Basic Equations for

Fluid Flow
Neeraj Adhikari
Continuity Equation
Continuity equation is mathematical expression of the principle of
conservation of mass
A most general expression on the basis of this principle can be obtained by
considering a fixed region in flow field

Rate of increase of fluid mass within the region = rate of mass of fluid
entering the region – rate of mass of fluid leaving the region
If the flow is steady, the increase of the fluid mass within the region is equal
to zero

The rate at which the fluid mass enters the region = the rate at which the
fluid leaves the region
2
Consider two cross-section of a pipe 1
V1 ,V2=average velocity at 1-1, 2-2
𝜌1, 𝜌2 =density at section 1-1, 2-2
A1,A2 = Area of pipe at section 1-1, 2-2

Mass flow rate at 1-1 = 𝜌1𝐴1𝑉1

Mass flow rate at 2-2 = 𝜌2𝐴2𝑉2 2
1
According to law of conversation of mass

𝜌1𝐴1𝑉2 = 𝜌2𝐴2𝑉2

This equation is applicable to the compressible as well as incompressible

fluids and is called continuity equation.
If the fluid is incompressible, then 𝜌1 = 𝜌2

𝐴1𝑉2 = 𝐴2𝑉2
Water flows through a pipe AB 1.2 m diameter at 3 m/s and then passes
through a pipe BC 1.5 m diameter. At C, the pipe branches. Branch CD is
0.8 m in diameter and carries one-third of the flow in AB. The flow velocity in
branch CE is 2.5 m/s. Find the volume rate of flow in AB, the velocity in BC,
the velocity in CD and the diameter of CE.

(3.393 m3/s, 1.92 m/s, 2.25 m/s, 1.0735m)

Continuity Equation in Integral Form
Physical Principle: Mass can neither be created nor destroyed
Net mass flow out of control volume through surface S = Time rate of
decrease of mass inside control volume V

𝜕
ශ 𝜌𝑑𝑣 + ඾ 𝜌𝑉. 𝑑𝑆 = 0
𝜕𝑡
𝑣 𝑠
 𝜕
ශ 𝜌𝑑𝑣 + ඾ 𝜌𝑉. 𝑑𝑆 = 0
𝜕𝑡
𝑣 𝑠
Applying divergence theorem

඾(𝜌𝑉). 𝑑𝑆 = ශ 𝛻. 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑣
𝑠 𝑣
Substituting we get
𝜕
ශ 𝜌𝑑𝑣 + ශ 𝛻. 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝜕𝑡
𝑣 𝑣
𝜕𝜌
ශ + 𝛻. 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝜕𝑡
𝑣

𝜕𝜌 Continuity equation in the form of

+ 𝛻. 𝜌𝑉 = 0 partial differential equation
𝜕𝑡
The fluid in direct contact with a stationary solid boundary has zero velocity;
there is no slip at the boundary. Thus the flow over a flat plate adheres to the
plate surface and forms a boundary layer, as depicted below. The flow
ahead of the plate is uniform with velocity V! =U^i; U =30m=s. The velocity
distribution within the boundary layer ð0≤y ≤δÞ along cd is approximated as
u=U= 2ðy=δÞ−ðy=δÞ2.
The boundary-layer thickness at location d is δ =5 mm. The fluid is air with
density ρ=1:24 kg=m3. Assuming the plate width perpendicular to the paper
to be w=0:6 m, calculate the mass flow rate across surface bc of control
volume abcd.
Continuity equation in Cartesian coordinate

𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤
+ + + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜌
+ 𝛻. 𝜌𝑉 = 0
𝜕𝑡

The above equation represent continuity equation in Cartesian coordinates

which is applicable for steady as well as unsteady flow, uniform and non-
uniform flow, and compressible as well as incompressible fluids.
𝜕𝜌
For steady flow, =0
𝜕𝑡
𝜕 𝜌𝑢 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕 𝜌𝑤
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
For an incompressible fluid the mass density 𝜌 does not change with x, y, z
and t
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

For two-dimensional flow

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Continuity equation in Cylindrical coordinate system

𝜕𝜌 𝜕(𝜌𝑢𝑟𝑟) 𝜕(𝜌𝑢𝜃) 𝜕(𝜌𝑢𝑧)

+ + + =0
𝜕𝑡 𝑟𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧

For steady, incompressible and two-

dimensional
𝜕(𝑢𝑟𝑟) 𝜕(𝑢𝜃 )
+ =0
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Following equations represents the two velocity components, determine the
third component of velocity such that they satisfy the continuity equation
𝑢 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2
𝑣 = 𝑥𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑧2 + 𝑥𝑦
𝑧3
𝑤 = −3𝑥𝑧 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 + + 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
3
An excellent approximation for the two-dimensional incompressible laminar
boundary layer on the flat surface in Fig is
𝑦 𝑦3 𝑦4
𝑢 =𝑈 2 −2 3+ 4
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿
1
For 𝑦 ≤ 𝛿, where 𝛿 = 𝐶𝑥 , C= Constant
2

(a) Assuming a no-slip condition at the wall, find an expression for the velocity
component v(x, y) for 𝑦 ≤ 𝛿.
(b) Then find the maximum value of v at the station x = 1 m, for the particular case of
airflow, when U = 3 m/s and 𝛿 =1.1 cm.
Stream function (𝝍)

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
=𝑣 ; = −𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Substituting the expression of u and v into 2-D continuity equation

𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓
− + = − =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Hence stream function satisfies the equation of continuity

Stream function (𝝍)

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
=𝑣 ; = −𝑢
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Substituting the expression of u and v into in the expression for vorticity

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜓
𝜁𝑧 = − = − −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓
𝜁𝑧 = 2
+ Laplace Equation
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2
If stream function (𝜓) satisfies the Laplace equation, it is possible case of an
irrotational flow
Flow between two streamlines

Net outflow through surfaces AB and

BC
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
In terms of stream function

𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 Thus volume rate of flow, q, between two
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 streamlines such as 𝜓1 and 𝜓2 of the fig.
can be determined by integrating to yield
Right side of eq. is equal to 𝑑𝜓
𝜓2
𝑞 = න 𝑑𝜓 = 𝜓2 − 𝜓1
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝜓 𝜓1
Velocity Potential Function
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑢=− ,𝑣 = − ,𝑤 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Substituting the u and v in terms of potential function in the expression of

continuity
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕 𝜕𝜙
− + − + − =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙 𝜕2𝜙
2
+ 2+ 2 =0 𝛻 2𝜙 = 0 Laplace Equation
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
If any value of 𝜙 that satisfy Laplace equation, will correspond to some case
of fluid flow
Velocity Potential Function
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑢=− ,𝑣 = − ,𝑤 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Substituting the u and v in terms of potential function in the expression for

vorticity
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜁𝑧 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕 𝜕𝜙 𝜕 𝜕𝜙
= − − −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
=0
Hence the velocity potential satisfies the condition of irrotational flow. The
existence of velocity potential function means that a possible flow must be
irrotational
The two dimensional irrotational flow is often called the potential flow
According to Newton’s second law of motion
𝐹𝑥=𝑚𝑎𝑥
In fluid flow following forces are presented:
𝐹𝑔, gravity force
𝐹𝑝, pressure force
𝐹𝑣, force due to viscosity
𝐹𝑡, force due to turbulence
𝐹𝑐, force due to compressibility
𝐹𝑥=𝐹𝑔𝑥+𝐹𝑝𝑥+𝐹𝑣𝑥+𝐹𝑡𝑥+𝐹𝑐𝑥

If 𝐹𝑐 is neglected, equation of motion is called Reynold’s equation of motion.

If 𝐹𝑡 is neglected further, equation of motion is called Navier Stokes equation
If 𝐹𝑣 is neglected further, equation of motion is called Euler’s equation of motion.
𝐹𝑥=𝐹𝑔𝑥+𝐹𝑝𝑥
Euler’s Equation of motion

This is the equation of motion in which the forces due to gravity and
pressure are taken as consideration along a stream line.

Consider a stream tube surrounding the streamline and having a cross-

sectional area small enough for the velocity to be considered constant over
the cross-section.

The fluid is assumed to be non viscous, there will be no shear stresses on

the sides of the stream tube
The fluid forces are

Pressure force in direction of flow = pdA

Pressure force opposite to direction of flow = (p+𝜕𝑝/𝜕𝑠 ds)dA
Weight of element = ρgdAds
Euler’s Equation of Motion

𝜕𝑝 Along a streamline
+ 𝑔𝜕𝑧 + 𝑣𝜕𝑣 = 0
𝜌
Bernoulli’s equation

Integrating the Euler’s equation of motion

𝜕𝑝
∫ + ∫ 𝑔𝜕𝑧 + ∫ 𝑣𝜕𝑣 = ∫ 0
𝜌
𝑝 𝑣2
+ 𝑔𝑧 + =𝑐
𝜌 2
𝑝 𝑣2
+ +𝑧 =𝑐 Along a streamline
𝑔𝜌 2𝑔

This is famous Bernoulli equation, for steady incompressible flow along a

stream line in inviscid regions of flow
The Bernoulli equation is one of the most frequently used and misused
equation in fluid mechanics
Statement of Bernoulli's equation
It states that in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total
energy at any point of the fluid is constant. Total energy consists of pressure,
kinetic and potential energy.”

Assumptions made for deriving Bernoulli's equation

The fluid must be ideal (frictionless or zero viscosity)
Flow is incompressible (constant density)
Flow must be Steady
Flow must be irrotational
Flow along a streamline: P/𝜌g + V2/2g + z = C is applicable along a
streamline, and the value of the constant C is generally different for different
streamlines. However, when a region of the flow is irrotational and there is
no vorticity in the flow field, the value of the constant C remains the same for
all streamlines, and the Bernoulli equation becomes applicable across
streamlines as well
Bernoulli’s equation

𝑝 𝑣2
+ +𝑧 =𝑐 In terms of Head
𝑔𝜌 2𝑔

𝑝 𝑣2
+ + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝑐 In terms of energy
𝜌 2

𝑣2 In terms of pressure
𝑃 + 𝜌 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = 𝑐
2
Bernoulli’s equation for real fluid

𝑝 1 𝑣1 2 𝑝 2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑙
𝑔𝜌 2𝑔 𝑔𝜌 2𝑔
Where hL is loss of energy between points 1 and 2
A pipe line carrying oil (S= 0.87) change in diameter from 200 mm at
position A to 500 mm diameter at position B which is 4 m at a higher level. If
the pressures at position A and B are 9.81 N/cm2 and 5.886 N/cm2
respectively and the discharge is 200 LPS. Determine the loss of head and
the direction of the flow.

(2.609 m, As EA is more than EB and hence flow is taking place from A to B)

Application of Bernoulli's Equation
Flow from tank
A Styrofoam cylinder, filled with water, sits on a
table. You then poke a small hole through the
side of the cylinder, 20 cm below the top of the
water surface. What is the speed of the fluid
emerging from the hole?
Venturimeter

The venturimeter is a device for measuring discharge in a pipe.

It consists of a rapidly converging section which increases the velocity of
flow and hence reduces the pressure
The minimum diameter of the pipe is known as throat
It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe by a gently diverging
'diffuser' section.
By measuring the pressure differences the discharge can be calculated.
A venturimeter is a device consisting of a short length of gradual
convergence and a longer length of gradual divergence
The semi-angle of convergence is 8 to 10o and the semi-angle of divergence
is 3 to 5o
A pressure tapping 1 is provided at a location before the convergence
Another tapping 2 is provided at the throat
The pressure difference p1-p2 between the two tapping's is measured by a
manometer
The flow accelerates until the location of the vena contracta where the
cross-section of the fluid stream is the minimum and decelerates to fill the
passage thereafter
 𝑎1𝑎2
𝑄= 2 2
∗ 2𝑔ℎ
𝑎1 − 𝑎2
The above equation gives the discharge under ideal condition and it is
called, theoretical discharge. Actual discharge will be less than theoretical
discharge

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑄
𝐶𝑑 is co-efficient of venturimeter and its value is less than 1.
Advantages of venturimeters
Less changes of getting clogged with sediments
Coefficient of discharge is high.
Its behavior can be predicted perfectly.
Can be installed vertically, horizontally or inclined.

Limitations
They are large in size and hence where space is limited, they cannot be
used.
Expensive initial cost, installation and maintenance.
Require long laying length. That is, the venturimeter has to be proceeded by
a straight pipe which is free from fittings and misalignments to avoid
turbulence in flow, for satisfactory operation. Therefore, straightening vanes
are a must
Syphon Flow
A syphon is a long bent pipe which is used to transfer liquid from a reservoir at
a higher elevation to another reservoir at a lower level when two reservoirs
are separated by high ground level The point “C” which is at the highest of the
syphon is called “summit.”
Summit is above the free surface of water pressure on which will be less than
atm. Pressure.
Theoretically, the pressure at C may be reduced to -10.3m of water.

Syphon is used for following purposes:

To carry liquid from one reservoir to another separated by hill/ ridge.
To take out liquid from a tank not having any outlet.
To empty a channel or pond which outlet is locked.
Flow Through a Siphon

A U-tube acts as a water siphon. The

bend in the tube is 1 m above the water
surface; the tube outlet is 7 m below the
water surface. The water issues from the
bottom of the siphon as a free jet at
atmospheric pressure. Determine (after
listing the necessary assumptions) the
speed of the free jet and the minimum
absolute pressure of the water in the
bend.

11.7 m/s
22.8 kPa(abs) or -78.5 kPa (gage)