthau asserts that State behavior is derived
from human nature
 Though there are several explanations of human
nature but still its exact scope and definition has
not been scientifically verified
  So in absence of existing evidence, one cannot say
that state behavior reflects human nature
4) Guilty of Power  Undue importance to National interest defined in
Monism—Lack of terms of power
appreciation for the  National interest and national power, though
true nature of IR important features of IR, are not the sole
determinants of the complex International
relations
5) Difficult to evaluate  Evaluation of national power is an uphill task
national power and  Exact definition of national power does not exist
national interest 1) National power is a multi-faceted term and
includes following features
1) Economy
2) Military
3) Geography
 So the national power is the amalgamation of
these aforementioned features and hence it is
difficult to analyze it
 Factual assessment of National Interest is
difficult
 Security undoubtedly is the vital part of the
national interest of every nation but what
constitutes national interest is something that
demands further deliberation and analysis
 Example: Nuclear weapons are both a potential
threat and instrument of peace. Paradoxically,
nuclear weapons have inspired deterrence and
made world a more secure place.
 So the exact evaluation of national interest has
different meanings in different time and age
 Morgenthau himself has accepted the
dynamic nature of national interest
 National interest is dynamic
 For example, in the cold war era, expansionist
policy amounted soviet’s national interest.
However, after its subsequent disintegration and
the end of war, internal restructuring and
consolidation became the prime national interest.
 So national interest is dynamic and subject to
change.
6) Involves a  Morgenthau describes struggle of power as the
justification of war quintessential reality of International Politics
 And in doing so, he justifies war. Since struggle of
power is natural, war is its inevitable outcome
 History, however, does not support it in its entirety.
 After every great war, world has tried to mitigate
the struggle of power and has endeavored to forge
 a collective security framework, formation of
League of Nation and United Nation serve as the
example in this regard
7) Flawed conception of  Man is portrayed as selfish and devoid of
man and morality compassion---features that then manifest in the
behaviors of the state
 Post ww11 saw an ideological contest, guided by a
specific ethic, between USA and USSR.
 Had ethic or ideology not been the concern of the
state, cold war would not have happened.
 Moreover, to claim that International politics is
devoid of morality is completely erroneous.
 Contemporary global affairs are to an increasing
degree regulated by international law and public
opinion.
 Pakistan’s refusal to become a party in Yemen
conflict was the result of intense public opposition.
Similarly, USA’s interventionist policy in the first
decade of 21st century had to be revoked on
account of staunch public opposition( guided by
both morality and interest)
 Moreover, negative features of human nature have
been unduly highlighted while suppressing the
positive features such as compassion, care and
love.
8) Non-state actors  State is considered to be the primary actor in
International relations
 Importance of non-state actors such as United
Nations, World Trade organization and other terror
groups such as Al-qaedah Taliban and ISIS has been
totally ignored
 Contemporary global affairs are directly influenced
by the actions of non-state actors.
 Example: Al-Qaedah’s attack on USA, LET attack on
Mumbai, trade regulation by WTO
9) Total ignorance of  Ideology of the state has been totally ignored by
regime type him
 Since ww11, owing to decolonization and the
subsequent demise of communism, democracy
and liberal ideas have spread.
 And this has had a great impact on the occurrence
of war.
 Wars have now become less frequent and world
has witnessed more peace treaties and pacts than
ever.
 So it can be argued that regime type, backed by a
certain ideology or political ethic, has a profound
 impact on the behavior of the state.
 Example: Fascist Germany versus democratic
Germany, North Korea versus South Korea

SUMMARY
1) Basic assumptions of Realism
 The international system is anarchic
 Sovereign states are the principal actors in the international system
 States re rational unitary actors each acting under the consideration of its own national
interest
 National security and survival are the primary ‘national interest’ of each state
 In pursuit of national security, states strive to increase national power
 National power and capabilities determine the relation among states
 National interest, defined in terms of national power, guides the action of the states in IR
 Liberalism

Table of contents:
 Definition
 Features
 comparison

INTRODUCTION
 The liberal tradition in political thought goes back at least as far as the thinking of John Locke
in the late 17th century
 “International affairs have been the nemesis of liberalism” –Stanley Hoffmann
 Though Realism is the dominant theory of IR, Liberalism too had its share in defining some
phases of 20th century history
 Interwar period was dominated by idealism
 Formation of UNO was again a vindication of idealism but this was short lived, as the realist
forces overwhelmed the idealist one and the world again descended in to a conflict, which was
cold war.
 After the end of cold war in 1990 and the subsequent emergence of New World Order (NWO),
liberal forces again appeared to dominate, but, as time and again in history, it did not live for
long.
 After 9/11, realist forces again began to assert themselves.
 The ideas, which liberals seek to diffuse:
1) Order
2) Liberty
3) Justice
4) Toleration
 “ The essence of liberalism is self-restraint, moderation, compromise and peace whereas the
essence of international politics is exactly the opposite: troubled peace, at best, or the state of
war”—Stanley Hoffman
Four dimensions of liberalism
The four dimensions o liberalism:
 All citizens are juridically equal and possess certain basic rights( Juridical equality)
 The legislative assembly exercises power that has been invested in it by the people.
And that, in no way, allows it to encroach upon the basic rights of people(Democracy)
 Right to own property(Liberty)
 Most effective system of economic exchange is one that is largely market driven(Free
market)

How liberals explain the causes of war

Levels of Public figure Causes of conflict Determinants of peace
analysis
 Human Richard  Interventions by  Liberty
nature Cobden the governments  Free trade
disturb the  Prosperity
natural order  Interdependence
The state Woodrow  Undemocratic  National self-
Wilson nature of determination
international  Open governments
politics, especially  Responsive to public
foreign policy and opinion
the balance of  Collective security
power
The structure J.A Hobson The balance of  A world
of the system power system government, with
powers to mediate
and enforce
decisions

 TWO SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN LIBERALISM:

 Interventionist foreign policies  Non-interventionist policies
 Equality  Liberty
 CORE IDEAS IN LIBERAL THINKING ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Pioneers:
 Immanuel Kant and Jeremy Bentham
Assertion:
 Reason could deliver freedom and justice in IR
 The way one could achieve perpetual peace was through following:
1) transformation of individual consciousness,
2) republican constitutionalism
3) federal contract between states to abolish war
 Liberal states are pacific in nature
 “The two elements of the Kantian legacy: restraint among liberal states and ‘international
imprudence’ in relations with non-liberal states. For this very reason, liberal states have created
separate peace”—Michael Doyle
 “ Democratic states don’t fight with each other because they are the true representatives of
masses and masses don’t want war”—Immanuel Kant’s concept of perpetual peace

Alternate explanation to this democratic peace thesis:

 Liberal states tend to be wealthy and therefore

have less to gain(and more to lose) by engaging in
conflicts than poorer authoritarian states

 The end of history, written by Francis Fukuyama, celebrated the triumph of liberalism over all
other ideologies. He contended that liberal states were more stable internally and more peaceful
in their international relations

SALIENT FEATURES DESCRIPTION

Domestic structure  “ Democratic states don’t fight with each other because
they are the true representatives of masses and masses
don’t want war”—Immanuel Kant’s concept of
perpetual peace
 Dearth of democracy fueled ww1
 “ Establish a common tribunal and the necessity for war
no longer follows from a difference of opinion”—
Jeremy Bentham
Free trade  Cobden’s belief that free trade would bring about
sustainable global peace since it imparts socio-economic
benefits for everyone( Though history proved him
wrong, free trade only enriched the hegemonic power of
19th century: Britain)
Harmony of  The essential feature of idealism, which stresses upon
interest/inter- the natural harmony of interest between humans and by
dependency theory extension state, also came under radar.
 Idealism believes since harmony of interest is a natural
condition, world by default ought to remain in peace.
 Empirical evidence, however, does not support this
assertion.
 The fact that The great Britain and Germany had highly
interdependent economies pre WW1 and yet it could
not prevent them from descending into the great war
suggest that the importance of Harmony of interest or
Inter-dependency in maintaining global peace was highly
exaggerated.
Collective security system  “Peace and prosperity required ‘consciously devised
machinery’ “—Leonard Woolf
 “Collective security refers to an arrangement where
each state in the system accepts that the security of
one is the concern of all, and agrees to join in a
collective response to aggression( Roberts and
Kingsbury)—This system is stark with the “Alliance
system” where a number of states join together in
response to a threat
 Article 16 of the League of nations envisioned the
participation of all the states in deterring the aggressor
state in an event of war, a notion central to the collective
security system
 Woodrow Wilson, however, was the staunchest and
famous advocate of an international authority for the
management of international relations.
 “A general association of nations must be formed to
preserve the coming peace”—Woodrow Wilson
 The idea behind collective security was central to the
league of nations”
 He believed that peace could only be secured with the
creation of an international organization with a mandate
of regulating international anarchy( Domestic analogy:
Just as police, judiciary and other strands of the state
have a role in maintaining order and deterring anarchy,
an international organization would assume a similar
role on the global scale)

Self-Determination  It was another feature of idealist thinking.

 Self-determination seeks to take the aspirations of the
people at large in to account, which then suppresses
anger and dissent, ultimately contributing in maintaining
peace and order.
 19th century self-determination movements in Greece,
Hungary and other parts of Europe received massive
support from all quarters; and it did contribute in
maintaining peace in Europe.
  ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH SELF-DETERMINATION
 Issue of minorities
 To what extent self-determination would answer the
questions pertaining to identity
 And what would be the degree of freedom of self-
determination( It should not be forgotten that Nazism
received mass support from the people of Germany)
Characteristics of State  Capitalist
 Democratic
 State must be constitutional
 Rule of law
 Liberty of the individual must be guaranteed
International law  International Law is imperative in regulating the inter-
state relation.
 “ Idealists seek to apply liberal thinking in domestic
politics to International Relations, in other words,
institutionalize the rule of law”—Time Dume
Optimistic nature of  Human beings are rational beings, highly adaptable,
Human being peaceful, and optimistic.( John Locke)

Other notable theorist:

 David Mitrany: He was a pioneer integration theorist. He argued that transnational cooperation
was required in order to resolve common problems. His core concept was ramification, meaning
the likelihood that cooperation in one sector would lead governments to extend the range of
collaboration across other sectors
CRITCISM ON IDEALISM
Main Points Description
 Free trade  Idealism advocates free trade and it believes that free
trade is the panacea of prosperity and ensures
economic benefits for all.
 Practically, this assertion has proved to be erroneous.
Free Trade and all the concepts associated with liberal
economy have benefited global North more than the
Global south
 Moreover, it has induced severe economic inequalities.
According to UN, “80% of the wealth of the world is
concentrated in the hands of the 20% of the
population, mostly residing in west. While the rest of
the 80% of the global population possess only 20% of
the economic wealth”

 Utopian inclination  Hobbes and other proponents of liberal theory
exaggerate the optimistic, positive and pacifist nature
of human beings.
 It also ignores the selfish and self-centered aspect of
human nature, which has a great affect on its behavior
 It also exaggerates rational aspect of human beings.
 Human beings, undoubtedly, have been afforded with
the ability to reason and think rationally. But that does
not mean that human beings are devoid of subjectivity
or prejudices.
 Real elements of  Global Politics revolves around power. Economics,
power have been military, media and other elements of soft power are
ignored just the means through which states pursue power.
 And in the pursuit of power, states inevitably take a
collision course. So, as suggested by realist line of
thinking, conflict of interest is a permanent and
existential component of world politics. (
 This ideas has been highlighted by Timothy Luke

Globalization and Liberalism---Challenges, Limitations and relevance in contemporary Era

Limitations/Challenges/relevance Description
1) Unresponsive nature of  Contemporary order that is inspired by liberal line of
current order to the thinking is predominantly unresponsive to the needs and
needs of weaker states problems of the weaker states.( John Baylis,
Globalization of World Politics)
 It can be arguably said that this order has yielded more
benefit to the global North than the global South
 According to United Nations Development Programme,
“The resulting global inequality is grotesque. The
richest 20% of the world’s population holds 3-4 of the
income, the poorest 20% receive only 1.5%”
2) Limitations of the  International law, as time and again experienced, is
International law largely at the mercy of United States.
 United States has cared little of the norms it so firmly
seeks to implement when its interests are in danger.
 The invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan are the prime
examples.
3) Liberalism is prone to  Michael Doyle argues that potential for liberalism to
imperialism embrace imperialism is a tendency that has a long history
 Liberalism and interventionist policies to implement it
can pave way for Imperialism.
 “ …The line between interventionist strategies to defend
liberal values and privileges and imperialism is very finely
drawn”—John Baylis
 Michael Doyle advocates a policy mix of forcible and
non-forcible instruments that ought to be deployed in
seeking regime change in illiberal parts of the world
4) Curtailing state’s  Increased involvement of western countries in the
accountability to local development of developing states’ political and
 constituencies economic infrastructure has curtailed the accountability
of these states to their local constituencies.
 This has compromised the main feature of liberalism
which is democracy and representative government
5) State’s role in managing  In order to qualify for the western aid and loan packages,
economic affairs and states are often required to meet extreme economic
other welfare projects criteria.
has considerably lowered  That interferes with their ability to introduce welfare
economic policies.
 Greek economic crisis can be understood in the backdrop
of this idea.
 In Africa, as a result of this, many children have been
forced to pay for their education from their own pockets,
compromising their basic right to education as enshrined
in Universal Declaration of Human rights
6) Inflexible and inadequate  Global economy has had experienced various crises.
response of Global Great depression of 1929 and global financial crisis of
financial institutions 2008 being the prime examples.
 It has underscored two basic inherent weaknesses in the
financial system: One, it is highly vulnerable, and two,
global financial institutions are not totally apt at dealing
with such crises.
 Richard falk explain this dilemma in following words, “
Ethical imperatives of the global neighborhoods and the
dynamics of economic globalization”
7) Democratic deficit at the  Issues of international peace and security are
global level determined by only 15 members of international society,
of whom only 5 can exercise veto power
 This underscores a very undemocratic nature of
international governance, despite being perceived on the
contrary.
 Writers such as Daniella Archbugi, David Held, Mary
Kaldor, and Jan Aart Scholte believe that global politics
must be democratized
 David held believes that though worlds has witnessed a
great wave of democracy sweeping all over the world,
the society of states, unfortunately, remained deprived
of it.
 He proposes cosmopolitan model of democracy:
1) This calls for the creation of regional parliaments
2) Human rights conventions must be entrenched in
national parliaments and monitored by a new
international court of human rights
3) Reforms or replacement of UN with a genuine
democratic global parliament
 International Political Security
CONTENTS
1) Foreign Policy its definition and the factors that influence foreign policy of a state in
21st century
2) How can state power can be gauged/ what constitutes state power
3) Balance of power, its definition and idea. Its manifestations in the pre- new world
order era and relevance in contemporary settings
4) Balance of terror, its definition and relevance in nuclear age( do it in nuclear
proliferation)
5) National interest and how can it be protected and pursued in 21 st century
 FOREIGN POLICY: DEFINITON,OBJECTIVES, AND ITS DETERMINANTS

DEFINITIONS
 “The policy followed by a country when dealing with other countries”—Oxford dictionary of
politics
 “ A course of action or set of principles adopted by nations government to define its relations
with other countries”—Encyclopedia of social sciences
 “ Country’s foreign policy set for its position in national”—Hans J Morgenthau
 “A country’s foreign policy may reflect broad national interaction or represent a narrow and
specific response on particular issues”—Henry Kissinger
 “Foreign policy is nothing but a tool to articulate objectives best defined in terms of national
interest”—John Baylis
 “Foreign policy consists of courses of actions which a state generally undertakes to realize its
national objectives beyond the limits of its own jurisdiction”—Padelford and Lincoln
 James Rosenau considers foreign policy as a “bridging discipline”
 “The foreign policy of a country is in a sense a projection of its internal policies ,social,
political and economic.”
(F. M. Muhammad Ayub Khan)

OBJECTIVES OF FOREIGN POLICY

OUTLINE
1) Short range objectives
1.1) Self Preservation
1.2) NIST
2) Middle Range Objectives
2.1) Interaction with other states
2.2) Prestige of state
2.3) Self extension
3) Long Range objectives
 Objective of foreign policy
 For states, national interest is the most important thing
Padelford and Lincoln have identifies four basic aims:
 National security
 Economic advancement
 Safeguarding or augmenting national powering to other states
 International prestige
OBJECTIVES DESCRIPTION
 Short range objectives  Self Preservation
 “ Primary goal of any state is self-
preservation”—George Andrew
Maclean
 Since International system is
 anarchic, self-preservation becomes
the prime objective of a state
 NIST
 They are specific inter-state
engagements that seek economic or
military agreement with a country
 For France , Rhine valley was NIST
 For Indo-Pak, Kashmir and sir creek
is NIST
 Middle Range Objectives  Interaction with other states:
 International system is anarchic. It
warrants interaction with other
states in matters of security and
economics.
 State, especially in this era of
globalization and free information,
cannot survive without
constructively engaging with other
states
 “Policy of isolation” as some
countries such as Japan and China
had maintained in the past is simply
not practical in contemporary
settings.
 Prestige of State in International
System:
 Prestige of a state was linked its
military might in the past
 Now days, economic might is used
to gauge prestige of a state.
 So in order to enhance this, state
ought to trade with other countries
and develop economic linkages
 Self-Extension:
 It is also known as imperialism in
Foreign policy


 Long term Objectives  Objectives which take a long time to
materialize such a:
1) Global harmony
2) War on terror
3) War against poverty
4) International economic order

DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN POLICY

 1) Internal factors:
 National character
 Size and population
 Culture and history
 Economic development
 Technology
 Political stability
 Ideology
 Political leadership/Political organization
 National capability
 Public mood and opinion and the role of press
 Geography
2) External Factors:
 Power structure
 Global organization
 Alliances

INTERNAL FACTORS DESCRIPTION

1) Geography  Features of geography
 Fertility
 Climate
 Location
 Water ways
 Land masses
 Among these location is a very important feature. Landlocked
country is normally considered a disadvantageous location than a
country which has access to warm water. The insularity of Great
Britain and the isolated position of USA have greatly affected the
foreign policy decisions of those states
 Climate also plays a crucial role in shaping foreign policy since it
basically determines the socio-economic activity of the country.
Agriculture and even industry in large part is directly influenced by
climate. For example, Rubber, a material of great importance, is
indigenous to south East Asia because of its hot, humid climate.
And thus it has a lion’s share in South East Asia’s exports. So
domestic economy and social activity is directly influenced by
climate; and which then helps shape foreign policy
 Topography: Another important feature. It has a great influence on
the issues pertaining to security and communication, which then
directly influence two crucial strands of foreign policy: defense and
trade. Mountains, deserts, hilly slopes and rivers affect the
communication and also the matters related to defense. For
example, mountains act as natural barrier while rivers and deserts
make the inter-state communication system difficult.
 Natural Resources: It improves the bargaining capacity of a state
internationally. Great reserves of oil by Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries(OPEC) have enabled them to wield great geo-
 political influence. Oil embargo by the OPEC countries to USA, in
the wake of Arab-Israel war, is one event which can be quoted in
this regard. Similarly, Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014 did not
affect its economic linkages with Europe, even in the face of great
economic sanctions sponsored by USA. The reason why Russia-EU
economic linkages weren’t affected can be attributed to the
dependence of EU on Russia for fulfilling its energy demands. So
natural resources, especially the crucial ones like oil and gas, have a
great influence on foreign policy.
 A country, which is located at the cross roads of intense economic
activity wields great geo-political influence. Pakistan being the
prime example. Pakistan provides central Asian countries and china
with the most feasible access to warm waters. Moreover, it is also
close to energy rich countries such as Iran and gulf states
2) Culture and  Cultural, history and ideology are another important determinants
History & of foreign policy
Ideology  Cultural homogeneity enables statesmen to make coherent and
clear policies while un-homogeneity requires statesmen to craft
foreign policies accordingly
 Furthermore, Ideology is also important in crafting FP. States whose
foundation rests on ideology cannot pursue foreign policies which it
deems against the spirit of country’s ideological foundations. For
example, USA though has a tradition of cooperating and supporting
undemocratic regimes for its interests, cannot support or develop
socio-economic linkages with anti-democratic forces since it is
contrary to its ideological foundation: liberalism and freedom.
 Ideological dispute between USSR and USA in the cold war era.
 Ideology, however, never takes precedence over tangible,
geopolitical consideration. Henry Kissinger, former secretary of
state writes in his book, World Order, “Geopolitical considerations
always override ideology”.
3) Economic  “American Idealism and exceptionalism were the driving forces
development behind the building of a new international order”—Henry
Kissinger
 The nature and extent of economic development also determine
the foreign policy of a state
 An industrial country needs to develop economic linkages with
LEDC in order to import raw materials and vice-versa
 Moreover, a country which has high gross national product(GNP)
can devote greater funds for external purpose, economic aid
programme, military ventures and extensive diplomatic
commitments e.g. European states and America
 USA, on accounts of maintaining a high degree of economic
development, pursued a more vigorous foreign policy. It exploited
its use of foreign aid as an instrument for the promotion of its
foreign policy goals
 The developing world to a great extent is dependent on developed
countries for capital, technology and military research
  On the other hands, LEDC and other economically backward
countries cannot influence or play an active role in global politics
 Decline of Russia’s economic power has considerably undermined
her political role in the International arena.
4) Technology  “Technological changes can alter the military and economic
capabilities of a society and thus its status and role in the
international system”—Roseau
 The dominant role which countries like France, China, Germany and
Japan have been able to play in recent years is largely due to
excellent technological developments in these countries
5) National  National capacity of the state is determined by following factors:
capacity 1) Military might
2) Economic prowess
3) Technology
4) Geopolitical influence
 Foreign policy of the Great Britain and USA altered with due course
of time vis-à-vis their economic standing. USA’s role post 1945 in
the global politics was accompanied with the decreasing role of
Britain in world affairs. This change was largely brought about by
the rising national capacity of the former and highly diminished
national capacity of the latter. ( France’s example in the interwar
period can also be given)
6) Public mood  Emergence of social media and electronic media has made public
and opinion a key influencer of Foreign policy( this is only applicable in
opinion/Press democratic regimes)
 Example:
 USA’s reluctance to put boots on ground after the disastrous
experience of Iran and Afghanistan war, accompanied by
extreme public opposition. ( * Syrian chemical weapons
dilemma; rise of ISIS)
 Public outrage against Vietnam war forced USA to pull out
 Pakistan’s position on Yemen crisis was highly influenced by
public opinion
7) Political  Authoritarian regimes versus Democratic regimes ;
Organization Parliamentary( Equilibrium between the state institutions)
versus Presidential ( Balance between congress and executive)
 Power distribution within a state also influences foreign policy
 Example: Pakistan army’s enjoy precedence over civilian
institutions, especially in matters which concern national
security. So major foreign policy decisions are normally taken by
the military.

EXTERNAL DETERMINANTS DESCRIPTION

1) International Regimes  Organizations and institutions that have been tasked
and Organizations with the responsibility to regulate economic, financial
and security matters influence the way states formulate
 their policy.
 States have to take international law, international
treaties, pacts, trading blocs and various organizations
into account before crafting foreign policy.
 For example, WTO sponsors free trade. States then
formulate their policies vis-à-vis other states in due
regard to this. Similarly, International law
comprehensively regulates inter-state relation. And
states formulate their responsibility by remaining
within its ambit.
2) World Public Opinion  Global opinion on matters pertaining to human rights,
liberty and environment also influence state’s foreign
policy
3) Foreign Policies of  It goes without saying that FP of other states makes a
other states great impression on a state’s policy.
 Foreign policy of states does contain some traces of
reaction.
 For example, Foreign Policy of USA towards Pakistan
has taken a sharp turn in the wake of US withdrawal
from Afghanistan. USA has shown desire to consolidate
and strengthen its relations with India, which it deems
as its natural partner. Pakistan, in reaction to this, has
consolidated its perennial friendship with China and has
extended greater military and economic cooperation
with Russia and other central Asian countries

ROLE OF ECONOMY, TRADE IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS OR ECONOMICS AS AN INSTRUMENT OF

FOREIGN POLICY--CRITICAL APPRAISAL ---------NOTE; DONE SEPARATEY
 Economic tools that are employed to pursue Foreign Policy objectives:
1) Foreign Direct Investment
2) Trade
3) Economic Sanctions
4) Foreign Aid -----SEE NOTES

What constitutes state power or how state power can be gauged

 “Know the enemy and know yourself”—Sun Tzu
 Idea put forward by Robert A Dahl: A-B , A(Influencer) causing B to do something which
B(Player being influenced) wouldn’t have done otherwise
 Concept of power:
 Political theorists like Machiavelli and Hans J Morgenthau introduced the idea of power as
a goal in international relations
 Morgenthau’s idea vis-à-vis power:
 “International politics like all politics is about power”
 “…power is the ultimate aim
 Power may comprise anything that establishes and maintains control of man over man and it
covers all social relationships which serve that end, from physical violence to the most subtle
psychological ties by which one mind controls another
 Padelford and Lincoln idea of national power:
 Sum total of the strength and capabilities of a state harnessed and applied to the
advancement of its national interests and the attainment of its national objectives
 Classical realists view power as an inherent goal of mankind and states
 Power in the context of world politics can be seen as:
1) A set of attributes or capabilities
2) An influence process
3) Ability to control resources, behavior of other states, events, outcomes of interaction
 Dimensions of power
1) Scope: Economic or Military
2) Domain: Area of influence
3) Weight: Probability of effective result
4) Costs: Financial costs that incur as a result of exerting influence
5) Means: Symbolic, Economic, Military and diplomatic
 Couloumbis and Wolde produced an umbrella concept of power that denotes anything
that establishes and maintains control of one actor over the other
 They conceive power as having three elements:
ELEMENTS DESCRIPTION
1) Force  Explicit threat or the use of military,
economic and other instruments of
coercion by one actor against another in
pursuit of its political objectives
2) Influence  Use of instruments of persuasion in getting
other state or player do exactly as you want
them to.
 Diplomatic prowess is the key instrument
of influence.
 Tools of influence as listed by Holsti:
1) Leaving or joining alliance
2) Leaving or joining
Regional/International organizations
3) Switching sides
4) Economic embargo
5) Deterrence
3) Authority  Compliance by one actor to the directives
issued by another actor

 Political scientists principally use power in terms of an actor’s ability to exercise influence
over other actors within the international system. This influence, however, has various
forms:
1) Coercive
2) Attractive
 3) Cooperative
4) Competitive
 Mechanisms of influence as listed by HOLSTI include:
 The threat or use of force
 Economic interaction or pressure
 Diplomacy
 Cultural exchange
 Persuasion
 Offer of reward
 Infliction of non-violent punishment

 ELEMENTS OF POWER as Proposed by Hans J Morgenthau

ELEMENTS OF POWER DESCRIPTION
1) Geography(Stable  Features of geography that determine power
factor)  Size of the territory
 Topography
 Location relative to sea
 Landmasses relative to other nations
 Control of strategic places
 Natural Resources
 “Who rules east Europe commands heartland; who rules
heartland commands world island and who rules world
island commands the world”—Halford Mackinder
 Mahan in his book the influence of sea power looked at
the rise and exploits of British naval power by virtue of its
control of seas
 Location of a state at the cross roads of global trade or other
associated factors affords it a great geopolitical influence
 Examples from Politics among nations : Location of USA and
Britain and its importance; Italy separation from rest of the
continent by high mountains and how it has made Italy a
subject of frequent raids and invasion while Italy has rarely
undertook this adventures against central Europe. USSR’s
enormous land mass(1/7th of entire Earth’s land mass) made
it virtually impossible for the invaders to conquer completely.
This also partly explains Napolean and Hitler failed attempts
at overwhelming USSR
***NATURAL Resources
 “…Food, a country which is self-sufficient or nearly self-
sufficient, has a great advantage over a nation which is not
and must be able to import the foodstuffs which it does not
grow or else starve”—Hans J Morgenthau
 Food supply played a key role in sustaining British resistance
against Germans. Had the German been able to disrupt food
supply via sea, history might have taken different
course(Politics among nations)
 With the advent of Industrial Revolution, the dynamics of
 warfare underwent a paradigm shift. Pre-Industrial revolution
warfare was not dependent on natural resources, as it
involved manual fight and therefore depended on fighter’s
strength and skills. However, after the advent of industrial
revolution, the role of natural resources—coal, oil, gas and
iron—has substantially increased. It has mechanized
warfare…”With the increasing mechanization of warfare,
which since the industrial revolution has proceeded at a
faster pace than in all of the preceding history of mankind,
national power have become more and more dependent
upon the control of raw materials in peace and war”—Hans
J Morgenthau ….”Thus it is not by accident that Great
Britain, which was self-sufficient in coal and iron, was the
one great world power of the 19th century”—Hans J
Morgenthau….”France, Britain and USA embarked in the
near east to engage in “oil diplomacy”—a move to have
access to enormous oil resources..” Hans J Morgenthau
….”Only a few years ago the control or lack of control of
uranium deposits was entirely irrelevant for the power of a
nation in international affairs”—Hans J Mogenthau…
“Uranium atom and the use of that energy for warfare has
at once modified the actual and potential hierarchy of
nations from the point of view of their relative power”—
Hans J Morgenthau

NOTE: Climate, topography, location and natural resources

briefly discussed above:
2) Size  A large area contributed only to a state’s power if it is capable
of providing it with the capacity of containing a large
population and a large varied supply of natural resources
 The influence of USA and USSR can be explained in due
regard to their size
3) Industrial capacity  Belgian Congo, though possess vast deposits of uranium,
lacks industrial capacity to utilize that in making a bomb.
 On the other hand, USA & Canada have great institutional
capacity and thus that adds to their military advantage
 Iron and Coal are resources of great significance. However,
they can only be utilized or exploited in the presence of
industrial capacity. That explains why USA and USSR were
able to use that to their advantage and why India—which
possess similar amount of iron ore reserves—could not.
 “The technology of modern warfare and communications
has made the overall development of heavy industries an
indispensable element of national power”—Hans J
Morgenthau
 Industrial capacity is therefore a crucial determinant of
national power
 The decline of France after 1870 was due to the industrial
 backwardness while Germany’s rise as the most powerful
power in Europe can be attributed to its industrial prowess.
4) Economic  Discussed above
Development
5) Military  “The twentieth century has witnessed four innovations in
Preparedness the technique of warfare….First , Submarine….Second,
Tank…Third, strategic and tactical coordination of the air
force…finally the monopoly over atomic bomb”—Hans J
Mogenthau
 “The power of a nation in military terms is also dependent
upon the quantity of men and arms and their distribution
among the different branches of the military
establishment”—Hans J Morgenthau
 Military capability is the key determinant of national power
 The large standing armies of USSR, USA and China explain
their influence in international arena
 Moreover, technological advanced countries have an edge
over less advanced ones. Drones, weapons capable of
wrecking great damages and other products of technology
give a great leverage over adversaries.
 Military leadership has also played a great role in effecting
victories. “The power of Prussia in the 18th century was
primarily a reflection of the military genius of Frederick the
great and the great and of the strategic and tactical
innovations introduced by him”—Hans J Morgenthau

6) National character  “National character cannot fail to influence national
and national morale power..”Hans J Morgenthau
 National character of Germany and Russia gave them an
initial advantage in struggle for power.
 The treaty of Versailles aimed at restricting Germany on all
material fronts: Military, industrial capacity, trade and
territory. However, it couldn’t affect their national
conviction and intellect, which enabled them to regain their
military might within a span of 20 years ( Politics among
nation)
 Intangible element
 Homogeneity
 Social cohesion
 National harmony and consensus
 National character has an impression over foreign policy,
“USA’s foreign policy would reflect its belief in liberty and capitalism.
Similarly, Iran’s Foreign policy would manifest its expansionist and
ideological blueprint”—Prof Jayantanuje B
 National Morale
“National morale is the degree of determination with which a
nation supports the home and foreign policies of its
 government in times of peace or war”—Hans J Mogenthau
 “ Without national morale, national power is either
nothing but material force or else a potentiality which
awaits its realization in vain”—Hans J Morgenthau
7) Political structure and  Discussed above
leadership
8) Ideology  “ Ideology is a body of ideas concerning economic, social
and political values and goals which pose action
programme for attaining these goals”—Padelford and
Lincoln
 Ideology, when constantly reminded and taught to
masses, becomes a great factor in mobilizing them for
achieving national goals
 Examples
1) Nazism received massive support from German
nation and mobilized German masses
2) Communist china exploited its communist ideology to
pursue cultural revolution
9) The quality of  “It is the art of bringing the different elements of
diplomacy national power to bear with maximum effect upon
those points in the international situation which
concern the national interest most directly”—Hans J
Morgenthau
 “Diplomacy, one might say, is the brains of national
power, as national morale is its soul”—Hans J
Morgenthau
 “By using the power potentialities of a nation to best
advantage, a competent diplomacy can increase the
power of a nation beyond what one would expect of it
to be in view of all the other factors combined” Hans J
Morgenthau
 USA’s high quality diplomacy enabled it to project its
influence and realize its vast resources and other
features of national power. Had USA’s diplomacy not
been commensurate with its resources, industrial
capacity, geography and vast human capital it would not
have been able to project its influence in international
arena. And the world, as we know today, might have
been different. Examples to quote of USA’s diplomacy:
role in ww11, Cuban missile crisis, triangular diplomacy ,
network of alliances, Iran nuclear deal etc
 France bounced back in European politics an account of
its brilliant diplomacy after 1870.
10) Population  Human capital is the most important asset of a country.
 An educated population is of great benefit to a state.
 “ If you invest in human, you invest in country’s
future”—Lee Kuan Yew, founder of Singapore
  However, if a country is overpopulated, it becomes its
greatest liability.
 Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy encouraged population
growth to meet imperialist design( Politics among
nations)
 So a population which has access to education health and
other state sponsored services can constructively
contribute in national building.

 FORMULA TO CALCULATE NATIONAL POWER

 Power=( Critical mass( Population+ territory) +(economic capability + military capability)) *
(Strategic importance + will of the people)
 It was proposed by Kay S Cline

Morgenthau’s Evaluation of power

Task of evaluation  “All factors, with the exception of
geography, are in constant flux..”
Hans J Morgenthau
 Evaluation of national power is of
great significance.
 It affects the way states compute
their respective policies.
 Evaluation of national power of
states, which vie for influence or can
potentially challenge or affect one’s
interests, must be done.
 Evaluation of national power ought
to be done vis-à-vis potential
adversary or the challenges in
general, a state anticipates to face.
 Example:
1) Iran nuclear deal has given rise
to intense debates concerning
its national power. Israel and
KSA, skeptical of the deal, have
shown concern that the deal
would make it even powerful,
on account of the lifting of
sanctions. They fear that in the
absence of economic sanctions,
Iran would get more powerful
to pursue nuclear program after
the stated period of 15 years.
Their anxiety rests on the
evaluation of Iran’s national
power in the aftermath of
 nuclear deal, 2015.
2) China’s growing economic
linkages throughout the world
have made USA anxious. It
projects that China in this
century would usurp USA’s title
of world superpower. This is
also based on USA’s evaluation
of China’s national power.
TYPICAL ERRORS OF EVALUATION

 The Absolute character of  “A nation which at a particular moment in

power history finds itself at the peak of its power is
particularly exposed to the temptation to
forget that all power is relative”—Hans J
Morgenthau
 The concept of power is always a relative one
 The most basic error scholars and states make
is that they do not gauge power in relation to
other states. They deal it as if it’s absolute.
 Example:
1) French army in 1919 was the strongest in
continental Europe—a status which it
enjoyed until the outbreak of WW11
when it was totally overwhelmed by the
German army. Hans J Mogenthau , an
authority on International Relations,
believe that France’s military superiority
was gauged in absolute terms and the
concerned people in the France
establishment failed to take Germany’s
rise in to account. In short, they failed to
evaluate their relative power.
2) Britain for the better part of history has
had maintained two distinct advantages
in comparison to its European
counterparts: Firstly, its insular position
and second, its monopoly of the main sea
lanes. These advantages, however,
become less significant, as in 20th century
other nations acquired great military
capability. WW11 obliterated the façade
of Britain’s might and since then role of
Britain in world politics show that its
leaders are conscious of its national
power, which does not allow them to play
a dominant role in world politics.
 The Permanent character  Power is in constant flux. And in the highly
of power globalized world, evaluation of power and its
nature is highly difficult.
 Power equilibrium is subject to ever changing
circumstances.
 New World Order(NWO) didn’t mean that
USA would hold on to the title of superpower
for ever and that its power wouldn’t wane.
The post 9/11 events showed that USA’s
power wasn’t unchallengable. Moreover,
USA’s helplessness in deterring Russia from
annexing Crimea also revealed its limitations.
History contains innumerable examples,
where power equilibrium changed quickly
and substantially, USSR’s advances against
Germans in WW11 being the most prime
example.
 The fallacy of the single  One of the three factors: geopolitics,
factor nationalism, and militarism, is often over-
emphasized.
Geopolitics  “Whoever controls east
Europe controls the
heartland, whoever
controls the heartland
commands the world
islands; who rules the
world-Islands commands
the world”--Mackinder
 Geography is incorporated in
power calculation of a state
 Its basic conception is space.
While space is static, the
people living within that
space are dynamic
 The advantages that
geography entails are
subject to change with
changing circumstances.
 Example: Before the advent
of naval ships, the silk route
was considered the most
important route, as an
overwhelming part of world
trade passed through this
route. And the entire
geopolitics of the world was
based on this premise.
 Geopolitical configuration,
however, was radically
altered with the advent of
naval ships.
 Overemphasis of geopolitics
can therefore yield
inaccurate evaluation of
power
Nationalism  “National character, deriving
from the immutability of the
qualities of the pure race,
belongs in the realm of
political mythology”—Hans J
Morgenthau
 Explaining national power
through national character is
erroneous and prone to
errors.
 Hans J Morgenthau believes
that conception of
nationalism breeds racism
and superiority complex.
 He also believes that it
Nationalism is an artificial
construction and national
character cannot be
understood
 Had nationalism been
associated with race, color,
and blood. USA would have
never existed as a nation.
The assimilative power of
USA and its existence as a
nation disproves the
traditional idea of
nationalism
Militarism  “ Since the emergence of
the modern state system in
the 15th century, no single
nation has succeeded in
imposing its will for any
length of time upon the rest
of the world by sheer
material force alone”—Hans
J Morgenthau
 The quantification of
military might in number of
 tanks, infantry, naval ships
and aircrafts can yield
inaccurate estimation of
power.
 “ speak loudly and carry a
big stick” Theodore
Roosevelt . In response to
this, Hans J Morgenthau
said, “it is sometimes wise
to speak softly and carry a
big stick….and sometimes it
is even wiser to leave the
big stick at home…”
 The failures of Spartan,
German and Japanese
militarism over the victories
of Roman and British
policies lends credence to
the dangers of over-
emphasizing militarism.
 According to Morgenthau,
British maintained its title of
superpower due to three
factors:
1) Potential superpower
2) Reputation of
superpower
3) Infrequent use of that
superior power

RELEVANCE OF BALANCE OF POWER IN CONTEMPRARY ERA/IN THE POST COLD WAR ERA

Brief History of the Balance of Power

TIME NATURE OF BOP MAJOR PLAYERS
19th century Balanced multipolarity  Prussia
 Russia
 Japan
 USA
 France
 Britain
20th century( 1900-1945) Unbalanced multipolarity  Germany( A
potential
Hegemon)
 Russia
  USA
 France
 Britain
 Austro-Hungarian
empire
20th century(1945-1990) Bipolarity  USSR
 USA
21st century(1990 onwards) Unipolarity  USA

NATURE/RELEVANCE OF BALANCE OF POWER IN POST COLD WAR ERA

 “Power in the 21st century will rest on a mix of hard( military, economic, natural,
and industrial) and soft resources. No country is better endowed that the United
States in all three dimensions—military, economic, and soft power. Our greatest
mistake would be to fall into one-dimensional analysis and to believe that
investing in military power alone will ensure our strength”—Joseph S Nye Jr
Dean of the kennedy School of Government, Harvard
 Throughout the cold war, the nature of BOP was bipolar, with USA and USSR
maintaining a balance of power through their comprehensive alliances and bloc
system.
 However, after the collapse of Soviet Union in 1989, Balance of power completely
ruptured and the world transformed in to unipolar system, with USA being the
sole superpower.
 After the end of 20th century, new centers of power have emerged.
1) Russia is struggling to check the advances of west and embark on the way of
becoming potential Hegemon again.
2) China’s accession to WTO, it aggressive policy in South China sea, and its
proactive economic policy vis-à-vis Northeast Asia has made it a regional
power and a contender for superpower
3) Role of Iran and Turkey in Middle east and South Caucasus has increased , and
each of them vie for regional domination
4) European Union too can potentially balance USA’s influence or hurt the
unipolar nature of the world politics
 These developments have greatly challenged or at least diluted the unipolarity of
the world
 Power distribution among hegemonies defines the international system of
governance and the demarcation line between spheres of influence. This has been
the case, and will be the case as long as there are small and large, powerful and
less powerful states exercising some kind of foreign policy in the international
arena.
 Unilateral policies of USA during the bush administration have caused anxiety
among the various power centers such as EU and China. They saw USA’s unilateral
policies against their interests. Hence the need to balance USA arises.
 According to a research paper authored by the dean of Harvard’s Kennedy school
of government, EU and China will collectively balance USA out. Paper mentions
two reasons for that:
1) The dimensions of American political, economic, cultural and, most
importantly, military power leave no room for a modest balance, thus making
 it pointless to check without joint efforts
2) The capability of these decision makers to balance against the United States
and the ways in which they are going to do it differ considerably, thus making
the cooperation more productive
So the world is increasingly becoming bipolar from unipolar:
(USA) VS (CHINA +EU)

 Globalization has strengthened USA’s standing as superpower. It has made

possible the penetration of American Multinational corporations into every major
market; increasing democratization of states; and consolidation of capitalism has
strengthened the liberal order that was crafted by USA after WW11.
 “No other great power has ever enjoyed such advantages in political, economic,
technological or cultural spheres. We live in a one-superpower world, and there
is no serious competitor in sight”—John Ikenberry
 Today world is plagued by a plethora of issues such as transnational crime,
spread of AIDS/HIV, global warming, ethnic conflict and most importantly, wars.
 The capacity of a unipolar world to deal with the range of these issues is difficult.
 Unipolar system that followed the cold war posed new major international
challenged in power distribution and decision making.
 Balance of power is an idea sanctioned by realism school of thought. After the
demise of Soviet Union and the end of cold war, it was anticipated that forces of
realism would no longer have any say in the way global politics would be
conducted. Bill Clinton regarded classical realism as “Old thinking and largely
irrelevant”. This speaks volume of his optimism. At yet another place, he said , “
world where freedom, not tyranny, is on the march”
 This optimism was, however, short lived. The events that unfolded after 9/11
proved that the optimistic claim that security competition and war among the
great power has been burned out of the system is wrong and that realism was still
the only rule of the game called global politics( Mearsherimer)
 According to Mearsheimer , “ the optimistic claim that security competition and
war among the great power has been burned out of the system is wrong that
realism was still the only rule of the game called global politics “
 According to Mearsheimer, rising china is the most dangerous potential threat to
the United States in the early 21st century
 This is also the reason why the republican government changed china’s label from
“strategic partner” to “strategic rival”
 “Unfortunately, a policy of engagement is doomed to fail. If china becomes an
economic powerhouse it will almost certainly translate its economic might into
military might and make a run at dominating Northeast Asia….in short, China and
the United States are destined to be adversaries as China’s power grows” ( John
Mearsheimer)
 Furthermore, non-state actors such as UNO would considerably constrain the
power of USA.Other terror organizations are also likely to give it headaches

HOW EUROPEAN UNION MIGHT BALANCE OR IS IN THE PROCESS OF BALANCING USA’S

 POWER—CRITICAL ANALYSIS
 “The economic integration of Europe over the past half century, culminating
in Euro, represents history’s most dramatic success in institutionalizing
interdependence. It has also been the most sensational instance of nations
voluntarily relinquishing their sovereignty in favor of international
collaboration”—C fred Bergstein

 Post 9/11 policies of USA have disillusioned EU. USA, unfortunately, does not enjoy
the unanimous and all out support of EU anymore. USA’s unilateralism in foreign
policy, unwise financial policies (which led to great economic depression in 2008) ,
and the growing irrelevance of NATO to EU has compelled it to pursue
counterbalancing policies.
 POINTS  DESCRIPTION
1) The obvious tendency of EU  Pre-cursor to the formation of
enlargement and increasing EU
unification 1) Formation of European
Economic cooperation
2) Creation of the European
Coal and Steel community
3) Common Agricultural Policy
 Membership increased from 5
to 29 members
 The open borders and the free
movement of goods, services
have contributed to the
political, economic and cultural
unification of Europe
 Growing Strength of EU has
allowed it to assert its position
in Global arena--a task which
was left to USA after 1945.
 Policies of USA, which have
made EU averse of it:
1) Consumerism( GMO
example)
2) View of International law as
naive
3) Use of military force in the
first decade of 21st century
4) favor of Gun ownership and
capital punishment
 Though Finland, Austria and
Ireland have maintained their
position of neutrality towards
EU integration ;and UK,
Denmark and sweden have
always been reluctant to give
 up their national currency, the
challenges to EU integration
are not insurmountable. And
any misadventure by USA or its
allies elsewhere in the world
arouses a strong and coherent
foreign policy response from
EU.

2) Making military development  Moreover, USA's and EU's

of the EU an important respective takes on security
primacy AND Establishment of issues are also diverging.
common European security  Development of common
and Defense policy security strategy for the EU will
increase its ability to act
independently if there is a
need for military action. And
that is likely to make USA quite
anxious
 EU military integration would
disturb the balance of decision
making between the United
States and the European Union
at NATO.
 An autonomous defense policy
of EU would affect the ability
of USA to use NATO as an
instrument to advance its
interests in the world.
3) Uncertainty surrounding NATO  EU growing unhappiness with
USA's foreign policy and their
divergence of interest is likely
to make NATO an inefficient
organization
 And if EU chose to pull out of
NATO, which it seems it will in
due course of time, it will
largely act as a balancer to
USA.
 Cooperation between Europe
and China, and the benefits
this partnership entails in the
backdrop of china's ambitious
economic and trade policy that
aims at connecting the whole
Eurasian landmass, is likely to
further ease EU's decision of
 pulling out of NATO.
 The transatlantic alliance,
therefore, could end in the
near future, making EU a
balancer.
4) Emergence of Euro as a  EU has the world's largest
powerful currency in the share of GDP, currently
international market standing at 22%.
 Population of EU is by far
exceeding that of USA,
according to some estimates
by over 100 million
 About 30% of the daily foreign
exchange transactions are
conducted in London as
opposed to 15% in the United
States.
 EU economic integration and
the subsequent emergence of
Euro gives it enough leverage
to compete with USA and act
as a balancer
5) Complications of EU-USA  The perennial debate over the
Kyoto Protocol and America's
rejection to sign the
convention on Biodiversity.
 USA's indifference vis-a-vis
environment issues also irks
EU , and has contributed in
souring relations between
them
 USA's influence might lead to
the enforcement of gun laws in
EU. This concern has also
shaped its behavior.
 USA unilateralism and its
misadventure in Iraq and
middle east has caused the
breakdown of EU-US relations.
“message from the United States
was “we’ll do the cooking and
prepare what people are
going to eat, then you will wash the
dirty dishes” (Sloan, 2003, 190).
And this, translated
into global realist power politics,
would mean “the U.S. fights, the
 UN feeds, and the EU
 finances and does
peacekeeping” (Sloan,
2003, 191).

 Emergence of a new integrated power on the other side of the Atlantic will erode
the uni-polar nature of the world. And it is likely to act as a balancer.
 " The United States is being pressured by the Euro and the growing strength of
Europe's economy and its top corporations, and the tentative competition is likely
to develop into a more serious rivalry"--Kupchan
 Kupchan compares Washington with Roman empire whose power is then balanced
by the Byzantium Empire, which he draws analogy with contemporary Europe.

HOW CHINA WOULD/MIGHT ACT AS A BALANCER---A CRITICAL ANALYSIS

 " I am firmly convinced that we need to focus all elements of US power and
diplomacy on ensuring that china does not become the 21st century version of the
soviet bear"- U.S Joint Chiefs of Staff, Henry Shelton

>>THE RISE OF CHINA ON POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC FRONTS.

 Some scholars (Nau, 2002) see china as more of a possible challenge to American
hegemony than any other power
 Historically China and USA have been at loggerheads vis-a-vis their vision for world
order and ideology.
 China's integration into Westphalia system and accession to WTO and liberal
economic order has made it more powerful. Some argue, its strength would soon
surpass that of USA in this century
 Henry Nau, a popular scholar in International Relations, believes that China's
military power is growing and may become sufficient in the next two decades to
deter US intervention in Taiwan and the Korean island
 China's 21st maneuvers force John Mearsheimer to declare that it would be the
church for realpoltik in the post Cold war era
1) Growth of North East Asia and USA's dependence
> North East Asia has been growing economically since the end of cold war without
any major interruptions
> According to Mearsheimer, USA has had been confronted with a dilemma:
Whether to force China to engage in global economy or try to contain it.
> " it is one of the fastest growing and most interconnected economic
communities in the world"-- Henry Nau
> America's dependence on Asian exports has increased by over three folds since
1990
> China's economic ventures throughout Asia and its interconnectedness with the
entire Eurasian landmass is likely to give serious headaches to USA. Its supremacy in
economic domain might eclipse USA's superpower status
2) China's growing military muscles and Ideological conviction
> Chinese arsenal today is capable of destroying some major cities in the united
states and can easily target Washington as well
> China views itself as the supreme state on whom the onus of leading the world lies.
> China's acceptance and assimilation of the principles of Westphalia system is a tool
through which it would realize its centuries old Confucian vision.
> According to Myers, the power of china is once again rising in the middle kingdom
and will be increasingly on display in the 21st century

3) China-USA confrontation
> Sino treatment of Tibet and the exile of Dalai lama
> Taiwan Strait crisis
Aforementioned crisis have had escalated matters to the brink of military collision
of USA with Asian giant
> China's claim of sovereignty over the South China sea has strained its relationship
with south east Asian states. South China sea possess untapped 11 billion barrels of
oil and 190 trillion cubic feet of gas( Source: CFR) and it , therefore, has immense
economic value. China's sweeping claim over south china sea has been responded by
a range of counter claims by the south east Asian countries. USA's interest in keeping
the sea lanes open and its defense treaty with Philippines is likely to embroil USA in
the mess in an event crisis escalate to armed conflict.

4) The changing dimension of power

> Disproportionate development of high technology and nuclear power has changed
the definition of power
> Economy, therefore, assumes a more critical position.
> So whoever gets economically more powerful would have a great advantage over
the other
> " Politics and economics are connected: International economic systems rest upon
international political order"--John Mearsheimer
> Economic development and its big say in global economy also gave China rather
reliable grounds for military development.
> Over the last decade, China has increased its military spending by disproportionate
amounts. Last year, it increased its military budget by over 12%( Source: CFR); and is
the second highest military budget after the USA.
> China's tendency to develop more ballistic Missiles is more and more apparent(
Mearsheimer)
5) China's growing economic strength
> China has the world's highest GDP and is making continuous strides to economically
integrate the entire Eurasian landmass through CPEC, String of pearls, and the
development of silk route.
6) China's distinct identity
> " If national identities diverge...military competition becomes a significant factor in
interstate relations. This may be the case today in U.S-Chinese relations...one task of
diplomacy is to balance or stabilize the military competition, as traditional national
interest studies emphasize"-- Henry R Nau
> Ideology has been an important factor shaping threat perception during the cold
war and this still might be the case with the communist china well through the 21st
century--Wood
 EURO-CHINA and RUSSIA ALLIANCE AND THE BALANCE OF POWER POLITICS--
the end of the unipolar world
> Stephen Walt suggests that the threat will be prompting other powers to ally
against it, only if would comprise of 1) aggregate power, 2) geographical
proximity, 3) offensive capabilities 4) perceived intentions
> USA's unilateralism, its excessive military spending and exercise of hard power
politics , which has largely defined its foreign policy in the first decade of 21st
century, caused it to appear as a threat to China.
> " we must boost our consciousness about disasters and downturns and think
about dangers amidst of apparent safety"- Chinese president
> China is also strengthening its relations with Russia through multiple treaties of
cooperation, security and friendship.
> America's rapidly growing foreign deficit is likely to become what lieber calls
Achilles heel
>Iran is also likely to join the club
> "Nothing ever lasts forever, Everybody wants to rule the world"--Tears for
Fears, 1985

CONCLUSION
> "The term super power is the relic of the past"---Dr Sashi tharoor
> " A bipolar security architecture that sees America against Chinese and European
confrontation is likely to come true"--Nicholas
> "Being a hegemony rests on hard power, economic might, financial capabilities, "soft
currency of hegemonic values" and their influence"---Hershnerrg and Moore
> " The US cannot prevent a new balance of power from forming. It can hasten its coming
as it has been earnestly doing. American conventional and strategic military dominance
spurs other countries to act. Arrogance is the partner of dominance..." Kenneth Waltz
>"...realists would immediately argue that the cycle of balance of power will continue
being the rule of the game well into the 21st century"--Kocharayan
>"we are now moving into a world in which power and influence are diffused among a
multiplicity of states--- a multipolar world"--- Lawrence burger
> End of cold war and the subsequent democratization of world i.e. 143 countries out of
193 were ranked as democratic countries gave an illusion of the ' end of history'--a phrase
coined by Francis Fukayama. World, as it so appeared, broke away from the clutches of
ideological conflict. He said, " the end of mankind's ideological evolution and the
universlization of western liberal democracy as a final form o human government"
> This optimism and Euphoria was , however, short lived. Realism came back to haunt the
world politics. John Mayers wrote in his scholarly research that realism is the main rule of
the game called international politics
> EU and China , and perhaps other states such as Iran, Pakistan and Russia joining them,
would play a critical role in checking USA's unilateralism. Balance of power would therefore
return in the international arena. And that would make USA's exercise of power more
difficult
> The logic of realist balance of power is simple: weaker states will form alliances to
counterbalance against a major power which will start representing a threat to the
international order and to the states themselves--Ikenberry
 > George Soros, Author of Bubbles of American Supremacy, believes that USA's power will
burst one day.
> Non State Actors are also going to give strong headaches to USA. Jihadists and global
terrorist networks would ensure that USA's quest for forging a sustainable world order do
not go unchallenged. Moreover, their resistance is also likely to weaken USA's capabilities
and prowess, paving way for other powers to fill the power vacuum.
CONCEPT OF SECURITY IN 21ST CENTURY
> Globalization unleashed forces that had hitherto been unknown or not conceived. Idea of
security underwent a paradigm shift. Security in the 21st century is not limited to armed
conflicts or wars. Economic insecurity, Environmental degradation, Epidemics, global
warming, food insecurity, rise of non-state actors, and transnational terror syndicates have
broadened the idea of security. Security--a primary aim of the state--has become difficult
and complex to achieve.
> This calls for environment regulation, management of crisis and conflicts,

How can National Interest be pursued in contemporary times

> Emphasis on multilateralism

> Connectivity: economic integration, development of defense ties
> Aid and support of other states crucial to one's security and National Interest
> Management of issues and conflicts by involving global players: Diplomacy
> Modification of Foreign Policy in order to make it compatible with National Interest
> Judicious Resource allocation
> Internal consolidation
NEXT READINGS: NOA NOTES PAGE 129 onwards for National interest and other topics
 INTERNATONAL POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
1. Performance of United Nations since 1945--a critical appraisal
2. Reforms that ought to be undertaken to make united nations an effective
organization

Important articles
 http://www.dawn.com/news/1240871/the-next-un-secretary-general
 WHO in decline
 Jahangir january 2016 issue
 Performance of United Nations---a critical appraisal

THE UNITED NATIONS AND THE MAINTENANCE OF INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND SECURITY
>>>>>>>>>>COLD WAR ERA:1945-1990<<<<<<<<<<<<
 United Nations, despite all its shortcomings, has been able to avoid a third world war.
 UN security council efficacy was greatly hampered by the rivalry of two super powers: USSR
and USA during the cold war era. " From 1945 to 1990, 193 substantive vetoes were invoked
in the security council, compared to only 19 substantive vetoes from 1990 to 2007"--John
Baylis
 UN was at best a toothless organization during the cold war, and acted as a mere spectator of
the tussle between superpowers that characterized the era of cold war. And success of UN, if
any, was mainly due to USA and not itself. Had USA not shown the will or desire to act, UN's
demands or resolutions would not have yielded any results.
EXAMPLES
Korean war  UN, on behest of USA, approved war against
communist aggression in South Korea
 Since USSR had opted out of Security council and
China's seat was occupied by Taiwan, UN became a
pawn in the hands of USA to advance its wishes.
 So the intervention or war, ostensibly approved by UN,
would have carried out anyway, even if UN's security
council wouldn't had approved of it
 Furthermore, UN utter failure in averting Korean war
also bears testimony to that fact that it didn't live up
to its charter(IBID).
 In fact, instead of applying diplomatic tools to resolve
conflict, it simply played in the hands of USA to
approve armed fight.
Suez Canal Crisis 1956  Nationalization of Suez Canal by Egypt attracted attack
from Israel , Britain, and France.
 This received sharp reaction from UN and the USA.
 USA, ostensibly committed to the ideas of collective
security and sovereignty, persuaded its allies to
withdraw.
 A peace keeping mission was initiated in the
aftermath of this war by the name of UN emergency
Force, which monitored and coordinated the
withdrawal of aggressive forces.
 Here the credit of successful de-escalation goes to the
USA and not UN.
 It was due to USA's will and strength that its
traditional allies withdrew.
  UN security council had already been rendered
irrelevant after the exercise of veto from France and
Britain.
Arab-Israeli War  United Nations Emergency force(UNEF11) was largely
successful with a calming effect on the region, as well
as keeping Israel and Egypt apart
Indo-PAK Ceasefire  UN successfully brokered cease fire between India and
Pakistan in 1948 in the aftermath of the war over
Kashmir.
Cuban Missile crisis  UN security council became a platform for US and
USSR to negotiate.
 It helped them diffuse the tensions and it was due to
the diplomacy, aided by UN, that both the states were
able to avert a potentially cataclysmic war.
Decolonization  It is one area, where UN bagged a lot of success.
 Decolonization was supported by both USSR and USA
 UN in its charter had already affirmed that " the
people have the right to self determination"
 UN, thus provided them with membership and the
space to discuss and deliberate on their most pressing
issues such as poverty, hunger, infrastructure
development etc.
 Agencies such as UNICEP, UNESCO, and scores of
others were formed to assist these countries.
 Since the membership of UN general assembly grew
rapidly, US's power diluted to some extent
 Moreover, with the increase in the membership of the
UN, its agenda widened. The issues that confronted
the third world were added to UN's scope.
 Non-aligned movement emerged out of it, which was
quite successful in navigating UN's focus from cold war
to the socio-economic issues.
 it was precisely this period when ECOSOC( Economic
and Social Council) became more representative and
assertive within the UN structure.
 So it can be said that while General Assembly became
more functional and diverse, the security council
became hostage to the great power game between
USA and USSR.
Vietnam war  UN's Utter Failure

Era of Civil wars, guerrilla  Northern Ireland, Kurdish groups and the mujahadeen
wars, armed rebellions in Iran, Peshmerga Kurds in Iraq, the guerrilla war in
Malesia, the civil war in Chad, Sudan, Colombia,
Salvador, and Nicaragua
 UN could not intervene in any of these
 Artcile 2(7) of the UN calls for non-intervention, this
 greatly hampered its ability to intervene in these
matters
 Afghan war revived the cold war
 Regime change in Iran violated the principle of
diplomatic immunity by holding American diplomats
hostage. Moreover, it did not pay any heed to SC
resolutions.

Revival of the  Between 1980-1985, permanent members voted

cooperation and demise together in 75/119 resolutions, and between 1986-
of cold war 1990, they voted together on 93/103 resolutions
 Thus revival of the SC was under way
 The most significant sign of the cooperation was the
SC resolution of 1987 for ending Iran-Iraq war
 agreements were reached to end fighting in south-
western Africa
 UN, thus, at the last leg of cold war became a
functional organization and helped a great deal in
maintaining peace and ending conflicts
 The superpower rivalry hijacked the UN and prevented it from developing intended security
machinery
 However, it served as a platform for the states--notably USA and USSR--to negotiate and
resolve conflicts. UN's role in providing a platform to global superpowers to negotiate was
crucial in averting a nuclear war or a potentially annihilating third world war.
 So given the constraints and geopolitical landscape during the cold war, it would be fair to say
that UN did a fair job in " saving the world from hell" in the words of its former secretary
general, Dag Hammarskjold
HOW SUCCESSFUL WAS UN DURING THE COLD WAR--CRITICAL APPRAISAL
" UN's job is not to take the world to heaven, its job is to protect it from hell"--Dag
Hammarskjold
HEADINGS DESCRIPTION
Role of UN's security council:  During the 1950s, UN security council was
From redundancy to revival at best a redundant institution
 Absence of USSR and China greatly impeded
its ability to play any decisive role
 At best, it became a pawn in the hands of
the USA to advance its wishes
 Episode of Korean war suggests that it
simply could not live up to its charter,
sanctioning the Korean war, at the behest of
USA, against communist aggression, was
against the ideals of its charter(IBID)
 Similarly, Suez canal crisis again
demonstrated its defunct nature. Had it not
been for the USA, the matter would have
never been resolved.
  Its weakness in ensuring peace were time
and again exposed in the face of great
power game between the USA and USSR,
Vietnam war being the case in point
 It was not until 1980s that its revival was
witnessed.
 For the first time the great powers were
able to cooperate in security council, and
between 1980-85 they voted on 75/115
resolutions of the security council; and also
reached an agreement on ending Iraq-Iran
war
 So it can be argued that as the cold war
receded, the efficacy of security council
increased
Success of diplomacy: Triumph of  Success in Korean war and Suez canal crisis,
UN or USA and later in brokering ceasefires between
belligerent nations such as Pakistan and
India, were mainly due to the USA and not
UN.
 Had USA not shown willingness to intervene
in such matters, diplomacy would have
never succeeded and UN would have
rendered an irrelevant organization very
early on
Saving the world from hell:  UN security council provided the world with
Avoiding the third world war a platform to come together and negotiate
 Though the outcomes of any such
Endeavour hinged on the states' willingness
and diplomatic strength, UN's credit of
facilitating negotiations and encouraging
the atmosphere for diplomatic solution
cannot be ignored.
 Cuban missile crisis, a crisis which could
potentially escalate to a cataclysmic war
was averted by diplomatic engagement ,
aided by the UN, between USA and USSR
 Furthermore, its peacekeeping missions and
emergency force also ensured that the
conflicts didn't escalate to the level of full
scale war. Role of Emergency forces in Suez
canal crisis and Arab-Israeli war are the
cases in point
Decolonization and widening of  It is one area, where UN bagged a lot of
the scope of the UN's agenda success.
 Decolonization was supported by both USSR
and USA
  UN in its charter had already affirmed that "
the people have the right to self
determination"
 UN, thus provided them with membership
and the space to discuss and deliberate on
their most pressing issues such as poverty,
hunger, infrastructure development etc.
 Agencies such as UNICEP, UNESCO, and
scores of others were formed to assist these
countries.
 Since the membership of UN general
assembly grew rapidly, US's power diluted
to some extent
 Moreover, with the increase in the
membership of the UN, its agenda widened.
The issues that confronted the third world
were added to UN's scope.
 Non-aligned movement emerged out of it,
which was quite successful in navigating
UN's focus from cold war to the socio-
economic issues.
 it was precisely this period when ECOSOC(
Economic and Social Council) became more
representative and assertive within the UN
structure.
 So it can be said that while General
Assembly became more functional and
diverse, the security council became
hostage to the great power game between
USA and USSR.

CONCLUSION
 Role of UNO in maintaining peace and security during the cold war was as much
a failure as a success. It faced some serious structural difficulties in the first
decade after its inception, and when cold war was in full swing, it acted more as
"divided nation" rather than "United nation". Cold war greatly mired its ability to
live up to its charter. However, its role in peacekeeping, keeping the diplomatic
option always available, averting a potentially disastrous third world war, and
enhancing the scope of UN by including matters pertaining to socio-economic
sphere were commendable. So all in, given the limitations posed by structural
difficulties and geopolitical landscape of the world, UN played a reasonable role
in "saving the world from hell" as remarked by its former secretary general, Dad
Hammarskojld

 Role of UN's security council: From redundancy to revival

 Success of diplomacy: Triumph of UN or USA
 Saving the world from hell: Avoiding third world war
  Decolonization and widening of the scope of UN's agenda


ROLE OF UN POST COLD WAR

 Gulf war (1990) Operation desert storm: Vindication of the ideal of collective security, Iraq
was defeated and Kuwait's sovereignty was restored; cooperation and unanimity, which were
absent during the cold war phase returned to UN's security council.
 "No reference to peacekeeping exists in the UN charter, but classical peacekeeping
mandates and mechanisms are based on chapter V1 of the UN charter. Classical
Peacekeeping involves the establishment of a UN force under UN command to be placed
between the parties to a dispute after a ceasefire. Such a force only uses its weapons in self-
defence..."--John baylis
 " There has been a new kind of peacekeeping, sometimes called multidimensional
peacekeeping or peace enforcement, which emerged after the end of the cold war"--John
Baylis
 "The cold war and the decolonization process had discouraged more active involvement by
the United Nations within states"--John Baylis
 " After the cold war, it was felt that threats to international peace and security did not only
emanate from aggression between states...global peace was also threatened by civil
conflcit, humanitarian emergencies, violations of global standards of human rights, and
other conditions such as poverty and inequality"--John baylis
 " There has been an increased tendency to view threats to peace and security in terms of
traditional threats such as aggression between states..but also civil conflict within states,
threats emanating from non-state actors, and threats relating to economic and social
conditions within states....conditions within states, including human rights, justice,
development, and equality have a bearing on global peace.."--John baylis
 New phenomenon emerged after the cold war
> The end of the cold war contributed to the resurgence of nationalism and ethnic conflicts,
especially in the regions formerly under authoritarian and communist regimes
1. Failed states and Demands for self-determination: Institutional decay and breakdown
of state; anarchy; security problem; UN peace keeping mission; ideals contained
within charter became incompatible with the challenges; examples: Rwanda, Haiti,
Somalia, Anglo, South Africa, Mozambique, Georgia, Yugoslavia, Armenia etc, Efficacy
of UN peace keeping forces also reduced. UN charter provisions for dealing with
threats to international peace and security were designed for interstate conflicts not
intra-state or civil war. " new kinds of conflicts were within states rather than
between them, and problems were arising from weak institutions, secessionism,
ethnic and tribal clashes and civil wars"--The UN and Changing World Politics
 In the backdrop of changed landscape of geopolitics, UN undertook reforms and came up with
an agenda for peace: (1) Preventive diplomacy( Using diplomatic tools to prevent a crisis from
surfacing), (2) Peacemaking( peace enforcement aspect), (3) Peace building (develop the
social, political, and economic infrastructure to prevent further violence and to consolidate
peace)
 Agenda for peace allowed UN to intervene militarily. Nature of UN mission transformed from
peacekeeping to peace enforcement.
  " After the end of cold war, the UN was expected to authorize personnel to implement cease-
fires; demobilize regular and irregular military forces; inspect arms control constrains; observe
troops withdrawals; train and oversee police forces; provide administrative oversight of
government ministries; plan, administer and monitor elections; watch for human rights
violations; provide safe havens for displaces persons; and protect personnel attempting to give
humanitarian assistance in war-torn areas"--Preferred futures for the United Nations
 CASE  DESCRIPTION
STUDIES
Yugoslavia  Question of self-determination arose after the
disintegration of Soviet Union
 SC approved peacekeeping mission
 Peacekeeping force proved impotent and the civil war
continued un abated.
 Failure of UN
Somalia  Civil order collapsed
 State crumbled
 Civil war ensued
 It caused displacement and humanitarian problems
 SC passed a resolution calling for humanitarian assistance
 The US forces, sent only to ensure the smooth supply of
humanitarian assistance, got embroiled in the problem,
rendering a disservice to the neutrality of UN.
 Ended in the withdrawal of US troops
 Regarded as a failure for UN
Rwanda and Burundi  Civil war started between the two warring tribes: Tutsi and
Hutu.
 World community maintained silence over the issue
 SC's role was rather disappointing in the whole episode of
Rwanda civil war
 It failed to implement a ceasefire and could not do anything
about the genocide, which continued unabated
 It was only when the scale of killing had reached
unprecedented height that it imposed an arm embargo and
executed a humanitarian operation


Bosnia, Somalia, and Rwanda: Epic tale of UN's failure

 There was hardly any peace to keep and even no willingness in making peace
 Post cold war challenge proved too much for the UN
 Humanitarian concerns were too much to ignore intervention ( against the ideals of UN
charter) and since no major state was concerned, there were no proper guidelines on how
to go about the matter
 UN was in a conundrum: all three were civil wars, and the principles of consent,
impartiality, and non-use of force except self-defense, which were the basic guidelines for
traditional peace keeping operations, seemed inappropriate.
 These issues highlighted UN's inability to adapt with post cold war world, which was not
 much about inter-state conflict but rather about intra-state conflict

THE 2003 INTERVENTION IN IRAQ

 US led coalition invaded Iraq in 2003 on the pretext of disarming it from weapons of mass
destruction.
 It sought UN security council's blessing but was denied one. Yet it went on with it.
 This underscored a very brutal and uncomfortable fact: UN needed US more than US
needed UN. And US's role in smooth global governance was indispensable.
 It also undermined UN's legitimacy and credibility and brought in to question the ideals on
which it was founded.

Reforms in the United Nations

 " If United Nations Security council fails to adapt with the contemporary geopolitical
realities, it will become irrelevant and alternate organizations will emerge"--Dr Shashi
Tharoor
 "The security council does not reflect today's distribution of military or economic power,
and does not reflect a geographic balance"--John baylis
 "Countries that wield Veto power just because they happened to have won war 70 years
ago is not enough a reason now...it calls for urgent reforms"--Dr Shashi Tharoor
Charter of the UN gives the SC primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and
security (Article 24/1). With the ending of the Cold War, the SC has acquired, to a large extcnd, the
role, vvhich vvas envisaged for it by the architects of the Charter. It is the most povverful organ of the
UN. Therefore, the need to reform the UN to strengthen its role in international peace and security
naturally focused on the SC. Discussions have mainly focused on size, composition and the decision-
making in the SC, including the right of veto. Many of the criticism of the SC have been about the
permanent members of the Council and veto povver. There vvere doubts about preserving, half a
century later, the special position of the states, vvhich vvere allics in World War II. The victors of the
WWII, as permanent members, have veto povver over substantive issues. The 1963 augmentation of
membership from eleven to fıfteen did not alter the status of the five permanent members. Since
mid-1960s, UN membership has inereased vvith the decolonization and povver relationship have
changed in the organization. France and Great Britain are no longer considered as great povvers for
many pcople. Hovvever, Japan and Germany have gained povver by their amount of contribution to
the budget of the UN. Middle povvers are not satisfied vvith their position either. In refleeting the
povver of the allies that defeated Germany and Japan in 1945 vvhen the UN vvas founded, it is true
that, the Council does not adequately represents the composition of the UN 58 THE TURKISH
YEARBOOK [VOL. XXX members. There are numerous proposals for reform of the SC, vvith most UN
member states having their preferred list of new members and gradations of povver. Nevertheless,
expanding the SC seems like one of the more reasonable vvays to improve the representative
character and thus the legitimacy of the vvorld organization in the eyes of its 185 members and their
people.45 The democratic defects of the Council can be addressed by slightly expanding the SC to
reflect current political and economic realities, by reorienting considerations in selecting members,
and by diminishing the role of the veto povver exercised by the permanent members. Tvvo main
sources of pressure for Council reform, from states in both the industrialized and the developing
vvorlds, emerged in the early 1990s. Both Japan and Germany, vvho are novv among the top four
contributors to the UN budget, vvould like to fınd a place among the permanent members of the
Council. Japan currently contributes more than 12 percent of the budget, vvhile Germany's annual
assessed contribution to the UN is considerably larger than either that of France and Britain.46 Thus,
Japan and Germany have sought permanent seats to reflect their economic povvers, supported by the
industrialized vvorld especially by the U.S. In June 1993, pursuant to GA Resolution 47/62 of 11
December 1992, the US informed the Secretary General that it "supports permanent membership for
Japan and Germany", that it vvas "also prepared to considcr carefully hovv the Council might be
further expanded to inelude a modest number of additional seats", and that other means of involving
non-members of the Council should be explored.47 There is hovvever a resistance from the
developing vvorld to the proposals giving tvvo more Northern states the same status as the present
five. But they have less opportunities to impose their opinions, as a result of greater co-operation
among permanent members after the Cold War. Besides, there is a disagreement among them över
the form for enlargement. Some developing 45Paul Kennedy and Bruce Russet, "Reforming the UN",
Foreign Affairs, Vol. 74, No. 5, September/October 1995, p. 60. 4 6 K . P Saksena, Reforming the UN,
The Challenge of Relevance, Nevv Delhi: Sage Publications, 1993, p. 182. 4 7 Adam Robers, Benedict
Kingsboury, Presiding Över a Divided World, Nevv York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1995, p. 53. 2000] UN ıN
THE POST-COLD WAR ERA 59 countries, specially the larger aspirant permanent members, have
argued that additional Southern permanent seats are vital if the inner circle of existing permanent
members is to be influential.48 Many small and medium-sized states have challenged the legitimacy
of permanent seats and veto, rather than trying to add to their numbers. Instead additional non-
permanent seats are sought, vvith some advocating changes in elections to allovv for shared, rotating
or de facto permanent seats.49 Most developing countries take a pragmatic approach, evaluating the
benefıt of proposals for permanent and non-permanent expansion. One of the alternative approaches
refers to a criteria that the permanent members together sould include at least half of the vvorld's
population, economic productivity, military strength, and contributions to the UN budget. This could
be achieved 'oy granting seats automatically to the vvorld's eight most populous countries (China,
India, the US, Indonesia, Brazil, Russia, Japan and Pakistan, in descendıng order) and to its eight most
productive economies (the US, Japan, Russia, Germany, France, Italy, the UK, and Canada, in
descending order).50 According to this project because three countries (the US, Russia, and Japan)
are in both groups, this could leave seven or eight other (non-permanent) seats to be elected from
among ali UN members, assuming an enlarged Council of tvventy or tvventy-one. Ali of the existing
permanent members are in at least one of the tvvo proposed groups for permanent seats. Therefore,
there is no need to leave their seats for this project. But none of the seats under this formula vvould
be absolutely permanent. If the GNP of the ninth place country surpasses the GNP of the country in
eighth place över a period of years, it vvould automatically take a permanent seat. Weakness of this
scheme lie in the fact that people in Africa and the Middle East, divided into less populace states, lack
automatic representation of their regions. As a result, another formula developed; any of the five
Continental regions not othervvise represented in the permanent seats should be automatically
represented through a seat reserved for the under- 48Sam Davvs, 'Seeking Seats, Votes, and Vetoes',
The World Today, Vol. 53, No. 10, October 1997, p. 256. 49Ibid„ p. 256. 50Mendlovitz/Weston,
Preferred Futures, p. 175. 60 THE TURKISH YEARBOOK [VOL. XXX represented region from among the
elected seats. This reserved seat could be filled through an electoral process, may be with the most
populous and influential states, such as Nigeria, South Africa, and Egypt being repeatedly re-elected
or selected on a rotating basis. Various proposals like these have been put forvvard regarding the
expansion and the composition of the SC in the proceeding years. From the developed world point of
view, the permanent fıve have strongly resisted attempts to question their membership and
associated rights. In the context of the German candidacy for a permanent place, a Europcan Union
seat is sometimes proposed to address Germany's claim to replace both France and the UK. But they
strongly resist giving up their veto rights. At this stage, there is no chance to change the existing
permanent members of the Council, because they would not vote for their own abolition. To sum up
the ongoing discussion, we can say that while Japan and Germany are obvious industrialized world
candidates for new permanent seats, the choice of candidates from Africa, Asia and Latin America is
less clear. The main developing world candidates appear as India and Indonesia for Asia; Egypt, South
Africa and Nigeria for Africa; and Brazil for Latin America. However, India's candidature has been
opposed by Pakistan, Brazil's by the Spanish speaking neighboring states, and Nigeria by a number of
states objecting mainly because of the undemocratic nature of the present regime. It is also expectcd
that developing world would not support permanent membership for Japan and Germany without
comparable seats for the South. Regarding Turkey's views on the enlargement of the SC, she suggests
the inerease of non-permanent membership to 20 by adding 10 new non-permanent members. The
new members to the SC should be represented with a rotation system, and a list of countries that can
replace the ncw 10 members should be prepared. Otherwise new conslitucncy groups could be
established for the eleetion of the 20 non-permanent members of the SC. Forming new constituency
groups according to the geographical positions of the countries is likely to improve the unjust
distribution of nonpermanent membership. Turkey believes that the addition of new non-permanent
members will inerease the representative capacity of the Council. Another important point is that
countries, which have more responsibility and vveight for the establishment of 2000] UN ıN THE
POST-COLD WAR ERA 61 protection of international peace and security, should serve more frequently
and regularly on the basis of a rotation system. Of course the fact that Turkey, vvhich is an important
regional povver constituting a bridge betvveen Europe, Euro-Asia and Middle East, has not gained any
representation since 1961, seems to be directing the Turkish authorities to evaluate the matter in this
vvay.
 COLD WAR

CONTENTS
 History of Cold war
 Decolonization
 Role of USA and USSR
Decolonization in Asia and Africa.
Rise of United States and Soviet Union,
Era of Tight Bipolarity, Détente and Loose Bipolarity, Revival
 RISE OF USSR AND USA—INITIATION OF COLD WAR
 European powers and also the victors, Britain and France, had lost their prowess. Their power
and influence had waned. Their inability to forge an effective order after the war allowed USA
and USSR to come forward. USA and USSR were now the dominant players in international arena
and therefore the onus of forging or crafting European order fell on them.
 To the dismay of Europeans, USA and USSR were at odds with each other as far as the political
ideology was concerned. Difference in ideologies and political disposition paved way for conflict
on crafting of world order. So instead of cooperation and collaboration on giving the world a new
order, both took a collision course that lead to an almost 5 decade long cold war.
 USA was economically and militarily stronger than any other nation. Even USSR’s condition had
deteriorated. This meant that the onus of economic recovery felt largely on USA.( 50% of World’s
output, complete monopoly over Nuclear weapons)
 Moreover, the economic condition of Europe was similar to the one in great depression phase.
And it was vulnerable to great socio-political upheavals, especially in the presence of an
expansionist USSR. USA, therefore, had to play its role in reconstructing order in Western Europe
and insulate it from USSR’s expansionist designs.
 “Within the European context this meant, primarily, two things: that the Truman
administration viewed the recovery of Western Europe as a major precondition to
International Stability and American Prosperity, and that the soviet quest for security and
recovery almost inevitably clashed with American goals”—Dr Antony Best
 So USA relinquished its centuries old policy of non-intervention and isolation; and it was
compelled to play an instrumental role in synthesizing a post-war world order based on
cooperation and collaboration.

THE GERMAN QUESTION

 The big three, Britain, USA and USSR assembled at Yalta conference to decide the fate of
Germany and prevent it from assuming a dangerous role in future.
 It comprised basic features:
1) Denazification
2) Decarterlization
3) Demilitarization
4) Decentralization
 Germany was divided into 4 parts
 After a lot of political maneuvering Germany was divided in to two parts: Federal Republic of
Germany(FRG), controlled by USA and Britain and German Democratic Republic(GDR) controlled
by USSR
 Communist takeovers in Eastern European states of Yugoslavia(1946), Albania(1944), Poland(45-
50), Hungary(1945), Bulgaria(1946) and Czechoslovakia(1948), sponsored and supported by
USSR, further deepened the Post-war ideological and territorial divide popularly known as Iron
curtain.
 Eastern economies were also subsumed in to Soviet’s economy. An organization for economic
cooperation, the COMECON, was established in 1949 to control trade and industry further in the
soviet bloc. Moreover, the administration was also centralized with its central command in
 USSR.
 So behind the Iron curtain, USSR unleashed a program of unifying eastern Europe under the
command of USSR
Eastern Europe: Communist takeover and inception of Soviet bloc
 Communist takeovers in Eastern European states of Yugoslavia(1946), Albania(1944), Poland(45-
50), Hungary(1945), Bulgaria(1946) and Czechoslovakia(1948), sponsored and supported by
USSR, further deepened the Post-war ideological and territorial divide popularly known as Iron
curtain.
 Eastern economies were also subsumed in to Soviet’s economy. An organization for economic
cooperation, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), was established in 1949
to control trade and industry further in the soviet bloc. Moreover, the administration was also
centralized with its central command in USSR.
 So behind the Iron curtain, USSR unleashed a program of unifying eastern Europe under the
command of USSR
 WHAT LED TO SOVIET’S STRANGLEHOLD IN EASTERN EUROPE—Critical analysis
 Soviet’s actions in Eastern Europe can be interpreted in many ways. First of all, Soviet’s desire to
diffuse its communist ideas throughout the world was at the center-stage of this. Secondly, USSR
was highly skeptical of USA’s maneuvering on the other side of the iron curtain, giving rise to
security concerns.
 So in order to realize these objectives, soviet endeavored to tighten its grip over Eastern Europe.

Western Europe: The US and its policy of containment

 After WW11, America pursued following goals:
1) Strengthening of Capitalism
2) Suppression of left-wing ideologies
3) Prevention of Soviet’s influence beyond the Iron Curtail and subsequent defeat of its
expansionist designs
 The policy, which USA subsequently adopted to realize these objectives was the policy of
Containment( Coined by George Kennan)
 Staunch opposition of USA against the presence of USSR’s military presence in Iran and
Mediterranean forced Soviet to pull back. It emboldened USA and encouraged it to pursue
containment in its true spirit
 “These two crises seemed to confirm one of the major principles of the policy of containment:
If you are tough, the soviets will eventually step back”—Dr Antony Best
 Greece civil war between two factions: the Greek communists and the royalists, and Britain’s
inability to play its conventional role of arbiter in Europe inspired USA’s involvement in the
conflict.
 USA helped the royalists though Truman Doctrine, which called for providing military and
economic aid to Greece and turkey. Thanks to Truman doctrine, the royalists’ forces succeeded
in defeating the communists. And with it, it also the USA assumed the role Britain had hitherto
played in Europe, indicating a clear shift of power nexus to the new world.
 Announcement of Marshall plan: A paradigm shift in the role of USA in Western Europe
 Secretary of state, George Marshall announced a plan for economic recovery of Western Europe
in the name of Economic Recovery Plan(ERP)
 It offered aid to all Western Europe countries(14 in number) amounting to $13billion
 Marshall Plan consolidated the transatlantic link between Western Europe and USA.
  Marshall plan: Economic Recovery for Europe or pawn to advance American influence
 ERP endeavored at suppressing the communist forces, which American feared would emerge in
case further economic deterioration is allowed to happen. They also feared that in that event,
the USSR may join hands with them, which would then ultimately curtail USA’s influence in
Western Europe.
 Furthermore, ERP resulted in a great economic linkage of USA with Europe.
 European markets were opened to USA’s exports thus strengthening its economy
 IMPACT OF MARSHALL PLAN—CRITICAL ANALYSIS
 Great psychological impact: Admiration for USA and a feeling that Economic recovery was under
way
 It sowed the seeds of cooperation. For the first time in history, West Germany was forced to
come to table for negotiations. The seeds of cooperation finally culminated in the formation of
European Union(EU) some five decades later
 It paved the way for European Economic Community (EEC). It called for pooling of resources,
especially steel and coal.
 It further paved way for European coal and steel community (ECSC). It created a common market
for coal, steel, coke, iron ore and scrap between six countries: France, the Federal Republic of
Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg
 Formation of NATO: Culmination of Containment
 “An alliance for peace”—Tom Connally
 Formed on 4th April 1949
 It primarily aimed at checking any further Soviet’s expansion
 “Together with the Marshall plan, it solidified the political and economic division of Europe”—
Dr Antony Best

Communist revolution in china; Russia’s development of nuclear capability and the subsequent
globalization of Cold war
 The factors, which led to the globalization of cold war are following:
1) USSR’s development of nuclear capability thus diminishing the USA’s leverage over USSR
2) Communist revolution in china.
 These developments gave a great boost to USSR’s expansionist designs
 With china now officially a communist bloc, the fear of Asia turning communist was felt by the
American think tanks. Amid this fear, emerged a plan: NSC-68. It called for heavy militarization.
 This shifted America’s attention towards Asia and pacific; and led to a vast array of military
alliances:
1) Bilateral pact with Japan, Philippines, Spain, South Korea, Taiwan
2) Multilateral pacts: Australia, New Zealand United States pact(ANZUS); South East Asia Treaty
Organization(SEATO); Central Treaty Organization(CENTO)
 So in essence, USA’s containment policy soon assumed a global dimension.
 Through these alliances, USA was maintaining a close watch of Soviet Union’s designs and
actions
 Western Economic embargo( CoCom) was placed against the soviet bloc
 West Germany also joined NATO, a move which triggered a rapid Soviet response.
 USSR did not take these developments lightly and went on to devise its own military alliance
project with the name of Warsaw pact.
ARMS RACE AND THE SPACE PROGRAM

 An unhealthy competition of Arms race ensued. It resulted in

burgeoning military expenditure. Moreover, Soviet’s strides
in space program (the launch of sputnik) and missile
technology (the development of ICBM) evoked USA to
surpass USSR’s capabilities.

THE BERLIN WALL 1961: PEAK OF TIGHT BIPOLARITY

 Khruschev, USSR’s leader demanded evacuation of western allies troops from Berlin. The
ultimatum met with deaf ears and no probable solution was in sight.
 Objectives of Khrushchev’s ultimatum:
1) To restrict brain drain from GDR. People on account of better opportunities in FRG were
migrating in huge numbers from GDR
2) Cause rift in the American-West German relationship
 With no end to the crisis in sight, USSR and GDR stated to construct barbed-wire fence
separating East and West Berlin, thus restricting the movement.
 It became the symbol of post-war settlement

The second phase: From Cold War to DÉTENTE 1962-79

 CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS: On the brink of the disaster and Détente
 Cuban missile crisis underscored the vulnerability of the security of the world.
 Ideas such as Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) and Balance of terror(BOT) emerged from the
episode of Cuban missile crisis.
 Post crisis, efforts were made by both sides—USSR and USA—to reach an understanding on
mitigating such grave threats.
 Thus a Détente came in to being. A temporary thaw in the otherwise very hostile and volatile
relationship was experienced.
 And for the first time two great superpowers cooperated in mitigating security threats. In the
pursuit of this, they established a hotline and agreed on Limited Test treaty(LTT), which called for
limiting the nuclear tests

 European Détente: Emergence of independent Europe and friction in NATO

 SEEDS OF MISTRUST IN WEST EUROPE-USA ALLIANCE WERE SOWN
 Opposition of allies of USA against its involvement in Vietnam war, which they saw as an action
that could threaten European security and NATO’s defense capability
 American changing defence doctrine, which called for ‘in kind’ response to any USSR’s
aggression also instilled nervousness and mistrust amongst Europeans
 America’s economic decline further debilitated the transatlantic trust.

FRENCH EFFORTS AT ASSUMING A LEADING POSITION IN EUROPE

 Lack of trust on America’s capability to defend Western Europe and

its misadventures elsewhere in the world (Vietnam War) compelled
French president, Charles de Gaulle, to launch his bid for West
European leadership.
 The decisions that he took in the pursuit of this policy are as
following:
 Franco-German Treaty
 Development of an independent French nuclear force
 France’s withdrawal from NATO
 Independent diplomacy towards the soviet union

REASSESMENT OF THE POLICY OF NATO AND EUROPEAN ROLE

 Hermel report
 It called for a double-track policy for the members of the
western alliance
 It affirmed the original objective of the alliance that was to
ensure security and improve defense capabilities
 Along with it, it called for finishing off the unnatural division of
Europe
 Thus Détente, either through collective or individual policies,
was thus approved as a formal goal of NATO
 The Ostpolitik
 Pioneered by Social Democratic Party’s leader Willy Brandt
 It called for the development of détente
 The main objective was to achieve reunification of Germany
 TROUBLE IN THE SOVIET BLOC
 By early 1960s the notion of a communist monolith had proven to be a myth
 There was a continuous opposition to USSR’s hegemony in the eastern bloc
 Ideological differences and disillusionment with the USSR’s policy paved way for Sino-soviet
schism.
 Countries of the soviet bloc, Albania and Romania, began to develop ties with china, seriously
affecting the unity of the bloc
 Soviet bloc posed a great threat of disintegration, which became even more serious in the wake
of Prague spring. Soviet forced had to invoke Brezhnev Doctrine, which called for military
intervention.
 Détente, however, was not affected. It remained intact. But the prospects of détente between
the two principal antagonists—USSR and China—remained little.

TRIANGULAR DIPLOMACY AND THE TWO DETENTES

 Master piece of Henry Kissinger’s diplomatic endeavors. Spoke volumes of his diplomatic
acumen.
 Sino-Soviet hostility was used as a diplomatic card
 Policy of “opening to china” by USA was used as a pawn to capitalize on the Sino-Soviet schism.
 As a result of this, USSR also showed warmth to USA’s overtures.
 As a result of this triangular diplomacy, following agreements were signed:
1) Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties(SALT) 72
2) Prevention of Nuclear War agreement
3) Tentative agreement on SALT 11

DÉTENTE IN TROUBLE: WATERGATE, ANGOLA AND THE HORN OF AFRICA

 The hopes for the continuation of détente slowly started to diminish
 Domestic troubles in USA and proxy contest for influence in the middle east directly contributed
in the obliteration of détente

DEMISE OF DÉTENTE
 The proxy wars in Africa pinned the final nail in the coffin of US-Soviet détente
 Impact of Iranian revolution:
 First manifestation of a collision between Political Islam and the west
 Revolution placed a highly anti-American and fundamentalist regime in Iran. So overnight, Iran
transformed from a strong ally to a highly hostile state.
 It also disturbed the highly delicate Middle East equilibrium, causing a strategic concern for the
USA in the late 1970s.
 USSR’s invasion OF Afghanistan
 In the backdrop of Iranian revolution and strategic concerns that arose in its wake in the Middle
East, USSR’s invasion of Afghanistan was interpreted as a move to further worsen the situation of
Middle East.
 USA immediately backed out of all the treaties that it had made with USSR including SALT 11 and
 sought to resist USSR in Afghanistan
 Thus the DÉTENTE, which had dominated the system, was completely ruptured.
 Why Détente demised?
 “ Détente was an attempt, partially through covert means, to outmaneuver the other side and
gain advantages in an ongoing cold war”—Dr Antony Best
 Historian believe that both—USSR and USA—had different versions of détente and the
temporary wave of cooperation was bound to be replaced by confrontation
 The only area where USA and USSR could cooperate, and which they did eventually, was the
limitation of expensive nuclear arms buildup. Limiting nuclear buildup was in the interest of both
USSR and USA. But elsewhere, the proxy wars continued unabated.
 So if one has to pen down the reasons for the demise of détente, following appear to be far
more important than the rest:
 Domestic Political debates( particularly in the USA)
 Persistent ideological differences
 Continued geostrategic and military competition

THE END OF THE COLD WAR AND THE NEW WORLD ORDER
INTRODUCTION
 End of cold war as a system was effected by several factors: one, technological advances made
by Asian tigers; two, rise in international trade; three, the decline in commodity prices—all
contributed in making the capitalist bloc rich and prosperous. In addition to this, communication
revolution and free flow of information too played its part. All these developments resulted in
overshadowing the relevance of cold war.
 Rise of Asian economies, particularly that of Japan, instilled nervousness in the American camp.
Japan rise was seen as a threat to USA’s dominant role in the world economy
 So, in short, new threats emerged in the last leg of cold war, which forced USA to come back
hard and employ harsh tools to suppress forces that resisted them in their claim to global
superpower. Massive buildup of USA’s military power represented that particular mindset
 Moreover, the stability of communist bloc was in danger. USSR had lost the capacity to
effectively pursue its expansionist designs.
 Finally, the loss of communist party’s leaders’ control over the Eastern Europe triggered the end
of cold war in 1989
 Fall of Soviet Union disturbed the global balance of power. And the world was left with only USA
as the super power.
 Sadly, as democracy and free trade thrived so did poverty, social conflict, and terrorism.

THE SUPERPOWERS AND THE THRID WORLD

 Though the third world acted as a turf for proxy wars between the two superpowers—USA and
USSR. It wasn’t just prepared to see any conflict vis-à-vis cold war dimension. For the third
world, these conflicts provided an opportunity to advance the interests of the local dominant
forces.
 “ The collapse of the cold war as an international system was thus to a large extent a result of
the third world’s rejection of the need to see every issue from the increasingly arcane context
of the clash between capitalism and socialism”—Dr Antony Best
 DEBATING THE END OF THE COLD WAR
 Scholars and academics alike point out to different factors, which effected the end of the cold
war
 Some stress upon the external factors as central to the demise of the USSR while others point
out to other factors.
REASONS DESCRIPTION
1) Competition in the military domain  Massive military buildup during the
Reagan administration promoted
USSR to respond in kind. However,
USSR lacked robust institutional
structure and resources to cope up
with that. That directly contributed
in the bankruptcy of the USSR,
which ultimately collapsed

2) Growing link between East and  Europeans had never accepted the
West Europeans artificial division of Europe, as was
again and again manifested in the
form of Hermal report and
Ostpolitik
 The ultimate objective of
Europeans was to achieve
reunification.
 These growing links helped in
diminishing the totalitarian rule

3) USSR’s was lagging behind on many  Technology, economics, and

fronts intellectual development are few of
the many fronts, where USSR was
lagging behind USA. (ODD ARNE
WESTAD argues in his essay
Reviewing the cold war)
4) Erosion of Soviet’s legitimacy  Internal decline of USSR seriously
affected its legitimacy in the East
Europe
 Gorbachev’s efforts at restructuring
couldn’t overcome decades the
mismanagement
 From within this, a wave of
dissidence emerged.
5) Importance of the resentment  Arne Westad argues in his book,
caused by Soviet and American The Global Cold War that the
interventions in the Third World importance of the resentment
caused by soviet and American
interventions in the third worlds
 was an important cause for the
demise of the USSR and the Cold
war International system
6) Collapse of the Soviet Union  The final nail in the coffin of the
faltering system of cold war
 “Most historians would agree that
it was the collapse of the soviet
union that finally ended the cold
war as an international system” Dr
Antony Best

 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS BETWEEN TWO WORLD WARS (1919-1939)

I. International 1) Discuss and explain the causes of World War II.

Relation between two Could a different policy by Britain, France and USA
Wars have avoided its occurrence?(2011)
Russian Revolution, 2) In what ways was the Versailles treaty a contributory
Fascism, League of factor to European political instability in the period
Nations, Second World 1919-39?(2013)
War  Areas of thrust
 Treaty of Versailles
 Evolution and demise of League of Nation
 Impact of Russian revolution on IR
 Reasons for the WW11
 TIMELINE LEADING TO WW11

TIMELINE EVENT
June 28, 1919: The treaty of Versailles is Signed The Treaty of Versailles ends World War
One and imposes heavy reparations payments on Germany.

November 1920: The First Meeting of the League of Nations The Assembly of the League of
Nations meets for the first time in Geneva, Switzerland. The US is notably absent, the Senate
having voted against joining the League in November 1919.

November 1921: The Washington Conference is Held The United States convenes the
Washington Conference, attended by Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, China,
Japan, and Portugal. The Conference results in a naval armaments treaty that sets a ratio for
tonnage of capital ships (over 10,000 tons, with guns bigger than eight inches) for Great Britain,
the US, Japan, France, and Italy. The ratio agreed upon, in that order, is 5:5:3:1.67:1.67.

October 30, 1922: Benito Mussolini is Made Italian Premier King Victor Emmanuel declares
Mussolini premier in an attempt to head off violent conflict between the Fascists and the
Communists.

November 9, 1923: The Beer Hall Putsch Adolf Hitler and General Ludendorf, a World War One
hero, lead a small contingent of followers in a harmless, comical attempt at rebellion, for which
Hitler is imprisoned for two years.

January 21, 1924: Vladimir Lenin Dies Lenin's death leaves some question as to who will be his
successor. Joseph Stalin eventually beats out Leon Trotsky to take control of the Soviet
government.

May 11, 1924: The Cartel des Gauche wins the French Election The Cartel displaces the ruling
Bloc National, in a marked victory for the left, but proves unable to govern effectively.

August 27, 1924: The German Chamber of Deputies Accepts the Dawes Plan The Dawes
Plan restructures the schedule of German reparations payments so as to reduce the amount of
annual payments, and grants Germany a large loan.

December 1, 1925: The Locarno Pacts are Signed The Locarno Pacts are signed in efforts to
stabilize relations with Germany and its neighbors. The pacts usher in a period of peace and
prosperity.

1926: Joseph Pilsudski Becomes Virtual Dictator in Poland Pilsudski maintains this position
until his death in May 1935

March 1926: The Samuel Commission in England Releases Its Report on Coal Mining The
Samuel Commission, under the Conservative government, releases a report which advises wage
cuts for miners. The Triple Alliance responds by striking, which is emulated by many other
industries in England to protest the Conservative government's policies.

April 14, 1931: The Spanish Monarchy is Overthrown and The Republic Is Born A provisional
government is established to take Spain from monarchy to republicanism.

1932: General Gyula Gumbos Comes to Power in Hungary Gumbos becomes prime minister,
an office he uses like a dictatorship, setting the tone for Hungarian government during the
remaining inter-war years.

February - July 1932: The final League of Nations Disarmament Conference is Held The last
major League of Nations-sponsored disarmament conference meets from February to July 1932
at Geneva, with 60 nations in attendance, including the United States. However, this conference,
like it's predecessors, fails to secure any agreement, and organized disarmament remains an
unaccomplished goal.

1933 - 1934: 1,140,000 Communist Party Members are Expelled by Stalin Stalin's Central
Purge Commission, created in 1933, publicly investigates and tries many party members for
treason as Stalin seeks to rid the party of opposition.

January 30, 1933: Hitler is Appointed Chancellor of Germany In an attempt to reel in the
chaos of the German government, President Paul von Hindenburg declares Hitler chancellor, the
first major step in Hitler's ascent to dictatorship.

March 23, 1933: The German Reichstag Passes the Enabling Act The Enabling Act gives
Hitler the power to issue decrees with the status of law.

June 3, 1936: Leon Blum's Popular Front Government Comes to Power in FranceThe
Popular Front, a leftist party, institutes social legislation and allows wide public participation in the
government, but ultimately fails to curtail the depreciating economy.

July 17, 1936: The Spanish Nationalists Begin the Spanish Civil War Generals Goded, Mola,
and Francisco Franco lead troops in rebellion against the republic, sparking the Spanish Civil War.

April 25, 1937: Spanish Nationalists Bomb Guernica The small northern town of Guernica is
bombed, and civilians are gunned down as they flee the scene. In this brutal massacre 1500 die
and 800 are wounded, but the military targets in the town remain intact.

September 18, 1938: The Munich Pact is Signed Britain and France appeases Hitler by signing
the Munich Pact, which grants Hitler control of the Czech Sudetenland.

March 30, 1939: The Spanish Civil War Ends Madrid falls to Francisco Franco's forces,
effectively ending the Spanish Civil War. Franco's oppressive dictatorship begins.

September 3, 1939: Britain and France Declare War on Germany In response to Hitler's
continued aggression in Eastern Europe, Britain and France go to war with Germany in an attempt
to stop Hitler's bid for global hegemony

TREATY OF VERSAILLES(1919)
Terms of the Treaty
TERMS DESCRIPTION
Saar  Saar with its rich coalfields was given to France
Alsace-Lorraine  It was returned to France
The Rhineland  The Rhineland was demilitarized
The Covenant of League of  Germany was not allowed to join it
Nation
German Colonies  All German colonies were taken and given to Britain and
France as mandates
German Armed Forces  The German Army was restricted to 100,000 men
 The German Navy was restricted to 6 battleships
 Germany was not allowed to have an air force
Reparations  Germany would have to make reparations amounting to
132 billion gold marks
War Guilt  Germany was held responsible for the war
Austria  Germany was forbidden to join Austria
Polish Corridor  Lands in eastern Germany was given to Poland

IMPACT OF TREATY OF VERSAILLES AND HOW IT CONTRIBUTED TO WW11

 INTRODUCTION
 “ This is not peace. It is an armistice for 20 years”—Marshal Ferdinand, a French General
 “ The peace to end peace”—Lord Milner
 “ This treaty breathes a poisonous spirit of revenge, which may yet scorch the fair face not
of a corner of France, but of Europe”—Jan Christian smuts
 Germany was unjustly blamed as the sole perpetrator of the war.
 Treaty of Versailles was aimed at subduing Germany’s capacity to become a threat to
Europe’s peace and order.
 In the pursuit of this aim, victorious parties of the WW1 endeavored to hurt Germany’s
economy, military and above all its national pride.
 To say that the terms of the treaty were unjust would be an understatement.
 Treaty of Versailles aimed at obliterating Germany in four broad domains: Economics,
Military, Democratic prospects and National Pride.
 Terms of the treaty were crafted in a way to ensure that Germany could never regain
economic and military prowess it had pre WW1.
 Ironically, treaty of Versailles served exactly the opposite purpose it was initially designed
to: Germany bounced back strongly in the face of fascism with expansionist and
revanchist agenda, endangering the peace and order of Europe and the world at large.
IMPACT OF TREATY OF DESCRIPTION
VERSAILLES
Economy of Germany  Before WW1, Germany’s economy depended on
three things:
1) Overseas commerce and trade
2) Iron and Coal
3) Transport and tariff system
 Terms of the treaty harmed each of them in
some way
 Germany lost its overseas colonies, mercantile
marine and transport system to other nations,
which seriously affected its capability to forge a
sustainable economic system
 Since transport system was disrupted, Germany’s
ability to export goods to other nations was
curtailed thereby reducing its international trade
volume
 Heavy reparation reduced Germany’s options to
look out for alternate means of transportation
 Germany was denied custom duties on imports
 Before the end of WW1, Germany was the
second greatest industrial power (after the USA).
It relied heavily on coal and Iron.
 Loss of strategic areas such as Alsace-Lorraine
and Saar, which contained 75% of Germany’s
iron-ore and majority of coalfields, were taken
away from it.
 Loss of territory did not only mean the loss of
indigenous resources. Industries, agriculture and
all the sectors of economy were also lost.
 Heavy reparation payments, about $132 billion
added salt to Germany’s injured economy.
 If all this was not enough, the great economic
depression in 1929 aggravated an already grim
economic situation.
 Hyperinflation, unemployment and poverty
skyrocketed, resulting in famine and misery.
 Economic catastrophe hit hard on Germans. It
outraged them and instilled hatred for the fragile
post-WW1 order that the victorious parties had
sponsored.
National Pride  Severe indemnities and unjust behavior of the
victorious parties rendered a great blow to
Germany’s national pride
 Moreover, loss of territory resulted in division of
German population in various countries.
 This gave birth to discontent among German
 people.
 They had never truly accepted division of
German population.
 They sought reuniting of German masses
 “ The reunion of these two German
states(Germany and Austria) is our life task”—
Adolf Hitler
Democratic Prospects  Weimar Republic became increasingly unpopular
on accounts of its failure to challenge treaty of
Versailles
 Democracy, as a result, became highly unpopular.
 Hostilities against the government increased
 It also made Hitler more attractive.
 Germans, overwhelmed by his charisma and
personality cult, saw in him a leader who could
take them out of the ordeal
 Hence the democratic project was soon brought
to an end, giving way for the extreme form of
fascism: Nazism.
Military  The German Army was restricted to 100,000 men
 The German Navy was restricted to 6 battleships
 Germany was not allowed to have an air force
HOW TREATY OF VERSAILLES CONTRIBUTED TO WW11
TREATY OF VERSAILLES

 Loss of strategic territories

 Alsace-Lorraine
 Saar valley
 Danzig Port
 Reparation
 Demilitarization
 Economically crippled
 War guilt clause

Economic catastrophe: Disservice to Germany’s

democratic project:
 Unemployment
 Poverty  Unpopularity of
 Famine Weimer Republic.
 Democracy was not
seen as a remedy
for Germany’s woes
 GERMANY’S LOSS OF FAITH IN THE
POST-WW11 ORDER

RISE OF HITLER

 Extreme form of fascism emerged in

the form of Nazism

INABILITY AND INDIFFERENCE OF THE WORLD COMMUNITY TO CONTAIN

HITLER’S AMBITIONS:

1) Failure of the Policy of appeasement(1937)

2) Defunct nature of League of nations:
2.1 League had limited membership (Russia and Germany were not
allowed to join it)
2.2 Economic sanctions did not work (World was hit by a depression.
Ceasing trade was not in anyone’s interest. Also manifests limited power
of the league)
2.3 The league had no army
2.4 Rigid meeting schedules( Leaders from all over the world were
scheduled to meet only 4 times a year, this marred consensus-building)

3) Threat from communism: Western powers saw in Germany a pawn that

could be employed for containing communism. So the policy of indifference and
appeasement were aimed at fulfilling this end

4) Inability of France and indifference of Great Britain to enforce the treaty of

Versailles
 REARMAMENT OF GERMANY
 STATE CONTROL OF ECONOMY
 ROME-BERLIN AXIS PACT( WITH ITALY)
 ANTI-COMITERM PACT( WITH JAPAN)

 UNLEASHMENT OF HITLER’S
EXPANSIONIST AGENDA

WORLD WAR 11

CAUSES OF WW11
 “All the profound causes of the war are rooted in the length and severity of the slump:
the rise of radical ideologies and exclusive nationalism, the formation of closed
economic blocs, the Japanese and Italian challenges to the league of nations , and the
failure of the Geneva disarmament talks(1932-34)”—Dr Antony Best
 the interwar years' toxic mixture of facile pacifism, geopolitical
imbalance, and allied disunity allowed these forces a free hand--henry
kissinger
CAUSES DESCRIPTION
 The Great Depression  “ The depression was the turning
point”—Dr Antony Best
 The great depression exacerbated
the condition of Germany, which
was already struggling to redeem its
economy and statecraft.
Unemployment, grinding poverty
and absolute economic collapse
characterized Germany in particular
and the world in general
 This paved way for few vast autarkic
empires
 It also provided an opportunity to
fascist to advocate their ideology
and made people more receptive to
them
 Rise of Fascism and Nazism in
Europe was contributed heavily by
the great depression
 COULD IT HAVE BEEN MITIGATED BY
THE GLOBAL POWERS?
 “ Depression would not have had
such an impact had the major
creditor powers, the united states,
Britain and France, cooperates to
defend the global economy”—Dr
BEST
 All the three great powers—British,
France and USA—were skeptical of
each other’s policy vis-à-vis
economics
 A sort of blame game and
disagreement over the war debt,
reparations, and trade affected their
ability to forge an economic order.
 Even the crisis of 1929 could not
bring them together; and none
could appreciate the hazards their
non-cooperation in key areas of
economics and security could bring
about.
 French and British were too vary of
each other’s policies. The French
attributed their economic woes to
the selfish practices of the Anglo-
Saxons, and the British suspected
 that French used monetary policy as
a coercive instrument
 Each one of them pursued a
protectionist economic policy
thereby decreasing the overall
world trade and affecting their
economies as a result
 Most importantly, USA, an
ambivalent superpower, as
remarked by Henry Kissinger, failed
to rise up to the challenge. Its policy
of isolation brought disastrous
results for the global security. Its
position of non-interference and
aloofness from the politics of the
old world ensured that the
emergence of Fascist regimes went
unchecked.
 Furthermore, USA did not join the
league of Nations--an institution it
helped create. With diminishing
power of the great Britain and its
losing grip on the world affairs, the
onus of acting as a global policeman
rested on USA--a role, which it
consistently failed to assume.
 A different economic policy,
characterized by free trade
agreements and monetary policy
based on consensus could have
mitigated the affects of great
depression; and it may have had not
a hazardous impact on the overall
socio-political landscape of Europe,
which contributed towards an all-
out war in 1939.
 Treaty of Versailles  Unjust terms of the treaty of
Versailles strongly angered the
people of Germany
 It caused vast socio-political
upheavals in Germany
 Unemployment soared to 500%( Antony
best) and so did the inflation
 From within it, Hitler emerged who
promised to obliterate the treaty of
Versailles
 Moreover, he unleashed a
 revisionist agenda and sought to
challenge the fragile post ww1
order
 Hitler’s actions in the perusal of  Actions that Hitler took in the
revisionism pursuit of revisionism:
1) Autarky economic policy
2) Forged alliances: Rome-Berlin
Axis pact and Anti comintern
pact that allied Germany with
Japan
3) Massive Arms buildup
 Invasion of Austria, Czechoslovakia
and Poland
 Failure of the appeasement policy  In May 1937, Neville Chamberlain
became Prime Minister of Britain.
He believed that the Treaty of
Versailles had treated Germany
badly and that there were a number
of issues associated with the Treaty
that needed to be put right. He felt
that giving in to Hitler's demands
would prevent another war.

 This policy, adopted by

Chamberlain's government became
known as the policy of
Appeasement.

 The most notable example of

appeasement was the Munich
Agreement of Sep The Munich
Agreement, signed by the leaders of
Germany, Britain, France and Italy,
agreed that the Sudetenland would
be returned to Germany and that
no further territorial claims would
be made by Germany. The Czech
government was not invited to the
conference and protested about the
loss of the Sudetenland. They felt
that they had been betrayed by
both Britain and France with whom
alliances had been made. However,
the Munich Agreement was
generally viewed as a triumph and
an excellent example of securing
peace through negotiation rather
 than war

 When Hitler invaded the rest of

Czechoslovakia in March 1939, he
broke the terms of the Munich
Agreement. Although it was realized
that the policy of appeasement had
failed, Chamberlain was still not
prepared to take the country to war
over "..a quarrel in a far-away
country between people of whom
we know nothing." Instead, he
made a guarantee to come to
Poland's aid if Hitler invaded
Poland.

 Failure of the league of nations 1 League had limited membership

(Russia and Germany were not allowed
to join it)
2 Economic sanctions did not work
(World was hit by a depression. Ceasing
trade was not in anyone’s interest. Also
manifests limited power of the league)
3 The league had no army
4 Rigid meeting schedules( Leaders from
all over the world were scheduled to
meet only 4 times a year, this marred
consensus-building)

> These factors contributed in making

the League of Nations a defunct
organization. Moreover, the basic
premise on which it was formed was
idealism, which dealt with security and
not with peace, a mistake which was
later rectified during the formation of
United National Organization(UNO).
> The structure and the working of the
league wasn't dynamic enough to
respond to the rise of fascist.

 As the conflict between

China and Japan shows,
the great handicap on
the efficacious
functioning of the
 League lies in the fact
that the two largest
nations of the world,
the United States and
Soviet Russia, are not
members. This
determines to a great
extent the policy of
Great Britain in all
questions touching the
League, in a sense
unfavorable to the
League--FA
 The possibility of
successful action by
the League of Nations
is further limited by
the fact that the Great
Powers of Europe
often subordinate
their policy at Geneva
to the needs of their
respective internal
politics. Of the five
European Great
Powers, three are in
the throes of
revolutionary
ferment: Germany is
under the influence
of Hitler's
revolutionary
movement, Italy
under that of the
Fascist revolution,
and Russia under
that of the
Communist
revolution. The more
 abnormal the
situation of the chief
members of the
League, the more
difficult it is for the
League to function,
its members being
sovereign nations---
FA
 . The fact that certain
Great Powers,
notably Germany and
Italy, think of their
participation in the
League above all as a
medium of furthering
their own wishes and
aspirations,
regardless of the
claims, wishes or
even rights of other
nations, is clearly the
cause of a crisis in the
League and leads to
skepticism regarding
the League's
efficacy.--FA
 The League
sometimes finds it
difficult to adjust the
relations of the Great
Powers with the
small or medium-
sized Powers. The
Great Powers do not
like to be overruled
by the votes of a large
 group of small
nations; while the
latter are reluctant to
tolerate the pressure
of the Great Powers. -
-FA

 PAKISTAN'S FOREIGN POLICY

CONTENTS
 Phases of Pakistan's foreign policy
 Objectives of Pakistan's foreign Policy
 Way forward for Pakistan's foreign policy
 GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF PAKISTAN'S FOREIGN POLICY

“Our foreign policy is one of friendliness and goodwill towards all the
nations of the world. We do not cherish aggressive designs against any
country or nation. We believe in the principle of honesty and fair play
in national and international dealings and are prepared to make our
utmost contribution to the promotion of peace and prosperity among
the nations of the world. Pakistan will never be found lacking in
extending its material and moral support to the oppressed and
suppressed peoples of the world, and in upholding the principles of
the United Nations Charter.”
M. A JINNAH
 The State shall Endeavour to preserve and strengthen fraternal
relations among Muslim countries based on Islamic unity, support the
common interests of the peoples of Asia, Africa and Latin America,
promote international peace and security, foster goodwill and friendly
relations among all nations and encourage the settlement of
international disputes by peaceful means.”--Article 40 of the
constitution

FOREIGN POLICY OBJECTIVES

· Promoting Pakistan as a dynamic, progressive, moderate, and
democratic Islamic country.

· Developing friendly relations with all countries of the world, especially

major powers and immediate neighbours.

· Safeguarding national security and geo-strategic interests, including

Kashmir.

· Consolidating our commercial and economic cooperation with

international community.

· Safeguarding the interests of Pakistani Diaspora abroad.

· Ensuring optimal utilization of national resources for regional and

international cooperation.
 PHASES OF PAKISTAN'S FOREIGN POLICY
SEE NOTES, all the 6 phases

CRITICAL EVALUATION OF JOINING OF WESTERN ALLIANCES(SEATO AND CENTO): CAUSES AND

IMPLICATIONS
 "The contours of Pakistan's foreign policy were thus shaped by the desperate needs for arms
to ensure the security of the new state and for funds to finance its economic development"--
Abdul Sattar, Pakistan Former Foreign Secretary
 India robbed Pakistan of its fair share of British Assets, which according to the terms of partition
were divided into :80:20.( Abdul Sattar)
 "Resources were meagre as India delayed or withheld Pakistan's share of resources. Complex
partition problems were compounded by the unfair boundary award and the unanticipated
tide of millions of refugees fleeing communal riots of unprecedented magnitude"--Abdul
Sattar
 To make matters even worse, India, exploiting the Power disparity vis-a-vis Pakistan, unleashed
a self-serving and dominating foreign policy
 It annexed Junagadh and Hyderabad, which according to the terms of Partition were supposed
to be part of Pakistan; and its annexation of Kashmir rang alarms of emergence in Pakistan.
 To further instill insecurity in Pakistan, it cut off the water supply in 1948
 India's conduct showed that it was well poised to exploit the disparity in the Balance of power
vis-a-vis Pakistan..
 Pakistan lacked economic, strategic, and military capacity to confront India's aggression.
 So soon after its inception, it was engulfed with great security and economic concerns.
 So to adjust the highly disparate balance of power between India and Pakistan by strengthening
its military and economy became the prime objectives.
 And to realize these objectives, it cultivated ways to make itself relevant with an ongoing
ideological struggle between USSR and USA: Cold war.

CAUSES DESCRIPTION
Security  India's annexation of hyderabad, Junagadh, advances in
Kashmir, cutting of water supply, and utter disregard for
terms of partition and International norms breathed a
huge sense of insecurity in Pakistani camp
 Balance of power was highly skewed in India's favour
 Military, a component of the hard power of a country,
was very weak.
 So in order to strengthen its military, it had to look for
allies and partners
Strategic importance  The only way Pakistan could bolster its strategic
importance was through joining the alliances
 Pakistan had to make itself relevant to the ongoing great
game between USSR and USA
 Fortunately, American acknowledged Pakistan
geographical significance
 "Pakistan with a population of 70 million person will be
the largest Muslim country in the world and will
 occupy on one of the most strategic areas in the
world"--George Marshall, secretary of state
 In American eyes, geographical location was very
important( Abdul Sattar)
 Bases in Badaber and Karachi were viewed as vital bases
to launch air operations against the soviet union
 " We stand ready to assist Pakistan in all appropriate
ways which might naturally benefit our two countries
and the world and we have profound hope for
continuing peaceful and constructive collaboration
between Pakistan, her sister dominion and other
countries"--Henry Truman
 So joining Western alliances were also motivates by the
Pakistani desire to make itself more relevant in
international domain( Hussain Haqqani, Magnificent
Delusions)
Economic concerns  Pakistan was robbed of its share of British assets by
India
 Influx of millions of refugees and unfair boundary award
further compounded the problem
 With India cutting off the water supply in 1948, the
backbone of Pakistani economy, agriculture came under
serious threat
 India, advancing its doctrine of re-absorption of Pakistan
in to India, leaved no stone unturned to harm Pakistan.
 Pakistan, unlike India, had to develop its statecraft and
socio-economic system
 " The contours of Pakistan's foreign policy were shaped
by....desperate needs to fund its economic
development"---Abdul Sattar
 Economic aid was anticipated as a result of joining
western alliances
 Moreover, Pakistan anticipated a more non-partisan role
of World Bank while mediating in indo-Pak conflicts, if it
got the blessings of the USA
 So economic aid was also anticipated as a result of
joining western alliances
Settlement of disputes  Water and Kashmir disputes had become issues of great
national importance
 Pakistan, in anticipation of US support for Kashmir and
other issues, joined western alliances
 It expected US's support in UNSC for the resolution of
Kashmir dispute( Pakistan Economic and Social review)
POSITIVE DESCRIPTION
IMPACTS/IMPLICA
TIONS
Pakistan's strategic  "Pakistan with a population of 70 million person will be the largest
importance Muslim country in the world and will occupy on one of the most
enhanced strategic areas in the world"--George Marshall, secretary of state
 Pakistan, for all practical purposes, was a weak state.
 Its economic prowess and military capacity was at best mediocre
 So by joining alliance, Pakistan made itself strategically important
 Pakistan's geography and its army(composed of great fighters)
contributed the most in making it a strategically important state, and
helped a great deal in making it prominent in the international arena
Enhancement of  Economic assistance up till 1954: $106 million
military strength  Military assistance up till 1954: $ 50 million
 Pakistan received % 1.5 billion worth of defense aid from US till 1959
 Military and Economic assistance from 1954-62: Doubled
 $ 74 million tons of wheat was given to Pakistan
 Military and Economic aid, though not as generous as Pakistan had
expected, helped its army to strengthen and improve its statecraft
Recognition of  " Kashmir issue should be resolved by taking the aspirations of
Kashmir issue-- Kashmiri people into account"--J .F kennedy
Improving its  Pakistan successfully internationalized the Kashmir dispute and won
legitimacy the backing of USA on it.
 For years to come, USA's supported Pakistan's line on kashmir, though
refrained from getting involved too much in South-Asian territorial
disputes.
Blow to India's re-  India's entire foreign policy vis-a-vis Pakistan was basically aimed at
absorption advancing a particular agenda: Re-absorption.
doctrine  Indian leaders had envisaged re-absorption of Pakistan into India, since
they believed that Pakistan was too weak a state, economically and
militarily, to sustain.
 By joining alliances, and the dividends that Pakistan received following
it, Pakistan was able to build a strong military and strengthen its
economy, giving a great blow to Indian aspiration, who were then
forced to re-calibrate their Foreign Policy.

Negative Impacts Description

Arab Criticism  Suez canal crisis
 Pakistan was caught in a conundrum
 Pakistan was criticized by Arab states
 Pakistan was depicted as pro-colonial and anti-islamic unity
 Arab countries, perturbed by Pakistan, extended overtures to
India
 Domestic pressure also mounted
  "Pakistan received general abuse by being labeled as camp-
follower and a stooge of an imperial and colonial power)--
Qureshi
 A classic case of balancing geopolitical imperatives with ideology (
Abdul Sattar)
Soviet fury  Don't play with fire" " Soviet officials warned Pakistan and other
allies.
 U2 incident marked an all time low in Pak-USSR relation
 USSR supported the movement for Pushtoonistan, thus bringing
the disputed Durand line in to lime light
 USSR also provided $100 million aid to Afghanistan and
supported its desire to subsume Pakistan's NWFP into a greater
Pushtoonistan as a province of Afghanistan
 USSR extended unequivocal support for India, and successively
blocked all resolution in UNSC on Kashmir
 Thus, USA's support on Kashmir meant nothing in presence of
USSR's opposition since both wielded VETO power

India was strengthened  "India was rewarded for hunting with a hound and running with
the hare"--Abdul Sattar
 Pakistan's alliance with USA provoked USSR's support for India.
 USSR not only gave it enormous aid but also vowed to support its
take on Kashmir and other matters
 After the sino-india war of 1962, USA, who had thus far vilified
the non-alignment movement, sought to support India against a
communist China.
 This is how USSR and USA both sought to maximize its favor upon
India to win over it, this resulted in a bonanza of money,
ultimately empowering India, and disturbing the balance of
power between India and Pakistan.

PAKISTAN JOINING WESTERN ALLIANCES: EXPECTATIONS VERSUS REALITY

EXPECTATION REALITY
Bonanza of money Meagre aid, enough to sustain the State
Progress on Kashmir USA, apart from hollow support and lip service,
couldn't play a substantial role in the resolution
of Kashmir crisis, as a result, the dispute
lingered on.
Support for Pakistan in an event of War After the eruption of war in 1965, USA
suspended aid to both Pakistan and India and
absolved itself from mediating in the conflict,
leaving room for USSR to intervene.
 WAY FORWARD FOR PAKISTAN'S FOREIGN POLICY

Headings Description
Pursuing National  But what do we mean by national interest? It lies in enhancing
Interest our economic, military and cultural power within our overall
ideological framework
 We should use our foreign policy to, first and foremost, defend
our territory from outside aggression and internal strife
 That necessitates strong defense and deterrent capabilities. We
have to leverage our relations with nations in the region and
beyond, as well as with international multilateral institutions, to
attract foreign direct investment, start off joint ventures and
promote trade
 All these activities should be geared towards accelerating our
GDP growth, raising standards of living and improving human
development.
Credits: Masood khan, Director General of the Institute of
Strategic Studies
Shifting regional  Pakistan’s sense of insecurity, vis-à-vis a more powerful India,
dynamics has been the core driver of its foreign policy since Partition
 Its relations with its immediate neighbors such as Afghanistan
and Iran, and other regional countries such as Turkey and the
Gulf States, have all been filtered through this security prism
 Its close alliance with the United States-led regional security
systems for the past six decades was also shaped by this core
insecurity dynamic.
 Changing global trends in regional trade and the growth of Asian
economies is forcing Pakistan to readjust the focus of its foreign
relations especially within its neighborhood
 Pakistan’s reluctance in getting militarily involved in the Saudi-
led war in Yemen is evidence of this new thinking
 As Iran looks to rejoin the global economy after sanctions
against its exports come to an end, Pakistan is positioning to
revive the Iran-Pakistan gas pipeline. Getting too deeply
enmeshed in the Iranian-Saudi struggle in the Middle East
would intensify tensions with Iran and adversely impact
security in the province of Baluchistan.
 Pakistan’s improved relations with the Ashraf Ghani
administration in Afghanistan also reflect this broader shift in its
foreign policy framework.
Playing to our strengths  Pakistan’s foreign policy ought to be based on our country’s
 inherent strengths.
 As the sixth-largest nation in the world by way of population –
with reliable demographic data indicating that we are closing in
on 200 million people – we should frame a policy which assumes
that we possess a reasonable quality of human resources and
have an extremely useful geography.
 Our strength is our agriculture, which enables us to be food-
sufficient with a considerable surplus of rice and wheat. We also
enjoy an abundance of fruit, vegetables and dairy products and
have the capacity to launch all these for export. Our next
strength is located in our capacity to weave the finest cotton
fabrics in the world, based on indigenously grown raw cotton,
which commands strong markets abroad
 We can rightfully boast of the highest quality of craftsmanship in
leather, metals, pottery and stitched craft, and are now entering
the fashion market at an international level. Our jewellery,
gemstones and marble – notably onyx – draw interest
worldwide. Moreover, our considerable mineral resources await
exploration, as do our deposits of natural gas.

CREDITS: Syed Abid Hussain

Regional cooperation  Pakistan’s foreign policy ought to be determined primarily by
economic interests.
 For the first time in three centuries from the West to Asia, a
historic shift is taking place in the centre of gravity of the global
economy
 This provides a unique opportunity for Pakistan to build a
prosperous future for its people and emerge as a strong and
economically independent state.
 Over the last two decades, China and India – with a billion
citizens each – have doubled their per capita incomes
 According to a recent United Nations Development Programme
report, in terms of speed and scale, this economic performance
has had a greater impact on the world than the Industrial
Revolution in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
 Given present trends, China will emerge as the largest economy
in the world over the next two decades and if South Asia
achieves economic integration as envisaged in South Asian
Free Trade Area (SAFTA), then South Asia can emerge as the
second-largest economy in the world, thereby making the
China–South Asia region the greatest economic powerhouse in
human history
 A policy of economic integration with China on the one hand
and South Asia on the other will not only maximize Pakistan’s
economic gains but also provide a balance to its relationship
with its larger neighbors.
 Accordingly, our foreign policy should aim to build not only a
 North-South economic corridor with China, but also an East-
West corridor across Asia, from Iran to Myanmar.
CREDITS: Akmal Hussain
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