Local, convective and material derivatives (rate of change)

Let 𝐹(𝑟⃗, 𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)denote some fluid properties related with the fluid element at the point P
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ at any time t.
such that 𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
̂ = |𝛿𝑟
Let element moves through distance 𝛿𝑠 = 𝑃𝑄
𝛿𝑟⃗ 𝛿𝑠
∴ 𝑞⃗ = lim =
𝛿𝑡→0 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡
∴ 𝛿𝑠 = 𝑞⃗𝛿𝑡
𝛿𝑡 is an small time interval for taking distance 𝛿𝑠.
𝛿𝑡 = (𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) − 𝑡
Then 𝐹(𝑟 + 𝛿𝑟, 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑟 + 𝑞𝛿𝑡, 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) will be the new position of fluid element at an instance
𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡.
Therefore the total rate of change of fluid properties of F at any time t in the motion of fluid particle
𝐷𝐹 𝛿𝐹 𝐹(𝑟+𝑞𝛿𝑡,𝑡+𝛿𝑡)−𝐹(𝑟,𝑡)
is determined as 𝐷𝑡 = lim 𝛿𝑡 = lim 𝛿𝑡
------(1)
1
We use tailor’s series expansion 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ, 𝑦 + 𝑘) = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) + (ℎ𝑓𝑥 + 𝑘𝑓𝑦 ) + 2! (ℎ2 𝑓𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘 2 𝑓𝑦𝑦 +
2ℎ𝑘𝑓𝑦𝑥 ) + ⋯.
1
𝐹(𝑟 + 𝑞𝛿𝑡, 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑟, 𝑡) + (𝑞𝛿𝑡𝐹𝑠 + 𝛿𝑡𝐹𝑡 ) + ((𝑞𝛿𝑡)2 𝐹𝑠𝑠 + (𝛿𝑡)2 𝐹𝑡𝑡 + 2𝑞𝛿𝑡𝛿𝑡𝐹𝑡𝑠 ) + ⋯
2!

1
𝐹(𝑟 + 𝑞𝛿𝑡, 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) − 𝐹(𝑟, 𝑡) = (𝑞𝛿𝑡𝐹𝑠 + 𝛿𝑡𝐹𝑡 ) + 2! ((𝑞𝛿𝑡)2 𝐹𝑠𝑠 + (𝛿𝑡)2 𝐹𝑡𝑡 + 2𝑞𝛿𝑡𝛿𝑡𝐹𝑡𝑠 ) + ⋯ ----
(*)
Substitute (*) in 1 we get,
1
𝐷𝐹 (𝑞𝛿𝑡𝐹𝑠 + 𝛿𝑡𝐹𝑡 ) + ((𝑞𝛿𝑡)2 𝐹𝑠𝑠 + (𝛿𝑡)2 𝐹𝑡𝑡 + 2𝑞𝛿𝑡𝛿𝑡𝐹𝑡𝑠 ) + ⋯
= lim 2!
𝐷𝑡 𝛿𝑡
𝐷𝐹
= 𝑞𝐹𝑠 + 𝐹𝑡
𝐷𝑡
Or
𝐷𝐹
= 𝑞𝐹𝑟 + 𝐹𝑡
𝐷𝑡
Or
𝐷𝐹
= 𝑞∇F + 𝐹𝑡
𝐷𝑡
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
The change in fluid property F for the element in small interval ∆𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝜕𝑡
𝛿𝑡 and 𝜕𝑡 , represent the
rate at which F changing locally at given point r.
This changes is called local rate of change or local derivative of F.
Fluid element moves form a point 𝑟⃗⃗⃗ to new position 𝑟⃗ + 𝑞⃗∆𝑡 then the change in any fluid property
𝜕𝐹
𝐹 = 𝑞⃗ 𝜕𝑠 𝛿𝑡

This change due to moment of element is known as convective rate of change of F.

Change in any fluid property F for a fluid element moving in unsteady and non-uniform flow is made
up of both local and convective rate of change 𝑞𝐹𝑠 𝛿𝑡 + 𝐹𝑡 𝛿𝑡 which is known as material derivative of
F and this given by
𝐷 𝜕
=𝑞∇+
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Example: find the local, convective and total rate of change of fluid density is given by 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) =
3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧𝑡 4 if the velocity of fluid is 𝑞⃗ = 3𝑥 𝑖 + 4𝑦 2 𝑗 + 9𝑧 𝑘. Also find the same at a point (1,2,3).
Example: find the local, convective and total rate of change of fluid velocity is given by 𝑞⃗ = 3𝑥𝑦𝑡 𝑖 +
4𝑧𝑦 2 𝑡 2 𝑗 + 9𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑘.

Derive the expression for acceleration of fluid particle

The acceleration of fluid particle of fixed identity can be represented by the material derivative of 𝑞⃗
(velocity) and it denoted by 𝐹⃗ .
𝐷𝑞⃗ 𝑑𝑞⃗ 𝑑𝑞⃗
𝐹⃗ = = + 𝑞⃗
𝐷𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠
Or
𝐷𝑞⃗ 𝑑𝑞⃗
𝐹⃗ = = + (𝑞∇)𝑞⃗
𝐷𝑡 𝑑𝑡
We know that 𝑞⃗ = 𝑢𝑖⃗ + 𝑣𝑗⃗ + 𝑤𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
There fore 𝑞∇= (𝑢𝑖⃗ + 𝑣𝑗⃗ + 𝑤𝑘⃗⃗ ) (𝜕𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗⃗ + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘⃗⃗ ) =(𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧
)

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
There fore (𝑞∇)q = (𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧
) (𝑢𝑖⃗ + 𝑣𝑗⃗ + 𝑤𝑘⃗⃗ ) = (𝑢 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑢 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑢 𝜕𝑧 ) 𝑖 + (𝑣 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑣 𝜕𝑦 +
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝑣 𝜕𝑧 ) 𝑗 + (𝑤 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑤 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑤 𝜕𝑧 ) 𝑘

It he acceleration 𝐹⃗ = 𝐹1 𝑖⃗ + 𝐹2 𝑗⃗ + 𝐹3 𝑘⃗⃗,
Then
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝐹1 𝑖⃗ + 𝐹2 𝑗⃗ + 𝐹3 𝑘⃗⃗ = ( + + ) (𝑢𝑖⃗ + 𝑣𝑗⃗ + 𝑤𝑘⃗⃗ )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
= (𝑢 +𝑢 +𝑢 ) 𝑖 + (𝑣 +𝑣 +𝑣 ) 𝑗 + (𝑤 +𝑤 +𝑤 )𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Therefore, the component of acceleration is
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝐹1 = (𝑢 +𝑢 +𝑢 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝐹2 = (𝑣 +𝑣 +𝑣 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝐹3 = (𝑤 +𝑤 +𝑤 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Example: Given the velocity field 𝑞⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 2 𝑦⃗⃗𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 2 𝑧⃗⃗𝑗 + 𝐶𝑡 2 𝑧⃗⃗⃗𝑘⃗ determine the acceleration of a
fluid particle at fixed identity.
Solution

𝑞⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 2 𝑦⃗⃗𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 2 𝑧⃗⃗𝑗 + 𝐶𝑡 2 𝑧⃗⃗⃗𝑘⃗

Then 𝑢 = 𝐴𝑥 2 𝑦, 𝑣 = 𝐵𝑦 2 𝑧, 𝑤 = 𝐶𝑡 2 𝑧

Example: Given the velocity field 𝑞⃗ = (𝑦𝑧 + 𝑡)⃗⃗𝑖 + (𝑥𝑧 − 𝑡)⃗⃗𝑗 + (𝑥𝑦)⃗⃗⃗𝑘⃗ determine the acceleration
of a fluid particle at (2,1,3).

Equation of continuity
Physical quantity are said to be conserved when they do not change with regarded to time during
the process.
The mathematical expression of law of conservation of mass is known as equation of continuity in
fluid dynamics. When a region of fluid contain neither source nor sink (there is no creation and nor
destroy of fluid) then the amount of fluid with in the region is conserved in accordance with the
principle of conservation of matter and general principle of conservation is given as 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑜𝑢𝑡 +
𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Simple form of equation of continuity

Consider a fluid element of infinitesimal volume 𝛿𝑣 and density 𝜌 which is situated at point 𝑟⃗ at a
time t.
Therefore, mass of element = density x volume = 𝜌 𝛿𝑣
Throughout the motion, the mass of any fluid element must be conserved. Hence the mass of any
fluid element remains unchanged as it moves. (Material derivative is zero because no change in
𝐷
mass). Which is the equation of continuity in simplest form 𝐷𝑡 (𝜌 𝛿𝑣) = 0

Generalized form of equation of continuity

Consider a close surface s in a fluid medium containing a volume 𝑣 fixed in a space. Let 𝑛⃗⃗ is a unit
normal outward drawn normal at a surface element 𝛿𝑠. If 𝑞⃗ be the velocity of the fluid at the
element 𝛿𝑠 then the normal component of 𝑞⃗ measured outward from volume 𝑣 = 𝑞⃗𝑛⃗⃗. And the rate
of mass flow across ∆𝑠 per unit mass = 𝜌⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑛⃗⃗⃗
𝑞 𝛿𝑠(because rate of mass flow = density x volume =
density x normal component x area)
Total rate of mass flow out of volume 𝑣 across ∆𝑠 is given by ∬ 𝜌⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑛⃗⃗⃗
𝑞 𝑑𝑠

Similarly total rate of decrease mass flow into v is equal to = − ∬ 𝜌⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑛⃗⃗⃗
𝑞 𝑑𝑠
Therefore 𝑣 = − ∬ 𝜌⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑛⃗⃗⃗
𝑞 𝑑𝑠
Apply the gauss divergence theorem, we get
( for any vector A which is continuous differentiable and has continuous first order partial derivatives
then ∬ 𝑛⃗⃗ 𝐴⃗ 𝑑𝑠 = ∭ ∇ 𝐴⃗ 𝑑𝑣)
Total rate of mass flow into 𝑣 = ∭ ∇ρ 𝑞⃗ 𝑑𝑣
𝜕 𝜕𝜌
Also the rate of change of mass of fluid with in volume V in a time 𝜕𝑡 ∭ 𝜌 𝑑𝑣 => ∭ 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑣

By principle of continuity (in absence of source and sink with in volume is matter is not created or
destroyed in this region)
𝜕𝜌
∭ 𝑑𝑣 = − ∭ ∇(ρ 𝑞⃗) 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝜌
∭ 𝑑𝑣 + ∭ ∇(ρ 𝑞⃗) 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝜌
∭[ + ∇(ρ 𝑞⃗)] 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝜕𝑡
This relation is valid for all arbitrary volume v provided that it lies entirely in the fluid.
Thus the integrents mis be identically zero if we reduce the given volume V into the point volume 𝛿𝑣
𝜕𝜌
which gives 𝜕𝑡 + ∇(ρ 𝑞⃗) = 0
the above equation is satisfies at all points of fluids which is a general equation of continuity or
equation of conservation of mass
We know if ∅ is scalar quantity and A is vector quantity
∇(∅𝐴) = ∅ ∇(𝐴) + (∇∅) 𝐴
𝑑𝑖𝑣 (∅𝐴) = ∅ 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝐴) + 𝐴 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 (∅)
Since 𝜌 is a scalar quantity and 𝑞 is a vector quantity then
∇(𝜌 𝑞) = 𝜌 ∇(𝑞) + (∇𝜌) 𝑞
𝜕𝜌
+ 𝜌 ∇(𝑞) + (∇𝜌) 𝑞 = 0
𝜕𝑡
𝐷𝜌 𝜕𝜌
And 𝐷𝑡; = 𝜕𝑡
+ (∇𝜌) 𝑞 which is a standard form of the equation of continuity

Case 1: for steady state flow the pattern of flow does not changes with the time at any location
𝜕𝜌
hence 𝜕𝑡 = 0.
Therefore, we get (∇𝜌) 𝑞 = 0 which is equation of continuity for steady flow
Case 2: for incompressible fluid the density remain constant throughout the region hence material
𝐷𝜌
derivatives of 𝜌 vanishes. 𝐷𝑡 = 0
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
Therefore 𝜌 ∇(𝑞) = 0 => ∇(𝑞) = 0 => 𝜕𝑥
+ 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧
=0

Equation of Continuity in Cartesian co-ordinate

Consider 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) be the density of the fluid at any point 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 be the components
of velocity potential to the co-ordinate axis.

Consider the small parallel pipe with the edges of length 𝛿𝑥, 𝛿𝑦, 𝛿𝑧 parallel to respective axis. Let any
close surface be drawn into fluid then the mass of the fluid flow into parallel pipe through the face
PQRS in time 𝛿𝑡 = 𝜌 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) -----(1)
Also mass of the fluid flow passes out through the opposite face 𝑃′ 𝑄 ′ 𝑅′ 𝑆 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜕
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛿𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) + 𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) + ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ------(2)

Therefore
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑃′𝑄′𝑅′𝑆′
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝜕
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) − (𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) + 𝛿𝑥 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) + ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕
= −𝛿𝑥 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜕𝑥
Neglecting higher order derivatives
𝜕
= −𝛿𝑥 (𝜌 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 𝑢)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕
= −𝛿𝑥 ( 𝜌 𝑢) 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥
𝜕
=− ( 𝜌 𝑢)𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥
𝜕
Similarly excess of the flows in over the flows out through 𝑄𝑄′𝑅𝑅′ and 𝑃𝑃′𝑆𝑆′ = − 𝜕𝑦 ( 𝜌 𝑣)𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧

Similarly excess of the flows in over the flows out through 𝑃𝑃′𝑄′𝑄 and 𝑅𝑅 ′ 𝑆′𝑆 =
𝜕
− ( 𝜌 𝑤)𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑍
𝜕
Therefore excess of low in over throughout for all faces is = − [𝜕𝑥 ( 𝜌 𝑢)𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 +
𝜕 𝜕
( 𝜌 𝑣)𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 + 𝜕𝑧 ( 𝜌 𝑤)𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧]
𝜕𝑦
Also the total mass of the fluid inside the parallel pipe = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜌 (𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧)
𝜕 𝜕𝜌
Therefore rate of increases in the mass inside the parallel pipe =𝜕𝑡 (𝜌 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧) = 𝜕𝑡
( 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧)

Therefore by principle of continuity, we have

𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝛿𝑡 =
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝛿𝑡
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
( 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧) = − [ ( 𝜌 𝑢)𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 + ( 𝜌 𝑣)𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 + ( 𝜌 𝑤)𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧]
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⇒ ( 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧) + [ ( 𝜌 𝑢)𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 + ( 𝜌 𝑣)𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 + ( 𝜌 𝑤)𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧] = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⇒[ + ( 𝜌 𝑢) + ( 𝜌 𝑣) + ( 𝜌 𝑤)] 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
But 𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧 ≠ 0 ⇒ [ 𝜕𝑡 + 𝜕𝑥 ( 𝜌 𝑢) + 𝜕𝑦 ( 𝜌 𝑣) + 𝜕𝑧 ( 𝜌 𝑤)] = 0

𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
⇒[ + 𝑢+ 𝑣+ 𝑤+ 𝜌+ 𝜌+ 𝜌] = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
⇒[ + 𝑢+ 𝑣+ 𝑤 +𝜌( + + )] = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐷𝜌
⇒[ + 𝜌(∇ 𝑞⃗) = 0] = 0
𝐷𝑡

Velocity potential and irrotational flow

If 𝑞⃗ = 𝑢 𝑖 + 𝑣 𝑗 + 𝑤 𝑘 is the fluid velocity at any time t then equation of stream lines at that instance
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑢
= 𝑣
= 𝑤
and this curves cuts the surface 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑤 𝑑𝑧 = 0 orthogonally.

If we find scalar function ∅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑥, 𝑡) which is uniform throughout the entire field at that time such
that 𝑑∅ = 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑤 𝑑𝑧
𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
⇒ −[ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧] = 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑤 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
⇒− =𝑢, − = 𝑣, − =𝑤
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
Substitute in ⃗⃗⃗,
𝑞 we get 𝑞⃗ = − 𝑖− 𝑗− 𝑘 = −[ 𝑖+ 𝑗+ 𝑘] = −∇∅ = −𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 (∅)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

--(*) Therefore ∅ is called velocity potential or velocity field 𝑞⃗ and the negative sign is taken as the
matter of conventions. Which shows that ∅ decreases within increases in 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧. Indicates that
the flow is always in direction of decreasing ∅.
Under condition of incompressibility the equation of continuity is ∇ 𝑞⃗ = 0
⇒ ∇(−∇∅) = 0
⇒ −(∇∇)∅ = 0
⇒ −∇2 ∅ = 0
 𝜕2∅ 𝜕2∅ 𝜕2∅
⇒ + 2+ 2 =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Is a Laplace’s equation satisfies all the points of the fluid and solution of this equation is harmonic
function ∅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) which has continuous second order partial derivatives. Also from vector calculus
we know that 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 ∅) = 0 ⇒ ∇ × (∇∅) = 0 ⇒ ∇ × (−𝑞⃗) = 0 ⇒ ∇ × 𝑞⃗ = 0 is a necessary
and sufficient condition for equation 𝑞⃗ = −𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 (∅) holds.
For any velocity field 𝑞⃗ if ∇ × 𝑞⃗ = 0 then the flow is called irrotational flow. In other words when
the flow is irrotational then velocity potential ∅ exist and the velocity vector is gradient of the
velocity potential ∅. Also the given flow is potential type if that flows satisfies the equation ∇ × 𝑞⃗ =
0
Note: for incompressible fluid the given flow is possible flow if it satisfies the equation of continuity
∇ 𝑞⃗ = 0.
Example: the three dimensional incompressible flow given by velocity distribution is given by 𝑞⃗ =
5𝑥 𝑖 + 5𝑦 𝑗 − 10𝑧 𝑘. Is flow satisfying law of conservation of mass or equation of continuity?
Solution: we know equation of continuity for incompressible flow is given by ∇ 𝑞⃗ = 0
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ 𝑞⃗ = [ 𝑖+ 𝑗 + 𝑘] [5𝑥 𝑖 + 5𝑦 𝑗 − 10𝑧 𝑘] = 5 + 5 − 10 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Hence it satisfy the law of conservation of mass
𝑘 2 ( 𝑥 𝑗−𝑦 𝑖)
Example: Test whether the motion satisfy by velocity vector 𝑞⃗ = 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
(k is constant) is a
possible motion for incompressible fluid. If so determine equation of stream line. Also test whether
the motion is of potential kind and if so determine the velocity potential.
𝑘 2 ( 𝑥 𝑗−𝑦 𝑖)
Solution: for the given velocity field 𝑞⃗ = . It is a possible motion of incompressible fluid if
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 −𝑘 2 𝑦 𝜕𝑣 𝑘2𝑥
It satisfies the equation of continuity. That is ∇ 𝑞⃗ = 0 = 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 = (
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
) + (
𝜕𝑦 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
) =0

As the given motion is possible for an incompressible fluid. We can find stream lines which are
governed by differential equation.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑤

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
2 = 2 =
−𝑘 𝑦 𝑘 𝑥 0
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2
= 2 ; 𝑑𝑧 = 0
−𝑘 𝑦 𝑘 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= ; 𝑑𝑧 = 0
−𝑦 𝑥
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑦 𝑑𝑦; 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑥 2 −𝑦 2
= + 𝑐1; 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 2𝑐1 = 𝑐2 ; 𝑧 = 𝑐
Therefore stream lines are the circles whose centre are an z-axis and their plane by parallel to xoy-
plane.
The given motion is of potential kind if it is irrotational motion
ie. ∇ × 𝑞⃗ = 0
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕⁄ 𝜕⁄
| ⁄𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧|
| −𝑘 2 𝑦 −𝑘 2 𝑦 |
0
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕⁄ 𝜕⁄
| ⁄𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧|
| −𝑘 2 𝑦 −𝑘 2 𝑦 |
0
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑘2 𝜕 𝜕⁄ 𝜕⁄ |
| ⁄𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
−𝑦 𝑥 0
𝑘2
[0 𝑖 − 0 𝑗 + (1 − 1)𝑘] = 0
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
Motion Is a potential kind
As a motion is a potential kind, there exist velocity potential ∅ such that 𝑞⃗ = −𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 (∅)
𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
− [𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑧] = 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑤 𝑑𝑧

𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
⇒− =𝑢, − = 𝑣, − =𝑤
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕∅ 𝑘 2𝑦
= −𝑢 = 2
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦2
𝜕∅ 𝑘 2𝑥
= −𝑣 = − 2
𝜕𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦2
𝜕∅
𝜕𝑤
= −𝑤 = 0 ∅ is independent of variable z

𝜕∅ 𝑘2𝑦
= 2
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑦 2
Integrating with respect to x, we get
1
∅ = 𝑘2𝑦 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑥2 + 𝑦2
1 𝑥
∅ = 𝑘 2 𝑦 tan−1 ( ) + 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑦 𝑦
𝑥
∅ = 𝑘 2 tan−1 ( ) + 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑦
Differentiates both side with respect to y partially, we get

𝜕∅ 1
= 𝑘2 (−𝑥/𝑦 2 ) + 𝑓′(𝑦)
𝜕𝑦 1 + 𝑥 2 /𝑦 2
𝑘2𝑥 𝑘2𝑥
Also − 𝑥 2 +𝑦2 = − 𝑥 2 +𝑦2 + 𝑓′(𝑦)

Therefore 𝑓′(𝑦) = 0
Integrating with respect to y, we get 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑐
Substitute we get
𝑥
∅ = 𝑘 2 tan−1 ( ) + 𝑐
𝑦
Which is the required velocity potential for the given incompressible fluid.
3𝑥𝑧 3𝑦𝑧 3𝑧 2 −𝑟 2
Example: if the velocity of an incompressible fluid at the point 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is given by ,
𝑟5 𝑟5
, 𝑟5 .
cos 𝜃
Prove that fluid motion is possible motion and velocity potential is . Also determine the stream
𝑟2
line.
Solution:

Example: At the point in a incompressible fluid having the spherical co-ordinate (𝑟, 𝜃, ∅) the velocity
components are [2𝑟 −3 cos 𝜃 , 𝑟 −3 sin 𝜃 , 0]. Prove that the velocity of the potential kind. Find the
velocity potential and equation of stream lines.
𝑎
Example: show that the velocity potential ∅ = 2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑧 2 ) satisfies the Laplace equation and
also determine stream lines.
−2𝑥𝑦𝑧 (𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 )𝑧 𝑦
Example: prove that velocity vector field [(𝑥 2 +𝑦2 )2 , (𝑥 2 +𝑦2 )2 , (𝑥 2 +𝑦2 )] represents the possible fluid
motion for incompressible fluid is this motion is irrotational?
Example: for an incompressible fluid 𝑢 = −𝑤𝑦; 𝑣 = 𝑤𝑥; 𝑤 = 0 prove that the surfaces intersects
the stream lines orthogonally exist and are the planes through z-axis although the velocity potential
does not exist. Discuss the nature of the flow.

Vorticity vector
Consider a velocity field 𝑞⃗ of the flowing fluid. The flow is of the rotational kind (not potential kind) if
∇ × 𝑞⃗ ≠ 0 then vorticity vector exist. We denoted vorticity vector by 𝜔 ⃗⃗, where 𝜔 ⃗⃗ = ∇ × 𝑞⃗. Thus the
necessary and sufficient condition for potential flow is vorticity vector is null vector.
 Prove that total strength of vortex tube immerging form surface S is equal to that of entering S.
Solution: considering flow for which ∇ × 𝑞⃗ ≠ 0. Let 𝜔
⃗⃗ = ∇ × 𝑞⃗ be a vorticity vector. The necessary
and sufficient condition for potential flow may be expressed by 𝜔⃗⃗ = 0.
⃗⃗ are [𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , 𝑤3 ] then the equation of vortex lines are given by
If the Cartesian components of 𝜔
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜔1
=𝜔 =𝜔 .
2 3

Let 𝛿𝑠1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿𝑠2 be two section of a vortex tube and let 𝜂⃗1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜂⃗2 be two unit normal to these
sections drawn outwards flow form the fluid between them. Also 𝛿𝑠 be the curved surface of the
vortex tube.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∆𝑠 = 𝛿𝑠1 + 𝛿𝑠 + ∆𝑠2

And 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑠 ∆𝑣 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∆𝑠 ∫Δ𝑠 𝜂⃗ 𝜔 𝑑𝑠 = ∫Δ𝑣 ∇𝜔 𝑑𝑣 = 0

Now ∇𝜔 = ∇(∇ × 𝑞⃗) = 0

Thus ∫δs 𝜂⃗1 𝜔1 𝑑𝑠1 + ∫δ𝑠 𝜂⃗ 𝜔 𝑑𝑠 + ∫δs 𝜂⃗2 𝜔2 𝑑𝑠2 = 0

1 2

As each point of 𝛿𝑠 , 𝜂⃗ ∙ 𝜔 = 0.
⃗⃗ is the tangential of the curved surface. Thus |𝜂⃗1 𝜔1 | 𝛿𝑠1 + |𝜂⃗2 𝜔2 | 𝛿𝑠2 = 0
Since 𝜔
That shows that |𝜂⃗ 𝜔 | 𝛿𝑠 is constant over every section 𝛿𝑠 of the vortex tube and its value is
called strength of vortex tube.

Now suppose S is any closed surface containing a volume V then ∫Δ𝑠 𝜂⃗ 𝜔 𝑑𝑠 = ∫Δ𝑣 ∇𝜔 𝑑𝑣 which
shows that the total strength of vortex tube emerging from tube is equal to that entering in S.
Note: vortex line and vortex tubes cannot originate and terminated at internal points in the fluid
domain. They can only form a close path in the fluid or terminate at the boundaries.
Vortex tube:
A vortex line is a curve drawn in the fluid such that the tangent to it at every point is in the direction
of the vorticity vector 𝜔. We can draw such vector lies through all points of a close curve 𝛾 to obtain
a vortex tube.
Unit vortex tube: a vortex tube is from through all points of a close curve Γ of the fluid

Boundary surface:
Condition for the given surface 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)or 𝐹(𝑟⃗, 𝑡) to a boundary surface of the fluid
At the boundary of the fluid, the equation of continuity is represented by a special surface condition.
When the fluid is in contact with permeable boundary surface the velocity of fluid particle at any
point of the boundary related to surface must be tangential to boundary. Let 𝐹(𝑟⃗, 𝑡) = 0 represent
the boundary surface of the moving fluid. Let 𝑃(𝑟⃗) be the position vector at any point on the
surface. 𝑞⃗ be the velocity of the fluid and 𝑢
⃗⃗ be the velocity of boundary surface at a point P. Let 𝜂⃗ be
the unit normal vector to the surface s to the point P. 𝑞⃗ − 𝑢 ⃗⃗ is the tangential vector at P.

Since there are no relative normal velocity at the point P between the boundaries and fluid so we
must have to two normal components are equal
 ⃗⃗
∇F
⃗⃗ 𝜂⃗, (𝑞⃗ − 𝑢
𝑞⃗ 𝜂⃗ = 𝑢 ⃗⃗ )𝜂⃗ = 0, (𝑞⃗ − 𝑢
⃗⃗ ) = 0 , (𝑞⃗ − 𝑢 ⃗⃗ = 0 , 𝑞⃗ ∇F
⃗⃗ )∇F ⃗⃗ = 𝑢 ⃗⃗ ,
⃗⃗ ∇F
⃗⃗|
|∇F

Now the position of the point P on the moving surface at any time 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡 is given by
𝐹(𝑟⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛿𝑟, 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) = 0
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗, 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑟⃗, 𝑡) + 𝛿𝑟
𝐹(𝑟⃗ + 𝛿𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝛿𝑡 +⋯
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
𝐹(𝑟⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛿𝑟, 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑟⃗, 𝑡) + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛿𝑟 + 𝛿𝑡 + 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
Dividing both side by 𝛿𝑡 and taking limit 𝛿𝑡 → 0
𝐹(𝑟⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛿𝑟, 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) − 𝐹(𝑟⃗, 𝑡) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛿𝑟 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
lim = lim + = 𝑞⃗∇𝐹⃗ + =0
𝛿𝑡→0 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡→0 𝛿𝑡 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝐷𝐹
Thus 𝐷𝑡 = 0, is the necessary condition for surface F to be a boundary surface

Or
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
𝜕𝑡
+ 𝑢 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑣 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑤 𝜕𝑧 = 0

The equation of every boundary surface must satisfy the above differential equation and for steady
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
surface 𝜕𝑡 = 0 hence we have 𝑢 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑣 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑤 𝜕𝑧 = 0 which represents the condition when the fluid
is contact with rigid surface. This to be maintain only when the fluid and surface have the same
velocity normal to the surface and the normal velocity component of the boundary is given by
⃗⃗
∇F 1 −𝜕𝐹/𝜕𝑡
𝑢
⃗⃗ 𝜂⃗ = 𝑢
⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗) =
⃗⃗ ∇F
(𝑢
⃗⃗| |∇F
|∇F ⃗⃗| ⃗⃗|
|∇F
−𝜕𝐹/𝜕𝑡
So that the normal velocity of the boundary is given by 𝑢
⃗⃗ 𝜂⃗ = .
2 2 2
√(𝜕𝐹) +(𝜕𝐹) +(𝜕𝐹)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
Example: prove that the variable ellipsoid 𝑎2 𝑘 2 𝑡 𝑛 + 𝑘𝑡 𝑛 {𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 } = 1 is the possible form for the
boundary surface of a liquid at any time t.
Proof: we know surface 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑥, 𝑡) is a possible boundary surface if it satisfy the boundary
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
condition 𝜕𝑡 + 𝑢 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑣 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑤 𝜕𝑧 = 0 ------(*)

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
We have 𝐹(𝑠, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑎2 𝑘 2 𝑡 2𝑛 + 𝑘𝑡 𝑛 {𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 } − 1 = 0

𝜕𝐹 𝑥 2 (−2𝑛) 𝑦2 𝑧2
= 2 2 2𝑛+1 + 𝑛𝑘𝑡 𝑛−1 { 2 + 2 }
𝜕𝑡 𝑎 𝑘 𝑡 𝑏 𝑐
𝜕𝐹 2𝑥
= 2 2 2𝑛
𝜕𝑥 𝑎 𝑘 𝑡
𝜕𝐹 𝑦
= 2𝑘𝑡 𝑛 { 2 }
𝜕𝑦 𝑏
𝜕𝐹 𝑧
= 2𝑘𝑡 𝑛 { 2 }
𝜕𝑧 𝑐
Substitute in (*), we get
 𝑥 2 (−2𝑛) 𝑦2 𝑧2 2𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
[ 2 2 2𝑛+1 + 𝑛𝑘𝑡 𝑛−1 { 2 + 2 }] + 𝑢 [ 2 2 2𝑛 ] + 𝑣 [2𝑘𝑡 𝑛 { 2 }] + 𝑤 [2𝑘𝑡 𝑛 { 2 }] − 1 = 0
𝑎 𝑘 𝑡 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑘 𝑡 𝑏 𝑐
Which is possible flow only if
−𝑛𝑥 −𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧
+𝑢 =0; +𝑣 =0; +𝑤 =0
𝑡 2𝑡 2𝑡
𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧
⇒ = 𝑢; = 𝑣; − =𝑤
𝑡 2𝑡 2𝑡
We prove the velocity component 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 satisfies the equation of continuity for incompressible
fluid.
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + = ∇𝑞⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧
𝜕 ( 𝑡 ) 𝜕 ( 𝑡 ) 𝜕 (− 2𝑡 )
+ +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
− − =0
𝑡 2𝑡 2𝑡
Thus the given surface is possible form of the boundary surface of a liquid having velocity
𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑧
component [𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤] = [ , − , − ]
𝑡 2𝑡 2𝑡

𝑥 2 tan2 𝑡 𝑦 2 cot2 𝑡
Example: prove that 𝑎2
+ 𝑏2 = 1 is a possible boundary surface of a liquid and also find
an expression for the normal velocity.

Equation of the motion of the fluid

The equation of motion of a fluid is a relation equating the rate of change of momentum of a
specified region of the fluid to the sum of all forces which act on that region of fluid in accordance
with newton’s second law of motion.

Euler Equation of motion along a stream line

 Force Balance on a Moving Element Along a Streamline

Consider an elementary section of a stream tube. Let ∆𝑠 be the length of the stream tube and
∆𝐴 be the cross-section area of the shape.

Let 𝜌 be the density of the fluid within the stream tube then the mass of fluid particle moving
along a stream line in the positive direction is 𝜌∆𝑆∆𝐴.

The forces acting on the element are of two type

1. Body force (𝜌∆𝑆∆𝐴)𝐹𝑠

2. Surface force excreted due to hydrostatic pressure P at the end area of the element of
the stream tube, the pressure force is 𝑃∆𝐴 in +S direction and on the downstream face
𝜕𝑝
(𝑝 + 𝜕𝑠 ∆𝑠) ∆𝐴 acting in –S direction

The total force acting along the path ∆𝑠 with tangential unit vector is given by

𝜕𝑝
(𝜌∆𝑆∆𝐴)𝐹𝑠 + 𝑃∆𝐴 − (𝑝 + ∆𝑠) ∆𝐴
𝜕𝑠

𝜕𝑝
(𝜌∆𝑆∆𝐴)𝐹𝑠 − ∆𝐴∆𝑠 -----(1)
𝜕𝑠

The acceleration of fluid flowing with velocity 𝑞⃗ along ∆𝑠 is

𝐷𝑞⃗ 𝜕𝑞⃗
= + (𝑞⃗ ∇)𝑞⃗
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡

By the newton second law of motion the equation of momentum along the path is given by

𝐷𝑞⃗ 𝜕𝑝
(𝜌∆𝑆∆𝐴) × = (𝜌∆𝑆∆𝐴)𝐹𝑠 − ∆𝐴∆𝑠
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑠

𝑚 ×𝑎 = 𝐹

𝐷𝑞⃗ 1 𝜕𝑝
= 𝐹𝑠 −
𝐷𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑠

𝜕𝑞⃗ 1 𝜕𝑝
+ (𝑞⃗ ∇)𝑞⃗ = 𝐹𝑠 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑠

Which is a Euler Equation of motion along the stream line

Particular case
 𝜕𝑞⃗ 1 𝜕𝑝
+ (𝑞⃗ ∇)𝑞⃗ = 𝐹𝑠 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜌 𝜕𝑠

Consider the body force due to pull of gravity

The gravity force is 𝜌 𝑔 ∆𝐴 ∆𝑠 and its component along the S – direction are given by
𝜌 𝐹𝑠 ∆𝐴 ∆𝑠 = 𝜌 𝑔 ∆𝐴 ∆𝑠 cos(𝜋 + 𝜃) = −𝜌 𝑔 ∆𝐴 ∆𝑠 cos(𝜃)

Therefore 𝐹𝑠 = − 𝑔 cos(𝜃)

∆𝑧
𝐹𝑠 = − 𝑔 cos(𝜃) but cos 𝜃 = ∆𝑠

∆𝑧
𝐹𝑠 = − 𝑔
∆𝑠

∆𝑧 is increase in elevation of an element of a displacement ∆𝑠.

∆𝑧 𝜕𝑞⃗⃗ 1 𝜕𝑝
Now substitute 𝐹𝑠 = − 𝑔 ∆𝑠 in + (𝑞⃗ ∇)𝑞⃗ = 𝐹𝑠 − 𝜌 𝜕𝑠 , we get
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑞⃗ ∆𝑧 1 𝜕𝑝
+ (𝑞⃗ ∇)𝑞⃗ = − 𝑔 −
𝜕𝑡 ∆𝑠 𝜌 𝜕𝑠

Which is the Euler’s equation of motion along the stream line when body force is due to the
pull of gravity.

Case 2

𝜕𝑞⃗⃗
For the steady force =0
𝜕𝑡

∆𝑧 1 𝜕𝑝
Hence for steady force Euler equation is (𝑞⃗ ∇)𝑞⃗ = − 𝑔 ∆𝑠 − 𝜌 𝜕𝑠

𝜕𝑞⃗ 𝜕𝑧 1 𝜕𝑝
𝑞⃗ + 𝑔 + =0
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠 𝜌 𝜕𝑠

In limiting case the partial derivative may be replace by total derivatives and the equation
1
becomes 𝑞⃗ 𝑑𝑞⃗ + 𝑔 𝑑𝑧 + 𝜌 𝑑𝑝=0

1 1
𝑑 ( 𝑞⃗ 2 ) + 𝑔 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑝 = 0
2 𝜌

Which is a Euler equation of motion along a stream line having body force due to gravity with
steady flow

Integrating we get
 1 2 1
𝑞⃗ + 𝑔 𝑧 + ∫ 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑐
2 𝜌

The density is not constant but it is function of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡.

This equation is called the alternate form of equation of Euler’s equation of motion along the
stream line for steady flow.

General equation of Motion (for an ideal fluid)

Consider a fluid mass in motion at a time t occupies a volume 𝑣 of an incompressible fluid

bounded by close surface S.

s
v

Let 𝜌 be the density of fluid particle P within the close surface S and let ∆𝑣 be the volume
enclosing to the point P.

Therefore the mass of the element ∆𝑣 is 𝜌 𝑑𝑣

Which remains always constant throughout the motion

Therefore the mass of the entire fluid contain in the volume 𝑣 is ∭𝑣 𝜌 𝑑𝑣

Let 𝑞⃗ be the velocity of the fluid particle P.

Therefore the momentum of P is 𝑀 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = ∭𝑣 𝑞⃗ 𝜌 𝑑𝑣 ----(1)

Therefore the rate of change of momentum is obtain by taking derivative of M with respect to
t.

𝑑𝑀 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑡 ∭𝑣 (𝑞⃗ 𝜌 𝑑𝑣)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑞⃗ 𝑑(𝜌 𝑑𝑣)

= ∭(𝜌 𝑑𝑣) + ∭ 𝑞⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑣

𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑞⃗⃗
= ∭𝑣 (𝜌 𝑑𝑣) 𝑑𝑡 + 0 (Mass is constant throughout the motion)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑀 𝐷𝑞⃗
= ∭(𝜌 𝑑𝑣) +0
𝑑𝑡 𝐷𝑡
𝑣
We know by newton second law of motion that the total force acting on the mass of the fluid
is equal to the rate of change of fluid momentum.

The force are due to

1. External force F (gravity) per unit mass 𝜌 𝑑𝑣 acting on the particle P is 𝐹 𝜌 𝑑𝑣

∭𝑣 (𝐹 𝜌 𝑑𝑣) is the total force acting on the volume v is occupied by the fluid.

2. The shear stress acting over the surface S due to the rest of the fluid particle excreted
to volume v.
Let P be the pressure at point on the surface along the outward drawn unit normal 𝜂⃗ then
the force on the fluid particle due to action of the surrounding fluid is ∬𝑠 −𝑝 𝜂⃗ 𝑑𝑠 =
− ∭𝑣 ∇ 𝑝 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑀
Therefore form second law of motion 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝐷𝑞⃗
∭ 𝜌 𝑑𝑣 = ∭ 𝐹 𝜌 𝑑𝑣 − ∭ ∇ 𝑃 𝑑𝑣
𝐷𝑡

𝐷𝑞⃗
∭( 𝜌 − 𝐹 𝜌 + ∇ 𝑝 ) 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝐷𝑡
Since the volume integration enclose in the surface is arbitrary we can shrink this
volume to a point hence we neglect the integration
𝐷𝑞⃗⃗
𝜌−𝐹𝜌+ ∇𝑝 =0
𝐷𝑡
𝐷𝑞⃗ 1
−𝐹 + ∇𝑝=0
𝐷𝑡 𝜌

Which is the general equation of motion valid for all point of the ideal fluid.

𝐷𝑞⃗ 𝜕𝑞⃗
= + (𝑞⃗ ∇)𝑞⃗
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Therefore
𝜕𝑞⃗ 1
+ (𝑞⃗ ∇)𝑞⃗ − 𝐹 + ∇ 𝑝 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜌

1
But (𝑞⃗ ∇)𝑞⃗ = ∇ (2 𝑞⃗ 2 ) + 𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑞⃗

𝜕𝑞⃗ 1 1
+ ∇ ( 𝑞⃗ 2 ) + 𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑞⃗ − 𝐹 + ∇ 𝑝 = 0
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜌

Which is called lamb’s hydrodynamics equation

Cartesian form of equation of motion

Let 𝑞⃗ = 𝑢 𝑖 + 𝑣 𝑗 + 𝑤 𝑘 and 𝐹⃗ = 𝐹1 𝑖 + 𝐹2 𝑗 + 𝐹3 𝑘 then

 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝑞⃗∇= (𝑢 𝑖 + 𝑣 𝑗 + 𝑤 𝑘) ( 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘) = ( + + )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∇)𝑞⃗ = (
(𝑞 + + ) (𝑢 𝑖 + 𝑣 𝑗 + 𝑤 𝑘)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
(𝑢 ( + + ) 𝑖+𝑣( + + ) 𝑗+𝑤( + + ) 𝑘)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑞⃗⃗ 1
Now substitute value in + (𝑞⃗ ∇)𝑞⃗ − 𝐹 + 𝜌 ∇ 𝑝 = 0
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑞⃗⃗ 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤 1
We get + (𝑢 ( + + ) 𝑖+𝑣( + + ) 𝑗+𝑤( + + ) 𝑘) = 𝐹 − ∇𝑝
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌

𝜕𝑞⃗ 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
+ (𝑢 (𝑢 +𝑣 + 𝑤 ) + 𝑣 (𝑢 +𝑣 + 𝑤 ) + 𝑤 (𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 ))
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1
=𝐹− ∇𝑝
𝜌

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝
+ (𝑢 ( ) + 𝑣 ( ) + 𝑤 ( ) ) = 𝐹1 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑝
+ (𝑢 ( ) + 𝑣 ( ) + 𝑤 ( ) ) = 𝐹2 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 1 𝜕𝑝
+ (𝑢 ( ) + 𝑣 ( ) + 𝑤 ( ) ) = 𝐹3 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜌 𝜕𝑧

Conservative field of force

If work done by the force F of the field in taking a unit mass from one point A to other point B
is independent of path then it is known as conservative field force

A
C

D
B
If F is conservative then

∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑟 = −Ω
𝐴𝐶𝐵 𝐴𝐷𝐵

A scalar point function is Ω whose values depends on initial and final position

Integrating equation, we get F=−∇Ω

̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

∇ 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑠
Bernoulli Equation (integration of Euler’s Equation)

We know Euler equation of motion for the fluid is given by

𝜕𝑞⃗ 1
+ (𝑞⃗ ∇)𝑞⃗ = 𝐹 − ∇ 𝑝
𝜕𝑡 𝜌

1
𝑏𝑢𝑡 (𝑞⃗ ∇)𝑞⃗ = ∇ ( 𝑞⃗ 2 ) + 𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑞⃗
2

𝜕𝑞⃗ 1 1
+ ∇ ( 𝑞⃗ 2 ) + 𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑞⃗ = 𝐹 − ∇ 𝑝
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜌

Suppose the body forces are conservative and the flow of the potential kind, therefore two
scalar function 𝜙 (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙)𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω(forece potential) such that 𝐹⃗ = −∇Ω and 𝑞⃗ =
−∇∅. As the force is of potential kind ∇ × 𝑞⃗ = 0 that is 𝜔
⃗⃗ = 0

Hence
𝜕(−∇∅) 1 1
+ ∇ ( 𝑞⃗ 2 ) = (−∇Ω) − ∇ 𝑝
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜌

𝜕(∅) 1 1
−∇ + ∇ ( 𝑞⃗ 2 ) = (−∇Ω) − ∇ 𝑝
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜌

Let 𝑟⃗ be the position vector of a fluid particle at time t and 𝑑𝑟⃗ be an instantaneous displacement
made in the position in the particle at this instance then the scalar multiplying the last equation
throughout by 𝑑𝑟⃗ and by using 𝑑𝑟⃗ ∙ ∇(𝑟⃗) = 𝑑(𝑟⃗).

𝜕(∅) 1 1
−d + d ( 𝑞⃗ 2 ) = (−dΩ) − d 𝑝
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜌

1 1 𝑑𝜙
dΩ + d 𝑝 + d ( 𝑞⃗ 2 ) + −d ( ) = 0
𝜌 2 𝑑𝑡

Integrating both sides subject to t

1 1 𝑑𝜙
Ω+∫ d 𝑝 + 𝑞⃗ 2 − = Θ(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 2 𝑑𝑡

Which is called Bernoulli Equation for irrotational motion.

𝑑𝜙
Case(1): it the motion is steady then the velocity potential 𝜙 is constant. And =0
𝑑𝑡

Therefore
1 1
Ω+∫ d 𝑝 + 𝑞⃗ 2 = Θ(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 2
Case(ii) if the fluid is homogeneous and incompressible then 𝜌 is constant and such a case
Bernoulli equation for homogeneous incompressible fluid with steady flow is given by

𝑝 1 2
Ω+ + 𝑞⃗ = Θ(𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌 2

We know Euler equation of motion for ideal fluid is

𝜕𝑞⃗ 1 1
+ ∇ ( 𝑞⃗ 2 ) + 𝜔
⃗⃗ × 𝑞⃗ = 𝐹 − ∇ 𝑝
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜌

If the flow is no longer of potential kind but it steady and still the body force are assume to be
conservative then
𝜕𝑞⃗
=0
𝜕𝑡

For not potential kind then the motional is of rotational kind then ∇ × 𝑞⃗ ≠ 0, therefore the
vorticity vector is 𝜔
⃗⃗.

Body force are constant hence 𝐹⃗ = −∇Ω

Then
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐹 − ∇ 𝑝
0 + ∇ ( 𝑞⃗ 2 ) + 𝑞⃗(∇ × 𝑞)
2 𝜌

1 1
∇ ( 𝑞⃗ 2 ) + 𝑞⃗ × 𝜔
⃗⃗ = −∇Ω − ∇ 𝑝
2 𝜌

1 1
∇ ( 𝑞⃗ 2 + Ω + ∫ 𝑑𝑝) = 𝑞⃗ × 𝜔
⃗⃗
2 𝜌

Scalar multiplying 𝑑𝑟⃗ both side

1 2 1
d ( 𝑞⃗ + Ω + ∫ 𝑑𝑝) = 𝑑𝑟⃗(𝑞⃗ × 𝜔
⃗⃗)
2 𝜌

Case (a) when 𝑞⃗ × 𝜔

⃗⃗ = 0 then, 𝑞⃗||𝜔
⃗⃗ or 𝜔
⃗⃗ = 0

i.e. either vector 𝑞⃗ is parallel or ∇ × 𝑞⃗ = 0 (motion is irrotational)

therefore 𝑞⃗||𝜔
⃗⃗ which shows that stream line and vortex line coincide for such velocity vector
𝑞⃗ is called Bellrami vector.

When 𝑞⃗ is Bellrami vector then

1 2 1
d ( 𝑞⃗ + Ω + ∫ 𝑑𝑝) = 0
2 𝜌

Integrating
 1 2 1
𝑞⃗ + Ω + ∫ 𝑑𝑝 = Θ
2 𝜌

Which is the Bernoulli Equation

Case (b) 𝑞⃗ × 𝜔
⃗⃗ ≠ 0 𝑞⃗ × 𝜔
⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝑞⃗ 𝑜𝑟 𝜔
⃗⃗

Hence if 𝑑𝑟⃗ ≠ 0 then 𝑑𝑟⃗(𝑞⃗ × 𝜔 ⃗⃗) = 0, whenever 𝑑𝑟⃗ lies in the plane of 𝑞⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟⃗. Thus if we
take the variation 𝑑𝑟⃗ in the surface containing both stream line and vortex line the equation
shows that
1 2 1
d ( 𝑞⃗ + Ω + ∫ 𝑑𝑝) = 0
2 𝜌

And again integrating

1 2 1
𝑞⃗ + Ω + ∫ 𝑑𝑝 = Θ
2 𝜌

Which is the Bernoulli Equation over the surface containing both stream line and vortex line
the equation shows that

Application of Bernoulli equation

Pitot Tube
If a stream of uniform velocity flows into a blunt body, the stream lines take a pattern similar
to this:

Streamlines around a blunt body

Note how some move to the left and some to the right. But one, in the centre, goes to the tip
of the blunt body and stops. It stops because at this point the velocity is zero - the fluid does
not move at this one point. This point is known as the stagnation point.

From the Bernoulli equation we can calculate the pressure at this point. Apply Bernoulli
along the central streamline from a point upstream where the velocity is u1 and the pressure
p1 to the stagnation point of the blunt body where the velocity is zero, u2 = 0. Also z1 = z2.
This increase in pressure which bring the fluid to rest is called the dynamic pressure.

Dynamic pressure =

or converting this to head (using )

Dynamic head =

The total pressure is know as the stagnation pressure (or total pressure)

Stagnation pressure =

or in terms of head

Stagnation head =

The blunt body stopping the fluid does not have to be a solid. I could be a static column of
fluid. Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot tube within the pipe can be used in
an arrangement shown below to measure velocity of flow.

A Piezometer and a Pitot tube

Using the above theory, we have the equation for p2 ,

We now have an expression for velocity obtained from two pressure measurements and the
application of the Bernoulli equation.

2. Pitot Static Tube

The necessity of two piezometers and thus two readings make this arrangement a little
awkward. Connecting the piezometers to a manometer would simplify things but there are
still two tubes. The Pitot static tube combines the tubes and they can then be easily connected
to a manometer. A Pitot static tube is shown below. The holes on the side of the tube connect
to one side of a manometer and register the static head, (h1), while the central hole is
connected to the other side of the manometer to register, as before, the stagnation head (h2).

A Pitot-static tube

Consider the pressures on the level of the centre line of the Pitot tube and using the theory of
the manometer,
We know that , substituting this in to the above gives

The Pitot/Pitot-static tubes give velocities at points in the flow. It does not give the overall
discharge of the stream, which is often what is wanted. It also has the drawback that it is
liable to block easily, particularly if there is significant debris in the flow.