GENBIO Gregor Mendel was an Augustinian monk who lived in the late

19th century and through studying peas, develop the basis for
CHROMOSOMES – is microscopic structure within cells that the science of genetics still used today.
carries the molecule deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – the
hereditary material that influences the development and GENETICS – is the study of how traits are inherited in
characteristics of each organism. offspring.

a. AUTOSOMES – are non-sex chromosomes that are the WHAT KINDS OF TRAITS ARE THERE?
same number and kind between sexes TRAITS are either dominant or recessive
b. GONOSOMES (Sex Chromosomes) – determine if the
individual is male or female. Sex chromosomes in the DOMINAL TRAIT
human female are XX and those of the male are XY. → A dominant trait is a trait that is always expressed or
Males produce X containing and Y containing gametes, shown
therefore, males → Examples are brown eyes, right-handed
TRAITS – is a specific characteristics of an organism → The allele of a gene that masks or suppresses the
expression of an alternate the trait appears in the
– Specific characteristic that is unique heterozygous condition.
– Affect the way we look → It requires at least one dominant allele for the trait to
– Affect how our bodies function be expressed, e.g. Dd
– Are inherited
– Ex. Hair color, eye color, handedness, etc. RECESSIVE TRAIT

HOW ARE TRAITS INHERITED?  A recessive trait is a trait that is covered up or seems to
disappear
→ This happens when gametes unite. When an egg is  Examples are blonde hair, blue eyes, left-handed
fertilized by a sperm, for each chromosomes pair, we  An allele that is masked by a dominant allele does not
receive one chromosome from our father and one from appear in the heterozygous condition only in
our mother homozygous
MENDELIAN GENETICS  It requires two recessive alleles for the trait to be
expressed, e.g. dd
WHERE DO TRAITS COME FROM?  Use a capital of the first letter of the dominant trait to
represent the dominant gene
Factors that make up an individual from both parents
 Use a small version of the letter of the dominant trait
The trait information is passed on from generation to for the recessive gene
generation in the form of genes  Ex. Right-handedness is the dominant trait so use R for
the dominant gene and use r for the recessive gene for
WHAT ARE GENES?
Left-handedness
 A gene is a specific location on a chromosome that  Ex. Tall is the dominant trait so we use T and use t for
controls a certain trait the recessive gene for Short
 Segment of chromosome (DNA) that codes for a trait
HOW DO WE PREDICT OFFSPRING?
 Genes carry the information that determines your
traits, which are features or characteristics that are A punnet square is a way to show the possible
passed on to you-or inherited-from your parents combinations of genes that offspring of parents could
 Is a portion of DNA that determines a trait have.
 Comes in multiple forms or versions. Each of these
A punnet square is a square diagram that is used to
forms is called an allele
predict the possible genotypes of an offspring arising from
WHERE DO GENES COME FROM? a particular cross or breeding event.

 An individual needs 2 genes for each trait- one gene Possibility is the likelihood or chance of an event
from each parent occurring.
 This gene pair is called allele
 Allele-Different from of the same gene
MENDEL’S PRINCIPLES
 One gene comes from the sperm cell (from the father) 1. PRINCIPLE OF DOMINANCE
 One gene comes from the egg cell (from the mother) One allele masked another one allele was dominant
HOW DO WE WRITE OUR GENETICS? over the other
2. PRINCIPLE OF SEGREGATION
 The name of the dominant trait determines what letter When gametes are formed, the pairs of hereditary
is used to represent the gene factors (genes) become separated, so that each sex cell
(egg/sperm) receives only one kind of gene.
 3. LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT PHENOTYPE - is observable characteristics or traits of an
States that “the expression of one particular trait does organism
not affect the expression of another trait”
 An organism with two dominant alleles for a trait is
said to have a homozygous dominant genotype
WHAT ARE THE COMMON DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE  An organism with one dominant allele and one
TRAITS IN HUMANS? recessive allele is said to have a heterozygous
genotype
 Widow’s peak
 Earlobe attachment NON-MENDELIAN GENETICS
 Cleft chin
NON-MENDELIAN INHERITANCE PATTERN
 Dimples
 Natural curly hair → Is any pattern of inheritance in which traits do not
 Freckles segregate in accordance with Mendel’s laws.
The law of independent Assortment states that a dihybrid INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
cross (crossing of two pairs of traits), an assortment of each
→ Is a form of gene interaction in which both alleles of a
pair of traits is independent of the other. In other words,
gene at a locus are partially expressed, often resulting
during gamete formation, one pair of trait segregates from
in an intermediate or different phenotype. It is also
another pair of traits independently.
known as partial dominance.
MENDELIAN GENETICS
RR – red WW – white RW – pink
 Refers to an inheritance pattern that follows the laws
R W
of segregation and independent assortment in which a
gene inherited from either parent segregates into R RR RW
gametes at an equal frequency. W RW WW
1:2:1
GENOTYPE – refers to the genetic material passed between
generations CODOMINANCE
→ The two alleles result in both phenotypes being
expressed at the same time.
 R W
R RR RW  Any substance that causes the body to make an
W RW WW immune response against that substance
 Antigens include toxins, chemicals, bacteria, viruses, or
MULTIPLE ALLELES other substance that come from outside the body
 Body tissues and cells, including cancer cells, also have
→ When there are more than two types of alleles for a antigens on them that cause an immune response
given locus or trait, this will result in more than two  An antigen is any kind of marker like a protein or string
kinds of phenotypes that may be expressed for that of amino acids that your immune system can recognize
trait.  Blood is also made up of red blood cells, white blood
→ More than two choices of alleles are present for a trait. cells, and platelets in liquid called plasma. Your blood
Example is the ABO blood group system. group is identified by antibodies and antigens in the
There are three different types of alleles A (or i A), B (or iB) and blood.
O (or i)  Antibodies are proteins found in plasma. They’re part
of your body’s natural defenses. They recognize foreign
→ Individuals can be type A, B, or O (recessive) substances such as germs, and alert your immune
The following genotypes will have the following blood types system which destroys them.
(phenotypes)  Antigens are carbohydrate or protein molecules found
on the surface of red blood cells but can also be found
→ AA or IAIA type A on body tissue, body fluids, and on surface of bacteria
→ AO or IAi and viruses.
→ BB or IBIB  Antigens can trigger the immune system to produce
→ BO or IB antibodies directed against the donor’s blood group
→ AB or IAIB antigens if the recipient does no have that antigen
→ OO or ii
ANTIBODY
The donor antigen must not agglutinate with the recipient
antibody.
ANTIGEN
  A protein made by plasma cells (a type of white blood
cell) in response to an antigen (a substance that causes
the body to make a specific immune response)
SUMMARY
An antigen is a disease agent (virus, toxins, bacterium,
parasite, fungus, chemical, etc.) that the body needs to
remove, and an antibody is a protein that binds to the antigen
to allow our immune system to identify and deal with it.

Blood Group Antigen(s) Antibodies Genotype(s)

B B antigen Anti A BB or BO
AB A antigen and None AB
B antigen
O None Anti A and OO
Anti B