‫ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻭﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‬

‫ﺃ‪.‬ﺩ ﺍﻝﻐﺎﻝﻲ ﺃﺤﺭﺸﺎﻭ‬

‫ﺩ ﺃﺤﻤﺩ ﺍﻝﺯﺍﻫﻴﺭ‬
‫ﺸﻌﺒﺔ ﻋﻠﻡ ﺍﻝﻨﻔﺱ‪ ،‬ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻵﺩﺍﺏ ﻭﺍﻝﻌﻠﻭﻡ ﺍﻹﻨﺴﺎﻨﻴﺔ‪،‬‬
‫ﻅﻬﺭ ﺍﻝﻤﻬﺭﺍﺯ‪ ،‬ﻓﺎﺱ‪ ،‬ﺍﻝﻤﻐﺭﺏ‬

‫ﻳﻌﺘﱪ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺜﺔ ﻛﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺑﺪﺍﺋﻴﺔ ﺃﻭﻟﻴﺔ )ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺍﳌﺒﺘﺪﺉ( ﺇﱃ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ‪‬ﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺮﺓ )ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺷﺪ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ(‪ ,‬ﺗﺘﻤﻴﺰ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻷﻭﱃ ﺑﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ‬
‫ﺃﻗﻮﻯ ﳍﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﳍﺎ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﻨﻌﻜﺲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﺑﺼﻔﺔ ﻣﻮﺍﺯﻳﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ‬
‫ﰲ ﺍﳒﺎﺯ ﺍﳌﻬﺎﻡ ﺍﳌﻄﻠﻮﺑﺔ ﺑﺎﳌﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺁﺩﺍﺋﻪ ﺍﻟﻀﻌﻴﻒ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺟﺤﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ ‪‬ﺎ ﹺ‬
‫ﻭﺍﳌﺘﺬﺑﺬﺏ ﰲ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ .‬ﺇﻥ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻄﻔﻞ )ﺍﻹﺩﺭﺍﻙ‪ ,‬ﺍﻟﻔﻬﻢ‪ ,‬ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﲑ(‬
‫ﺑﻘﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺷﺪ )ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺋﻲ(‪ ,‬ﻭﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﻣﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺒﺘﺪﺉ ﰲ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﻥ ﻣﺎ ﲟﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳋﺒﲑ ﰲ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﳌﻴﺪﺍﻥ‬
‫)ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻤﻲ( ﺗﱪﺯ ﺑﻮﺿﻮﺡ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﻓﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﺷﻮﺍﻁ ﺍﻟﱵ ﳚﺘﺎﺯﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺃﻭ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻟﻴﺼﻞ ﰲ ‪‬ﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﺴﺎﺭ ﺍﱃ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺑﻨﻴﺎﺗﻪ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﳋﱪﺓ ﺍﳌﻄﻠﻮﺑﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﳉﻤﻊ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺗﻮﺣﻴﺪﳘﺎ ﰲ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ‬
‫ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻛﻤﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻭﻣﻮﺣﺪ ﻟﻠﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺑﻐﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﱪﻯ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﱵ ﺃﻋﻄﺖ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺃﺷﻜﺎﻻ ﻣﻨﻔﺼﻠﺔ ﻭﻣﺘﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ )ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻨﻴﺔ(‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﺎﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﲟﻌﻨﺎﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﲔ ﰲ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ‪ :‬ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ‪ ,‬ﻭﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻫﺬﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﺃﻱ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﻣﻊ ﳕﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻻﺷﺘﻐﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺣﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﱪﺩﻛﻤﺎﺗﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ‬
‫ﳝﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﻣﻌﺎﳉﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻭﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﳉﺔ )ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ(‪ .‬ﻭﺍﻟﺴﺆﺍﻝ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻄﺮﺡ ﻫﻮ‪:‬‬
‫ﻣﺎ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ؟ ﻭﺃﳘﻴﺔ ﻛﻞ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﰲ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ؟‬
‫‪ -1‬ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ‬
‫ﻟﻘﺪ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﻃﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﲔ ﻣﺘﺒﺎﻳﻨﲔ ﰲ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ‪ ,‬ﻣﺎ ﺯﺍﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺇﱃ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻡ ﻳﻔﺼﻞ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﺗﺒﻌﺎ ﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺟﺬﺭﻱ ﻳﺮﻯ ﻓﻴﻬﻤﺎ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺗﲔ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺘﲔ ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﺮﺟﻊ ﺃﺻﻞ‬
‫ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺮﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﱪﻯ ﻭﺍﳌﺘﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻧﺬﻛﺮ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳋﺼﻮﺹ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﻴﺔ‬

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‫ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻨﻴﺔ )ﻧﻘﺼﺪ ‪‬ﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻨﻴﺔ ﻟﺒﻴﺎﺟﻲ( ﻭﺍﻟﻠﺘﺎﻥ ﺃﺩﻳﺘﺎ ﺇﱃ ﺗﻘﺪﱘ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺘﲔ ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‪:‬‬
‫ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﻭﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ .‬ﻓﻤﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﻳﺼﻒ ﻟﻨﺎ ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﻛﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﺒﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺑﺪﻭﺭ ﻧﺸﻴﻂ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻠﻪ ﻣﻊ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ‪ ,‬ﻟﻜﻦ ﻣﺎ ﳛﻜﻢ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻫﻲ ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﺰﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ)ﻓﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﰐ( ﻻ ﺗﺘﺄﺛﺮ ﺇﻻ ﰲ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﻧﺴﺒﻴﺔ ﺟﺪﺍ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺍﳋﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ‪ ,‬ﰲ ﺣﲔ‬
‫ﻳﺘﺤﻘﻖ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻋﱪ ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﺗﺪﺭﳚﻴﺔ‪ ,‬ﻣﺘﺴﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻭﺿﺮﻭﺭﻳﺔ )ﺍﻟﻨﻀﺞ( ﰲ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺑﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻓﺄﻛﺜﺮ‬
‫ﲡﺮﻳﺪﺍ ﺁﺧﺮﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﳌﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﺇﻛﺮﺍﻫﺎﺕ ﺑﻨﻴﻮﻳﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﱵ ﲢﺪﺩ ﻣﺎ ﳝﻜﻦ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻄﻔﻞ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻤﻪ ﰲ ﻛﻞ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ‪ .‬ﺑﻌﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺗﺎﺑﻌﺎ ﻟﻠﻨﻤﻮ ﲝﻴﺚ ﻻ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‬
‫ﺃﻱ ﺷﻲﺀ ‪ ,‬ﺑﻞ ﳚﺐ ﻣﺮﺍﻋﺎﺓ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﺍﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮﻱ‪ ،‬ﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻣﺸﺮﻭﻁ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻀﺞ ﻭﻣﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ‬
‫‪Osgood‬‬ ‫ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺃﳒﺰﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺜﻠﺔ ﰲ ‪ (1934) Thorndike‬ﻭ ‪ (1971) Skinner‬ﻭ ‪ (1964) Hull‬ﻭ‬
‫)‪ ،(1971‬ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﻻﺭﺗﺒﺎﻃﺎﺕ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳌﺜﲑ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﻭﺁﺛﺎﺭﻫﺎ ﺍﻹﳚﺎﺑﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﻇﻬﻮﺭ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﺎﻝ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﺰﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺰﻳﺰ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻜﺮﺍﺭ‪.‬ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﻠﻮﻛﻴﺔ ﻓﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻫﻮ‬
‫ﲢﻮﻳﻞ ﺳﺠﻞ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺗﻐﻴﲑ ﺍﺣﺘﻤﺎﻻﺕ ﺇﺻﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺴﺠﻞ ﺗﺒﻌﺎ ﻟﺸﺮﻭﻁ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ‪ ,‬ﻭﻫﺬﺍ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﰲ ﲢﺴﲔ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﻻ ﻳﺮﺟﻊ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﻨﻀﺞ ﺑﻞ ﺇﱃ ﻓﻌﻞ ﻭﺁﺛﺎﺭ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ‬
‫ﺍﳋﺎﺭﺟﻲ )ﻃﻮﺍﺭﺉ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺰﻳﺰ ‪.(contingences de renforcement‬‬
‫ﻭﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻨﻈﻮﺭ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻷﻥ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺃﻱ ﺷﻲﺀ ﻭﰲ ﺃﻱ ﺳﻦ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻮﻓﺮﺕ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻭﻁ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻀﺮﻭﺭﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ :‬ﺇﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﳌﻼﺋﻤﺔ ﻭﻣﺮﺍﻗﺒﺘﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﰲ ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‪ .‬ﻓﻠﻴﺲ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ‬
‫)ﺍﻟﻨﻀﺞ( ﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‪ .‬ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﻠﻮﻛﻴﺔ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﺣﺴﻴﺔ ﺣﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﻓﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻫﻮ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺌﺎﻟﺔ )‪ (automatisme‬ﻭﺗﻨﻮﻉ ﻭﺗﺮﺍﻛﻢ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺎﺕ‪ ,‬ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﻟﻴﺲ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻓﺮﻕ‬
‫ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ .‬ﻓﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻷﺧﲑ ﻻ ﻳﻌﺪﻭ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺳﻮﻯ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﳌﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﻌﻴﺸﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﰲ‬
‫ﺣﻴﺎﺗﻪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻻ ﺷﻚ ﰲ ﺃﻥ ﻣﺼﺪﺭ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺑﲔ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻳﻜﻤﻦ ﰲ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻻﺑﺴﺘﻤﻠﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺒﻨﺘﻬﺎ ﻛـﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻨﻴـﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﻴـﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻷﻭﱃ ﺗﻌﺘﻤـﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﺑـﺔ ﺑﻨﺎﺋﻴـﺔ‬
‫)‪ (constructiviste‬ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻣﻔﺎﺩﻫﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻻ ﺗﻌﻄﻰ ﺟﺎﻫﺰﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻞ )ﺍﻟﻨﻀﺞ( ﻭﻻ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺍﳋﺎﺭﺝ )ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ( ‪ ,‬ﺑﻘﺪﺭ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳌﻌﻄﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﳋﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻫﻮ‬
‫ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﺩﻳﻨﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﻳﻠﻌﺐ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺩﻭﺭﺍ ﻓﻌﺎﻻ ﺑﻔﻀﻞ ﺃﻧﺸﻄﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺭﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻓﻬﻲ ﺗﻌﺘﱪ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﺑﺔ ﺃﻣﱪﻳﻘﺔ )‪ (empiriste‬ﲡﻌﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺄ ﺛﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﺎﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻫﻮ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻴﺔ ﺗﺮﺍﺑﻄﻴﺔ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﲟﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ ﺳﻠﱯ ﻭﻛﺄﻧﻪ ﺻﻔﺤﺔ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻀﺎﺀ ﺗﺴﺠﻞ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ ﻋﻦ ﲡﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪.‬‬

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‫ﻭﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻝ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻨﻴﺔ ﺃﻋﻄﺖ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺟﻌﻠﺖ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺗﺎﺑﻌﺎ ﻟﻪ‪ ,‬ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺍﺧﺘﺰﻟﺖ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ .‬ﻟﻜﻦ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻻ ﺗﻘﺘﺼﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫﺬﻳﻦ ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻔﲔ‪ .‬ﻓﻬﻨﺎﻙ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﻗﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻮﻗﻔﺎﻥ ﺁﺧﺮﺍﻥ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﳘﺎ ﻧﻘﻴﻀﲔ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﻴﺔ ﻭﳝﺜﻠﻬﻤﺎ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﲡﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﻄﺮﻱ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻻﲡﺎﻩ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﰲ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻷﻭﻝ ﻳﺮﻯ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻫﻮ ﺑﺎﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻧﻀﺞ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻲ‬
‫ﺣﺴﺐ ﺑﺮﳎﺔ ﻓﻄﺮﻳﺔ ﻻ ﺗﺘﺄﺛﺮ ﺑﺘﺎﺗﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺍﳋﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻦ ﺃﺻﺤﺎﺏ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻒ )‪،(Gesell 1959‬‬
‫ﻭﺑﺎﳋﺼﻮﺹ )‪ ( Chomsky 1972‬ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻃﺎﳌﺎ ﺃﻛﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻔﺴﲑ ﻓﻄﺮﻱ ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺒﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬
‫ﻻ ﺗﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺇﳕﺎ ﺗﻌﻄﻰ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻭﺗﻨﻤﻮ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻓﻄﺮﻳﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻒ ﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﻴﺔ ﻳﻨﻔﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻭﳜﺘﺰﻟﻪ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻀﺞ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻒ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﱐ ﻓﻬﻮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻋﱪ ﻋﻨﻪ )‪ (Vygotsky 1934‬ﻭﺑﻠـﻮﺭﻩ ) ‪Bruner‬‬

‫‪ (1980‬ﻭﺁﺧﺮﻭﻥ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻻﲡﺎﻩ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﰲ ﰲ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ‪ .‬ﻳﻨﻄﻠﻖ )‪ (Vygotsky‬ﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﲑﻭﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ﺗﺒﲎ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺪﻣﺎﺝ ﺗﺪﺭﳚﻲ ﻟﻸﺩﻭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺃﻧﺘﺠﻬﺎ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻋﱪ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﻳﺦ‬
‫ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﻻ ﻳﻨﻔﺼﻞ ﻋﻦ ﺍﳊﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻭﺍﻷﻛﱪ‬
‫ﺳﻨﺎ ﻣﻨﻪ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﻨﻀﺞ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﱯ ﻻ ﳝﻜﻦ ﻟﻮﺣﺪﻩ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﻭﻇﺎﺋﻒ ﺳﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺗﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﺳﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻭﺭﻣﻮﺯ ﻫﻲ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻨﻴﻨﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻣﺘﻼﻙ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﺪﻣﺎﺝ ﺍﳉﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻨﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺸﺨﺺ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻜ ‪‬ﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﻻ ﻳﺘﺤﻘﻖ ﺇﻻ ﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻳﻌﻴﺶ ﻭﺳﻂ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﻭﺑﻨﻴﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻵﺧﺮﻳﻦ ﻋﱪ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻣﻌﻬﻢ‪ .‬ﺇﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻒ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺮﻛﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺴﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻟﻠﻮﻇﺎﺋﻒ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺴﻴﺔ ﺃﺩﻯ ﺑﻔﻜﺘﺴﻜﻲ ﺇﱃ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺗﺘﻌﺎﺭﺽ ﻣﻊ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻮﺍﻗﻒ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﻭﺗﺘﻤﻴﺰ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﰲ ﻛﺜﲑ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻂ‪ .‬ﻓﺒﺎﻻﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﻟﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻠﻄﻔﻞ ﺑﺎﻣﺘﻼﻙ ﺍﳊﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﻟﻸﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﺍﶈﻴﻄﲔ ﺑﻪ‪ ,‬ﻳﺆﻛﺪ ﻓﻴﻜﺘﺴﻜﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﳝﻜﻨﻪ ﺃﻥ‬
‫ﻳﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺍﱃ ﳕﻮ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﻌﲏ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﳊﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﻭﺍﳌﻔﻴﺪ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺎ ﻟﻠﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﻣﺆﺛﺮﺍ ﻓﻴﻪ )ﻋﻜﺲ‬
‫ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ( ‪ .‬ﻳﻘﺮ ﻓﻴﻜﺘﺴﻜﻲ ﺑﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﲟﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﳕﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻛﻤﻌﻄﻰ ﻻ ﻳﻨﺎﻗﺶ‪ ,‬ﻟﻜﻦ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻳﻮﺟﺪ‬
‫ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﻥ‪ :‬ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﳊﺎﱄ )‪ (Actuel‬ﻟﻠﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻭﺻﻞ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻗﺪﺭﺗﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺣﻞ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﻟﻮﺣﺪﻩ‪ ,‬ﻭﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻣﻦ )‪ (Potentiel‬ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﻞ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﲟﺴﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺷﺪ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﳌﺴﺎﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻔﺼﻞ ﺑﲔ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﳊﺎﱄ ﻭﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻣﻦ ﲢﺪﺩ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺴﻤﻴﻪ ﻓﻴﻜﺘﺴﻜﻲ ﺑﺎﳌﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻳﺒﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ )‪.(Zone proximale de développement‬‬
‫ﻭﻣﻦ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺃﺣﺴﻦ ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﺒﻖ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻠﻲ ﻭﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻘﺔ‪ .‬ﺣﺴﺐ ﻓﻴﻜﺘﺴﻜﻲ‬
‫ﺇﺫﻥ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺑﺘﺤﺮﻳﻚ ﻭﺗﻨﺸﻴﻂ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﲑﻭﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻻ ﻳﻠﺞ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺇﻻ ﰲ ﺇﻃﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺷﺪ ﺃﻭ ﰲ ﺇﻃﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﳌﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﻣﻊ ﺃﻗﺮﺍﻧﻪ‪ .‬ﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻢ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺘﺪﻣﺎﺝ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺴﲑﻭﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ ﻣﻜﺴﺒﺎ ﺧﺎﺻﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻄﻔﻞ‪ .‬ﻭﺍﻧﻄﻼﻗﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻨﻈﻮﺭ ﻓﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻻ‬
‫ﻳﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺑﻞ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺗﺎﺑﻌﺎ ﳍﺬﺍ ﺍﻷﺧﲑ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﺒﻘﻪ ﻭﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ‪.‬‬

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‫ﺇﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﻗﻒ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻮﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﺘﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﲤﻴﻴﺰ ﺟﺬﺭﻱ ﺑﲔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻣﻦ ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺃﺻﺤﺎﺑﻪ ﻫﻮ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ )‪ (Endogene‬ﲟﻌﲎ ﺃﻥ ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﺰﻣﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻫﻲ ﺫﺍﺗﻴﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﻭﺫﺍﺕ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺑﻴﻮﺳﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻫـﻮ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻴـﺔ‬
‫)‪ (Exogène‬ﺗﺘﺤﺪﺩ ﰲ ﳏﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﻭﺧﺎﺭﺟﺎ ﻋﻨﻪ‪ .‬ﻭ‪‬ﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻌﲎ ﻓﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻫﻮ ﺃﻗﺮﺏ ﺍﱃ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻣﻨﻪ ﺍﱃ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺃﻱ ﻗﻀﻴﺔ ﺗﺮﺑﻮﻳﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻳﺄﺧﺬ ﺷﻜﻼ ﺭﺍﺩﻳﻜﺎﻟﻴﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ ﻭﺃﺗﺒﺎﻋﻪ‪,‬‬
‫ﲝﻴﺚ ﻳﻔﺼﻠﻮﻥ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺃ‪‬ﻤﺎ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺗﺎﻥ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻠﺘﺎﻥ ﻭﻣﺘﻮﺍﺯﻳﺘﺎﻥ ﻻ ﻳﻠﺘﻘﻴﺎﻥ ﻭﻻ ﺗﺘﺄﺛﺮ ﺇﺣﺪﺍﳘﺎ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻷﺧﺮﻯ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﻌﺘﱪ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻒ ﻛﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻭﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ ﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻛﺮﺳﺖ ﺗﺼﻮﺭﺍ ﺧﺎﺻﺎ ﻟﻠﻨﻤﻮ‬
‫ﻛﻤﺒﺪﺇ ﻋﺎﻡ‪ ،‬ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﰲ ﺣﺪ ﺫﺍﺗﻪ ﻛﺴﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﺧﺎﻟﺼﺔ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻭﻋﺎﳌﻴﺔ‪ ,‬ﺗﺘﺤﻘﻖ ﰲ ﳏﻴﻂ ﻓﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻲ ﳏﺾ‬
‫)ﻋﺎﱂ ﺍﻷﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ( ﰲ ﻣﻨﺄﻯ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺘﻬﺎ ﻛﺮﺳﺖ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﻴﺔ ﺑﺘﺼﻮﺭﺍ‪‬ﺎ ﺍﻻﻣﱪﻳﻘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺍﺑﻄﻴﺔ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻣﺎ ﺳﻠﺒﻴﺎ ﺃﺣﺎﺩﻳﺎ ﻭﻣﺒﺴﻄﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﱂ ﺗﺮﻛﺰ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺇﻻ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻮﺿﻌﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﺮﻭﻁ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻣﺘﺠﺎﻫﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﱐ ﻭﻫﻮ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺃﻭ ﺑﺎﻷﺣﺮﻯ‬
‫ﺟﻌﻠﺖ ﻣﻨﻪ ﻋﻨﺼﺮﺍ ﺛﺎﻧﻮﻳﺎ ﻭﺗﺎﺑﻌﺎ ﻟﻠﻤﺤﺪﺩ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻫﻮ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ ‪ ,‬ﻓﺄﺻﺒﺢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﺎ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -2‬ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻮﺭ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﻠﻢ‬
‫ﺇﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳋﻼﻑ ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﺭﺽ ﺑﲔ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻋﺮﻑ ﺃﻭﺟﻪ ﰲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﺘﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺃﺻﺒﺢ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻣﺘﺠﺎﻭﺯﺍ ﲝﻜﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﺎﺭﺏ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺣﺼﻞ ﺗﺪﺭﳚﻴﺎ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻓﲔ ﰲ ﺇﻃﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺴﻮﺍﺀ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻻﺑﺴﺘﻤﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﺃﻡ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻱ ﱂ ﻳﻌﺪ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻣﱪﺭ ﻛﺎﰲ ﻟﻠﻔﺼﻞ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ‪ .‬ﻟﻘﺪ ﻓﺮﺽ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻋﺮﻓﻪ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﻣﻨﺪ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻋﻘﻮﺩ ﺗﺼﻮﺭﺍﺕ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻭﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺑﺪﻳﻠﺔ‬
‫ﳌﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ ,‬ﻭﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﺧﻮﻝ ﰲ ﺗﻔﺎﺻﻴﻞ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻟﺜﻮﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺳﻨﻘﻒ‬
‫ﻋﻨﺪ ﻧﻘﻄﺘﲔ ﻫﺎﻣﺘﲔ ﻳﺸﻜﻼﻥ ﺣﺠﺮ ﺍﻟﺰﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺜﺔ‪ .‬ﺍﻷﻭﱃ ﻫﻲ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﺾ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻙ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻛﻤﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ‪ .‬ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻭﻑ ﺃﻥ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺎﺿﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻳﺐ‬
‫ﺑﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻙ ﻟﻠﺘﺄﻛﻴﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻥ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺪﺭﺳﻪ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﺍﳊﺴﻴﺔ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﳋﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﳝﻜﻦ‬
‫ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺘﻬﺎ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﻴﺎ ﻭﰲ ﺇﻃﺎﺭ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﺜﲑ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ )‪ (S_R‬ﻣﻊ ﺇﻗﺼﺎﺀ ﺍﳊﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﻫﺎ ﺻﻨﺪﻭﻗﺎ ﺃﺳﻮﺩﺍ ﻻ ﻧﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺘﻪ ﻭﻻ ﺍﻟﻮﺻﻮﻝ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺜﺔ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺴﻤﺎﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺃﺧﺬﺕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺎﺗﻘﻬﺎ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺪﻭﻕ ﺍﻷﺳﻮﺩ ﺃﻱ ﺫﻫﻦ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻭﺟﻌﻠﺖ ﻣﻨﻪ ﺍﳌﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﺍﳌﺮﻛﺰﻱ ﻻﻫﺘﻤﺎﻣﺎ‪‬ﺎ ﻭﺃﲝﺎﺛﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﻓﺄﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻈﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻣﺘﻴﺎﺯ ﻷ‪‬ﺎ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺬﻫﻦ ﺇﻣﺎ ﻛﻨﺸﺎﻁ )ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﳍﺎ( ﻭﺇﻣﺎ ﻛﺤﺎﻟﺔ )ﺑﻨﻴﺔ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ(‪ .‬ﻓﺎﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ‬
‫ﻫﻲ ﲤﺜﻞ ﺫﻫﲏ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺭﻣﺰﻳﺔ ﺃﻱ ﺣﺪﺙ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻲ ﻻ ﳝﻜﻦ ﻣﻌﺎﻳﻨﺘﻪ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮﺓ ﺑﻞ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺪﻻﻝ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺳﺘﻨﺒﺎﻃﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﳋﺎﺭﺟﻲ ﺍﻟﻠﻔﻈﻲ ﺃﻭ ﺍﳊﺴﻲ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻲ‪ .‬ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺗﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ‬

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‫ﺍﳌﺘﺒﺎﺩﻝ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﻭﺍﶈﻴﻂ‪ .‬ﺻﺤﻴﺢ ﺃﻥ ﻛﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺗﺄﺧﺬ ﺑﻌﲔ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺑﲔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﻭﺍﶈﻴﻂ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﻓﺤﱴ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﻴﺔ ﺑﺪﻭﺭﻫﺎ ﺗﺸﲑ ﺍﱃ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ‪ ,‬ﻟﻜﻨﻪ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ‬
‫ﻧﺴﱯ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ ﻟﺼﺎﱀ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ‪ ,‬ﲟﻌﲎ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻟﻴﺲ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻼ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻴﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ‬
‫ﻣﺘﺒﺎﺩﻻ ﺑﻞ ﻳﺒﻘﻰ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﻓﻬﻲ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﻷﺳﺎﺱ‬
‫ﻷ‪‬ﺎ ﲡﻤﻊ ﺑﲔ ﺑﻨﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺬﺍﺕ ﻭﺑﻨﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﰲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﳌﻌﺎﳉﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﳛ ‪‬ﻮﻝ ﲟﻮﺟﺒﻬﺎ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﻄﻴﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﳋﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺭﻣﻮﺯ ﻭﺇﱃ ﲤﺜﻼﺕ ﺫﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﲝﻴﺚ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻦ ﺃﻭ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺗﺘﻐﲑ ﺑﺎﶈﻴﻂ ﻭﺍﶈﻴﻂ ﻳﺘﻐﲑ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﺎﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻧﺪﺭﻙ ﻭﻧﻔﻬﻢ ‪‬ﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺍﳋﺎﺭﺟﻲ )ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ( ﺗﺘﺤﺪﺩ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻧﺘﻮﻓﺮ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‬
‫ﺑﺪﻭﺭﻫﺎ ﺗﺘﺤﺪﺩ ﺑﺎﶈﻴﻂ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻌﻲ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﻌﱪ )‪ (Gaonac’h 1987‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺑﻘﻮﻟﻪ‪" :‬ﺇﻥ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ‬
‫ﻭﺧﺼﻮﺻﻴﺎﺗﻪ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻟﻴﺲ ﻟﻪ ﻣﻌﲎ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﺸﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﳝﺎﺭﺳﻪ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ"‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻠﻴﺲ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺳﻴﺎﻕ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﻲ ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﻭﺗﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻭﻟﻴﺲ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﳏﻴﻂ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺗﻨﻈﻤﻪ‬
‫ﻭﺗﻌﻄﻴﻪ ﻣﻌﲎ‪ .‬ﻭﲞﻼﺻﺔ ﺇﻥ ﻣﺎ ﳝﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺜﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺃ‪‬ﺎ‬
‫ﺳﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﻟﻠﺴﲑﻭﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﺳﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻠﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﻴﺔ ﻭﻻ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻨﻴﺔ؛ ﺇﳕﺎ ﻫﻲ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻼﺷﺘﻐﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻨﺸﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﲏ ﻛﺎﻟﺬﻛﺎﺀ ﻭﺣﻞ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﻭﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻭﺑﺼﻔﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻛﻞ ﺃﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﳉﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﻘﺪﺓ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ‪ .‬ﻭﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﲡﺎﻩ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻣﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﰲ ﺍﻻﺻﻄﻼﺡ ﺍﻟﻜﻼﺳﻴﻜﻲ ﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ‬
‫ﺃﺻﺒﺢ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺗﺼﻮﺭ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻳﺘﻠﺨﺺ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻫﻮ ﺗﻐﲑ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻋﻮﺽ ﺗﻐﲑ ﻟﻠﺴﻠﻮﻙ ﺃﻱ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﲢﺪﺙ ﰲ ﺫﻫﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﻭﺇﺫﺍ‬
‫ﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﻳﻨﻌﻜﺲ ﻣﺒﺪﺋﻴﺎ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻙ ﺍﳋﺎﺭﺟﻲ ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳﺘﺤﻘﻖ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻀﺮﻭﺭﺓ ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻄﺮﺡ‬
‫ﻣﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻜﻔﺎﺀﺓ ﻭﺍﻷﺩﺍﺀ ﻭﻣﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻭﺕ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﰲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﳊﺎﻻﺕ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻫﻮ ﻧﺸﺎﻁ ﺫﻫﲏ ﻳﻔﺘﺮﺽ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺩﺭﺍﻙ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻬﻢ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﻨﺒﺎﻁ‪ ,‬ﲟﻌﲎ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻟﻴﺲ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ‬
‫ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﺘﺼﻮﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﻜﻼﺳﻴﻜﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻜﻞ ﻧﺸﺎﻁ ﺫﻫﲏ ﻫﻮ ﰲ ﺣﺪ‬
‫ﺫﺍﺗﻪ ﺗﻌﻠﻢ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﻔﻜﺮ ﻓﻬﻮ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻓﻬﻮ ﻳﻔﻜﺮ ﻷﻥ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﺘﻌﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺫﻫﻨﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻻ ﻳﻜﻤﻦ ﻓﻘﻂ ﰲ ﺇﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ )ﺍﻟﻜﻢ( ﺑﻞ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﰲ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻤﻬﺎ ﻭﺗﺸﻜﻴﻠﻬﺎ ﰲ‬
‫ﺑﻨﻴﺎﺕ )ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻒ( ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﺌﺔ‪ ,‬ﻭﺍﳋﻄﺎﻃﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﲏ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺗﺎﺑﻌﺎ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﻷ‪‬ﺎ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﱵ ﲢﺪﺩ ﻣﺎ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻤﻪ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻻ‬
‫ﻳﻨﻄﻠﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺼﻔﺮ ﺑﻞ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺃﻭﻟﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﻜﺜﲑ ﺳﻴﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻌﺮﻑ‬

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‫ﺍﻟﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﺳﻴﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﻷﻗﻞ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻭﺍﳉﻬﻞ ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺍﳉﻬﻞ ﲝﻴﺚ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺍﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩﻳﺔ ﺗﺘﻜﺎﺛﺮ‬
‫ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﳑﺎ ﻳﻌﲏ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻫﻮ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ ‪‬ﻢ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺃﺛﻨﺎﺀﻩ ﻭﺑﻌﺪﻩ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻫﻮ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﻭﺍﶈﻴﻂ ﻭﻟﻴﺲ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﺃﻭ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻨﻀﺞ‪ ،‬ﻷﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻭﺗﺒﲎ ﺑﻔﻀﻞ ﻧﺸﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﻭﻛﻨﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﳍﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﺸﺎﻁ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺎ ﳚﺐ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺘﻪ ﲞﺼﻮﺹ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍ‪‬ﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻁ ﻫﻮ ﺃ‪‬ﺎ ﻻ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺑﻞ‬
‫ﺇﻃﺎﺭﺍ ﺗﺼﻮﺭﻳﺎ ﻳﻮﺟﻪ ﻓﻬﻢ ﻭﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﲟﺎ ﰲ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ‪ .‬ﻓﻤﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻳﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﻣﻊ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻮﺭ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﻩ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﺀ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﳉﺰﺋﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ ﻛﺎﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻨﻴﺔ )‪ (génétique‬ﻟﻠﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﲤﻈﻬﺮﻫﺎ ﰲ ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﻣﺘﺴﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﻭﺿﺮﻭﺭﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ ﻟﺒﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺒﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﻟﻴﺲ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻭﻋﺎﻡ ﻟﻠﻨﻤﻮ‪ ,‬ﺑﻞ ﻃﺮﻕ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﻭﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺇﻣﱪﻳﻘﻴﺔ ﺇﻳﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻭﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﺻﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻟﻘﺪ ﻭﹼﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﻴﺪﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﺎﺋﺪﺓ ﺣﱴ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﺍﺧﺘﺰﻝ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺭﺗﺒﻂ ‪‬ﺎ ﺇﱃ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺃ‪‬ﺎ ﻇﻠﺖ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﳌﺮﺟﻊ ﺍﻟﻮﺣﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻻ ﻣﻔﺮ ﻣﻨﻪ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻳﻬﺘﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ‪.‬‬
‫ﺇﻥ ﻇﻬﻮﺭ ﻭﺗﻄﻮﺭ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺑﺪﻳﻠﺔ ﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ ﻣﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﺜﻤﺎﻧﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺟﺪﺩ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﻭﺃﻋﻄﺎﻩ ﺩﻓﻌﺔ‬
‫ﻗﻮﻳﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺇﺧﺮﺍﺟﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳊﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺳﺠﻨﻪ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ‪ .‬ﻧﺬﻛﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺳﻴﻮﻣﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺗﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺮﺍﻧﻴﺔ ﰒ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ‪ .‬ﻓﺤﱴ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻣﺎ ﺯﺍﻟﻮﺍ ﻣﺘﺸﺒﺜﲔ ﺑﺎﻹﻃﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ‬
‫ﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ )ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﺟﻮﻳﲔ ﺍﳉﺪﺩ( ﻻ ﳝﻠﻜﻮﻥ ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺪﺧﻠﻮﺍ ﺗﻐﻴﲑﺍﺕ ﺟﺬﺭﻳﺔ ﻭﺗﻌﺪﻳﻼﺕ ﻣﺘﻼﺣﻘﺔ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻟﺘﻜﻴﻴﻔﻬﺎ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳌﻌﻄﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﳉﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻟﻠﺒﺤﺚ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺚ‪.‬‬
‫‪ - 3‬ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‬
‫ﺍﻧﻄﻼﻗﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻮﺭ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﻟﻠﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺜﺔ ﻧﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻝ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻫﻮ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﻮﺣﺪ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﺳﺲ ﺍﳌﺸﺘﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍ ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻛﻼﳘﺎ ﺳﲑﺭﺗﲔ ﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻳﺼﺒﺢ ﲟﻮﺟﺒﻬﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﻗﺎﺩﺭﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻡ‬
‫ﲟﻬﺎﻣﻪ ﺑﺴﻬﻮﻟﺔ ﻭﺳﺮﻋﺔ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻫﻮ ﲢﻮﻝ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﺩﺓ ﺍﱃ ﺳﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺷﺪ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻫﻮ ﲢﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺑﺪﺍﺋﻴﺔ ﺍﱃ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺍﳋﱪﺓ‪.‬‬
‫ﺏ ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻛﻼﳘﺎ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺗﲔ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻴﺘﲔ ﳛﺪﺛﺎﻥ ﰲ ﺫﻫﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﲤﺜﻼﺗﻪ‬
‫ﻭﻣﻌﺎﺭﻓﻪ‪ .‬ﻓﻨﻈﺮﺍ ﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﺘﻬﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﳒﺪﳘﺎ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻘﺎﻥ ﺑﻜﻔﺎﺀﺍﺕ ﻭﻣﻬﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺫﺍﺗﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺝ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻛﻼﳘﺎ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺗﲔ ﻧﺸﻴﻄﺘﲔ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﻓﻴﻬﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﺑﺒﻨﺎﺀ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻓﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻠﻪ‬
‫ﻣﻊ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ‪ .‬ﻓﻼ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻫﻮ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﻨﻀﺞ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻭﻻ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻫﻮ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻲ ﺑﻞ ﻛﻼﳘﺎ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ‬

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‫ﻟﻨﺸﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ‪ .‬ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﻌﲏ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﺪﻭﺭ ﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﰲ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻓﻪ ﺑﺎﻻﻋﺘﻤﺎﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺆﻫﻼﺗﻪ ﺍﻟﻔﻄﺮﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺹ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﺘﻴﺤﻬﺎ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻻ ﺑﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻛﺴﲑﻭﺭﺗﲔ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺘﲔ ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈﻧﻪ‬
‫ﻳﺒﻘﻰ ﲤﻴﻴﺰﺍ ﺷﻜﻠﻴﺎ ﳝﺲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﳋﺼﻮﺻﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺼﻒ ﻛﻞ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺪﺓ‪ ,‬ﺑﻞ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻓﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳋﺼﻮﺻﻴﺎﺕ ﺗﺒﲔ ﺑﻮﺿﻮﺡ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﺗﺒﻌﺎ ﳍﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻒ ﻧﻘﺘﺮﺡ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﱄ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﳏﺪﺩ ﺑﺎﳌﺆﺳﺴﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﳏﺪﺩ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻗﺼﲑ ﻭﻣﺒﺴﻂ‬ ‫ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻃﻮﻳﻞ ﻭﻣﻌﻘﺪ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ‬
‫ﻣﻘﺎﺭﺑﺔ ﺁﻧﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﻘﺎﺭﺑﺔ ﺗﺎﺭﳜﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻣﻴﻜﺮﻭﺗﻜﻮﻳﲏ‬ ‫ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻣﺎﻛﺮﻭ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﲏ‬
‫ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳉﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﳌﻘﺘﻀﺐ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﻕ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻳﺘﻠﺨﺺ ﰲ ﺣﺠﻢ ﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﺎﻷﻭﻝ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻣﺎﻛﺮﻭﺗﻜﻮﻳﲏ )‪ (macrogénétique‬ﲟﻌﲎ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﻣﻜﱪ ﻷﻧﻪ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻃﻮﻳﻞ ﻭﻣﻌﻘﺪ‬
‫ﳝﺘﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﻻﺩﺓ ﺍﱃ ﺳﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺷﺪ ﻭﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﰲ ﺑﻌﺪﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﻮﱄ‬
‫ﺫﻱ ﺍﳊﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﲑ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﱐ ﻓﻬﻮ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻣﻴﻜﺮﻭﺗﻜﻮﻳﲏ )‪ (microgénétique‬ﻷﻧﻪ ﳝﺮ ﰲ ﻭﻗﺖ ﻭﺟﻴﺰ‬
‫ﻧﺴﺒﻴﺎ ﻭﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﺒﺴﻄﺎ ﻭﺁﻧﻴﺎ ﻭﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ‪ .‬ﺇﻧﻪ ﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﰲ ﺑﻌﺪﻩ ﺍﳉﺰﺋﻲ ﺍﳋﺎﺹ ﺃﻱ‬
‫ﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺫﻱ ﺍﳊﺠﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﲑ‪ .‬ﻟﻜﻦ ﻟﻴﺲ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺃﻱ ﺍﺧﺘﻼﻑ ﺃﻭ ﺗﻌﺎﺭﺽ ﰲ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺿﻮﻋﲔ ﺑﻞ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ‬
‫ﺗﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﻭﺗﻜﺎﻣﻞ‪ .‬ﻓﻘﻂ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﳜﺘﺎﺭ ﻭﳛﺪﺩ ﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺳﻴﺪﺭﺳﻪ‪ :‬ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺃﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ ,‬ﻛﻤﺎ‬
‫ﺃﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﻷﻧﻪ ﰲ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺴﲑ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﻤﺎ ﻣﻌﺎ‪ ،‬ﲝﻴﺚ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻔﺴﺮ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﻳﻔﺴﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻛﻤﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﺰﻡ ﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‪ .‬ﻻ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺇﺫﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻻ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻱ ﻭﻻ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻲ ﺇﻻ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺗﻌﺴﻔﻲ‪ ,‬ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﺄﻛﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﻌﻞ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ‬
‫ﻧﻄﻠﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﲝﺎﺙ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺜﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ‪‬ﺘﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ .‬ﻟﻘﺪ ﺍﺻﺒﺢ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ‪/‬ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻛﻤﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻳﺪﺭﺱ ﰲ ﺍﻹﻃﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‪ .‬ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﻮﺛﻴﻖ ﺑﲔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻳﺘﻀﺢ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺭﺟﻌﻨﺎ ﺍﱃ ﺍﳉﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻖ ﻭﺣﻠﻠﻨﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﲔ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺭﺩﺓ ﻓﻴﻪ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﺒﺨﺼﻮﺹ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﻦ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﳛﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﳌﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﳛﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﳒﺪ ﺃﻥ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻷﻋﻤﺎﺭ‬
‫ﺗﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﻣﻊ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﳌﺆﺳﺴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‪ .‬ﺇﺫﺍ ﺍﻧﻄﻠﻘﻨﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺿﺎﻋﺔ )ﻣﻦ ‪ 0‬ﺍﱃ ﺳﻨﺘﲔ(‬
‫ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻳﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﺎﻷﻡ ﻛﻤﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺐ ﰲ ﻋﻼﻗﺘﻪ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ ﺃﻭﻝ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻓﻪ‪ ,‬ﻭﰲ ﺳﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻮﻟﺔ ﺍﳌﺒﻜﺮﺓ )ﻣﻦ ‪ 2‬ﺍﱃ‬

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‫‪ 6‬ﺳﻨﻮﺍﺕ( ﺗﻠﻌﺐ ﺍﻷﺳﺮﺓ ﲟﻌﻨﺎﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺳﻊ ﺩﻭﺭﺍ ﻫﺎﻣﺎ ﰲ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‪ ,‬ﰒ ﺗﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻮﻟﺔ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﱪﻯ )ﻣﻦ ‪ 6‬ﺍﱃ‪ 14‬ﺳﻨﺔ( ﻭﺃﺧﲑﺍ ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﻐﻞ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺼﺎﺩﻑ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺳﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺷﺪ‪ .‬ﻓﻜﻞ‬
‫ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﻋﻤﺮﻳﺔ ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﲟﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ ﲝﻴﺚ ﻻ ﳒﺪ ﻣﺜﻼ ﺭﺿﻴﻌﺎ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻃﻔﻼ ﺻﻐﲑﺍ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺼﻨﻊ ﺃﻭ‬
‫ﺭﺍﺷﺪﺍ ﺗﻨﺤﺼﺮ ﻋﻼﻗﺘﻪ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻷﻡ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﺴﻦ ﻟﻴﺲ ﳎﺮﺩﺍ ﻭﻣﻄﻠﻘﺎ ﺑﻞ ﻳﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﲟﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﳌﺆﺳﺴﺎﺕ ﻭﻳﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻣﺎ ﺃﺛﺎﺭ ﺍﺳﺘﻐﺮﺍﺏ ﻓﻴﻜﻮﺗﺴﻜﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻌﺾ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻳﺪﺭﺳﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﰲ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺰﻝ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻭﻛﺄﻥ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﻏﲑ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻭﻏﲑ ﻣﺆﺛﺮﺓ‪ .‬ﻓﺈﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﻭﺗﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﺴﻦ‬
‫ﻭﺍﳌﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﻓﻬﺬﺍ ﻳﻌﲏ ﺃﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻃﺎ ﻭﺗﻄﺎﺑﻘﺎ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ .‬ﺑﻌﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻫﻮ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﺎﻥ ﻓﻬﻮ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﳌﺎ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻤﻪ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﰲ ﺍﳌﻜﺎﻥ ﺃﻱ ﰲ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺆﺳﺴﺎﺕ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳉﺪﻭﻝ ﻭﺍﻟﱵ ﲤﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻳﻞ ﻭﺍﳌﻌﻘﺪ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﺼﲑ ﻭﺍﳌﺒﺴﻂ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ ,‬ﻓﺎﻷﻣﺮ ﻻ ﳜﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻦ ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺘﻬﺎ؛ ﺇﺫ ﺃﻥ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻃﺎ‬
‫ﻭﺗﻄﺎﺑﻘﺎ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻫﻲ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﳉﺰﺀ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﻞ‪ .‬ﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻳﻞ ﻭﺍﳌﻌﻘﺪ ﻫﻮ‬
‫ﺣﺼﻴﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﳉﺰﺋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﺼﲑﺓ ﺣﱴ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﱪﺍﻣﺞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻮﻳﺔ ﺟﻌﻠﺖ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮﺓ ﻣﺒﺪﺃ ﺗﺮﺑﻮﻳﺎ ﻗﺎﺭﺍ‬
‫ﻣﻔﺎﺩﻩ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺃﻱ ﻣﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻌﻘﺪﺓ ﳚﺐ ﲡﺰﻳﺌﻬﺎ ﻭﺗﺒﺴﻴﻄﻬﺎ ﻭﲤﺪﻳﺪﻫﺎ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﺎﻥ ﻛﻲ ﻳﺴﻬﻞ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎ‪‬ﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‪ .‬ﻓﻤﺜﻼ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺆﻛﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻫﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻣﻌﻘﺪﺓ ﺗﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﻭﻗﺘﺎ ﻃﻮﻳﻼ‬
‫)ﻋﺸﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﲔ( ﺗﺘﺤﻘﻖ ﺗﺪﺭﳚﻴﺎ ﻋﱪ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺟﺰﺋﻴﺔ ﻭﻣﺒﺴﻄﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻓﻮﻧﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﻭﺟﺎﻧﺐ‬
‫ﺗﺮﻛﻴﱯ ﻭﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺩﻻﱄ ﻭﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺗﺪﺍﻭﱄ ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﻨﻈﻤﻬﺎ ﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﻛﺜﲑﺓ ﻭﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻣﻜﺘﻮﺏ ﻳﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ‬
‫ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺧﻄﻲ ﻭﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﻭﺃﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﻠﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺀﺓ… ﻓﻬﻲ ﻻ ﺗﻜﺘﺴﺐ ﺑﺮﻣﺘﻬﺎ ﰲ ﻭﻗﺖ ﻭﺟﻴﺰ‪ .‬ﻧﻔﺲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺸﻲﺀ ﻳﺼﺢ ﻗﻮﻟﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﻧﺎ ﺟﺪ ﻣﻌﻘﺪ ﻳﺴﺘﻠﺰﻡ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻷﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﻭﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ‬
‫ﺍﳊﺴﺎﺏ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻣﻮﺯ ﻭﺍﳌﻌﺎﺩﻻﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ… ﲝﻴﺚ ﻳﺴﺘﺤﻴﻞ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺑﺮﻣﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﰲ ﻭﻗﺖ ﻭﺟﻴﺰ‪ .‬ﺇﻥ ﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻘﺼﲑ ﻭﺍﳌﺒﺴﻂ ﻻ ﳝﺜﻞ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ﻣﺼﻐﺮﺓ ﻟﻼﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻄﻮﻳﻞ‬
‫ﻭﺍﳌﻌﻘﺪ ﺑﻞ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﺗﻔﺴﲑﺍ ﻟﻪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻟﺜﺔ ﰲ ﺍﳉﺪﻭﻝ ﻓﻬﻲ ﺗﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺣﺴﺐ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﺃﻱ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﳎﺮﺩﺓ ﻻ ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﻕ ﻣﻌﲔ ﻭﺻﺎﳊﺔ ﻟﻼﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﰲ‬
‫ﻣﻴﺎﺩﻳﻦ ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻭﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ‪ ،‬ﺇ‪‬ﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍ‪‬ﺮﺩﺓ ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻋﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﺴﲑﻭﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ ﺍﳌﺴﻤﺎﺓ‬
‫ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﻛﺎﺀ ﻭﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻜﻴﻒ ﰲ ﻛﻞ ﺍﳊﺎﻻﺕ ﻭﲝﻞ ﻛﻞ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﻘﺪﺓ ﻭﺍﳌﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ‪ .‬ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻫﻮ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﳏﺪﺩﺓ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﻕ ﻣﻌﲔ ﻭﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﲟﻴﺪﺍﻥ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺳﻮﺍﻩ ﻭﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﳋﱪﺓ ﰲ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﻥ‬
‫ﻣﺎ‪ .‬ﻓﻤﺜﻼ ﳝﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻔﺮﺩ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺧﺒﲑﺍ ﰲ ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩ ﻟﻜﻨﻪ ﻻ ﻳﻔﻘﻪ ﺷﻴﺌﺎ ﰲ ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻚ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺭﺓ ﺃﻭ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺮﺳﻢ‬

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‫ﻷﻥ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻓﻪ ﺗﻨﺤﺼﺮ ﰲ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﺧﺘﺼﺎﺻﻪ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﳋﱪﺓ ﻻ ﺗﺴﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺎﺀ ﻷ‪‬ﺎ ﻣﺴﺄﻟﺔ ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻛﺎﺀ ﻣﺴﺄﻟﺔ‬
‫ﳕﻮ‪ .‬ﻭﺭﻏﻢ ﻣﺎ ﳍﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﻣﻦ ﺃﳘﻴﺔ ﰲ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻓﺈﻧﻪ ﻻ ﻳﻌﲏ ﺍﻻﻧﻔﺼﺎﻝ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﺎﺭﺽ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ‬
‫ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﻟﺴﺒﺐ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﺃﻭ ﻣﻔﺘﺮﺽ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻃﻴﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺮﺑﻂ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﺘﻌﺪﺩ ﻭﺗﻨﻮﻉ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ ﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺮﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﱃ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻋﱪ ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﺰﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻤﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﺱ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﻨﺒﺎﻁ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﺗﺆﺩﻯ ﻋﱪ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﱃ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ‪ ,‬ﲝﻴﺚ ﺃﻥ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺸﻜﻞ ﻳﻜﻤﻦ ﻓﻘﻂ ﰲ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ‪ :‬ﻫﻞ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ ﺍﱃ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ‬
‫ﺃﻡ ﺍﻟﻌﻜﺲ؟ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺭﺟﻌﻨﺎ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺜﻠﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺮﲰﻲ ﳒﺪﻫﺎ ﺗﺘﺒﲎ ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻒ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻋﺘﻘﺎﺩﻫﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﻣﻮﺍﺩ ﻛﺜﲑﺓ ﻭﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ ﻛﺎﻟﻘﺮﺍﺀﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﻭﺍﳊﺴﺎﺏ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ…‬

‫ﻳﻨﻤﻲ ﻗﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﻋﱪ ﺗﺰﻭﻳﺪﻩ ﲟﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ‪ .‬ﰲ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺜﺔ ﺗﻌﻄﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﻭﺗﻨﻄﻠﻖ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﳓﻮ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﲢﺎﻭﻝ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺻﺮﳛﺔ ﻭﻋﱪ ﻣﻨﻬﺠﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺘﻜﻮﻳﻦ‪ ,‬ﲢﺴﲔ ﺍﻻﺷﺘﻐﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﲏ ﻟﻸﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﻭﺗﻘﻮﻳﺔ ﻗﺪﺭﺍ‪‬ﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻷﻣﺮ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻻ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﺘﻌﻠﻴﻢ‬
‫ﳏﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﻭﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺒﻌﺾ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﺩ ﺑﻘﺪﺭ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻬﻢ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻔﻜﲑ ﻭﺇﺟﺮﺍﺀﺍﺕ ﻓﻜﺮﻳﺔ‪ ،‬ﺃﻱ‬
‫ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻢ ﺍﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺎﺕ ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﻟﺘﺼﺒﺢ ﻣﻬﻤﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻟﻴﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ )ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ‬
‫ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﲟﻴﺪﺍﻥ ﻣﺎ( ﺑﻞ ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ )ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﻛﻴﻒ ﻧﺘﻌﻠﻢ(‪ .‬ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻮﻡ ﺳﻮﺍﺀ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﺍﱃ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻜﺲ ﻓﻌﻠﻰ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺪﺭﻙ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻡ ﺃﳘﻴﺔ ﻫﺬﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋﲔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻻﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﺣﱴ ﺗﻌﻄﻴﻬﻤﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺴﺘﺤﻘﺎﻥ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻨﺎﻳﺔ ﻭﲣﺼﺺ ﳍﻤﺎ ﰲ ﺑﺮﺍﳎﻬﺎ ﻭﻣﻨﺎﻫﺠﻬﺎ ﺍﳊﻴﺰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﺎﰲ‪ .‬ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻔﻌﻞ ﺑﺪﺃﺕ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﰲ ﻛﻨﺪﺍ ﻭﻓﺮﻧﺴﺎ ﻭﺑﻠﺠﻴﻜﺎ ﺗﻮﱄ ﺍﻫﺘﻤﺎﻣﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﺑﺈﻗﺤﺎﻣﻬﺎ ﰲ‬
‫ﺑﺮﺍﳎﻬﺎ ﻗﺼﺪ ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﻣﺎ ﺃﺻﺒﺢ ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﻔﺎﺀﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺿﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻷﻓﻘﻴﺔ )‪.(compétences transversales‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ ﺍﻷﺧﲑﺓ ﰲ ﺍﳉﺪﻭﻝ ﺗﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺭﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﳜﻴﺔ )ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ( ﻭﺍﳌﻘﺎﺭﺑﺔ ﺍﻵﻧﻴﺔ )ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ(‬
‫ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﲝﻜﻢ ﻃﻮﻟﻪ ﻭﺍﻣﺘﺪﺍﺩﻩ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﺎﻥ ﻳﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺗﺄﺭﳜﺎ ﻟﻈﻬﻮﺭ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‬
‫ﺣﺴﺐ ﺳﻨﻪ‪ ،‬ﺃﻱ ﰲ ﻣﺮﺍﺣﻞ ﻭﻓﺘﺮﺍﺕ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻤﺮﻩ‪ .‬ﻓﻼ ﳝﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻤﻬﺘﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻜﺘﻔﻲ ﲟﺴﺘﻮﻯ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺭﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﺎﳌﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺣﻘﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻫﻮ ﺗﻌﺎﻗﺐ ﻟﻈﻬﻮﺭ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺗﺒﻌﺎ ﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺐ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﲔ‪ .‬ﲞﻼﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﲝﻜﻢ ﻗﺼﺮﻩ ﻭﺟﺰﺋﻴﺘﻪ ﻻ ﻳﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺇﻻ ﻭﻗﺘﺎ ﻭﺟﻴﺰﺍ ﲝﻴﺚ‬
‫ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﺑﺔ ﳌﺎ ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻵﻥ ﻭﺣﻴﻨﺎ ﻭﻛﻴﻔﻤﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺳﻨﻪ‪ .‬ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﰲ‬
‫ﺍﳊﺎﺿﺮ‪ ,‬ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺎﺿﻲ ﻭﺍﳊﺎﺿﺮ ﻭﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‪ .‬ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﳊﺎﺿﺮ ﻫﻮ ﺣﺼﻴﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺎﺿﻲ ﻭﳏﺪﺩ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‪ ،‬ﻓﺒﺪﻭﻧﻪ ﻻ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻧﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﳌﺎﺿﻲ ﻭﻻ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺘﻨﺒﺄ ﺑﺎﳌﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‪ .‬ﺑﻌﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻻ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ‬
‫ﻧﻔﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ .‬ﻫﻜﺬﺍ ﺇﺫﻥ ﻳﺘﻀﺢ ﺃﻥ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺭﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﳜﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﻘﺎﺭﺑﺔ ﺍﻵﻧﻴﺔ ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‬

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‫ﺗﺸﻜﻼﻥ ﰲ ﺍﳊﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺗﲔ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻄﺘﲔ ﻭﻣﺘﻜﺎﻣﻠﺘﲔ‪ :‬ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻳﺼﻒ ﻇﻬﻮﺭ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻳﻔﺴﺮ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -4‬ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳌﻜﺘﺴﺒﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻘﺪ ﺣﺎﻭﻟﻨﺎ ﺗﺒﻴﺎﻥ ﲟﺎ ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻜﻔﺎﻳﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﻃﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻨﺪﺭﺝ ﻭﻳﺘﻮﺣﺪ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪ ,‬ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺘﻌﺮﻳﻔﻬﻤﺎ ﻛﺴﲑﻭﺭﺗﲔ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻣﻠﺘﲔ ﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺃﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ‪‬ﺎﺋﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻳﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻌﻠﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻳﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻭﺻﻞ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‪ .‬ﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻻ‬
‫ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻨﺴﻴﻨﺎ ﰲ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺴﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺜﻠﺔ ﰲ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳌﻜﺘﺴﺒﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﺴﺆﺍﻝ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻄﺮﺡ ‪‬ﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺼﺪﺩ‬
‫ﻫﻮ ﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ؟ ﺇﻧﻪ ﺑﻄﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﳊﺎﻝ ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺐ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‪ ,‬ﻟﻜﻦ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﳏﺘﻮﻯ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ؟ ﻭﻣﺎ‬
‫ﻫﻮ ﺷﻜﻠﻬﺎ؟ ﻭﻣﺎ ﻫﻲ ﳑﻴﺰﺍ‪‬ﺎ؟‬
‫ﺇﻥ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﻭﺗﺸﺨﻴﺺ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺒﻬﺎ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺄﻧﻪ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴﻬﻞ ﻓﻬﻢ ﲢﻮﻝ‬
‫ﻛﻔﺎﺀﺍﺕ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻨﻮﻉ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭﺗﻌﻘﺪﻫﺎ ﻭﺍﺧﺘﻼﻑ‬
‫ﻣﻮﺍﺿﻴﻌﻬﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻌﻄﻰ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻻ ﳝﻜﻦ ﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺘﺠﺎﻫﻠﻪ ﲝﻴﺚ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻻ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﺗﻘﻠﻴﺪﺍ ﻣﻨﻬﺠﻴﺎ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻭﺇﳕﺎ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﺗﻔﺮﺿﻬﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ‪ .‬ﻭﳍﺬﺍ ﳒﺪ ﺃﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺗﻮﱄ ﺍﻫﺘﻤﺎﻣﺎ ﻛﺒﲑﺍ ﻷﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭﺑﻨﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﻭﻇﻴﻔﺘﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﺭﻏﻢ ﺍﻟﺼﻌﻮﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ‬
‫ﻳﻄﺮﺣﻬﺎ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻧﻈﺮﺍ ﻟﺘﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﺧﲑﺓ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﻭﺗﺪﺭﺝ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎ‪‬ﺎ ﻭﺗﻌﻘﺪ ﳏﺘﻮﻳﺎ‪‬ﺎ‬
‫ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﻻ ﲣﻠﻮ ﻣﻦ ﲤﻴﻴﺰﺍﺕ ﻋﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺑﲔ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺄﺧﺬ ﺷﻜﻞ‬
‫ﺛﻨﺎﺋﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﺘﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ‪ ،‬ﺣﻴﺚ ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﰲ ﺇﻃﺎﺭ ﺗﻮﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻭﺗﺒﻌﺎ ﳌﻌﺎﻳﲑ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﳝﻜﻦ ﺗﻠﺨﻴﺺ ﺃﻫﻢ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫)‬
‫‪( 1974 Piaget‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳌﻠﻤﻮﺳﺔ ‪ /‬ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍ‪‬ﺮﺩﺓ‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ ‪ /‬ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ‪(1986) Glazer ,(1974) Minsky‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ‪ /‬ﺍﳌﻄﺎﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ‪(1980) Brown ،(1978) Flavell‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ‪ /‬ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻮﺭﻳﺔ ‪(1990) Mounoud‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺋﻴﺔ ‪ /‬ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺮﳛﻴﺔ ‪(1974) Anderson ،(1975) Winogard‬‬
‫ﻭﺑﺼﻔﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﺗﻜﺘﺴﻲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰﺍﺕ ﺑﲔ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺃﳘﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻐﺔ ﺳﻮﺍﺀ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ )ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ( ﺃﻭ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻼﺷﺘﻐﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ )ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﰲ ﺣﻞ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ(‪ .‬ﻓﻌﻠﻰ‬

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‫ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﳒﺪ ﻛﺜﲑﺍ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺩﺝ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻔﺴﺮ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻛﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﲢﻮﻝ ﻭﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳌﻠﻤﻮﺳﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍ‪‬ﺮﺩﺓ )ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ( ﺃﻭ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ )‪Saltz‬‬

‫‪ (1975 Nelson ,1970‬ﺃﻭ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﻄﺎﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ )‪Karmilof- ,1990 Gombert ,1978 Flavell‬‬

‫‪ .(1986 smith‬ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺴﲑ ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻳﻌﲏ ﺃﻥ ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﺰﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﻳﺪ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻤﻴﻢ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﻮﻋﻲ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﳕﺎﺩﺝ ﺗﻔﺴﲑﻳﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﺗﻌﺎﻛﺲ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﲢﻮﻳﻞ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭﺗﻌﺘﱪ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍ‪‬ﺮﺩﺓ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﳌﻠﻤﻮﺳﺔ )‪ ،(1987 Clark, 1972 Chomsky‬ﲝﻴﺚ‬
‫ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﺰﻡ ﺍﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﰲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳊﺎﻟﺔ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ )‪ (Différenciation‬ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻄﺒﻖ ﰲ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻣﺎ ﳚﺐ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺘﻪ ﲞﺼﻮﺹ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺩﺝ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺴﲑﻳﺔ ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻫﻮ ﺃ‪‬ﺎ ﲤﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ ﻧﻮﻋﲔ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭﺗﻌﺎﺭﺽ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃ‪‬ﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﺗﻮﻇﻒ ﻫﺬﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺜﻨﺎﺋﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﻏﲑ ﻣﺘﺰﺍﻣﻨﺔ‪ ,‬ﻣﻌﺘﱪﺓ ﺇﺣﺪﺍﳘﺎ ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﻻﺣﻘﺔ‪ .‬ﺃﻭ ﺑﻌﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﺃﺩﻕ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﱃ ﺃﻗﻞ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻌﻨﺪ ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ ﻣﺜﻼ‪،‬‬
‫ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻣﻠﻤﻮﺳﺔ ﰒ ﺑﻌﺪﻫﺎ ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺐ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺻﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﳎﺮﺩﺓ‪ .‬ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻮﺭ ﳒﺪﻩ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺻﻠﺘﺰ‬
‫ﻭﻧﻠﺴﻮﻥ ﺣﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻳﻌﺘﱪﺍﻥ ﺃﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻳﻌﻘﺒﻪ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﱐ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﰲ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﻋﻨﺪ ‪ Gombert‬ﻭ‪ Karmilof-smith‬ﺍﻟﻠﺬﺍﻥ ﻳﻌﺘﱪﺍﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺣﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻫﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺴﺒﻖ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻈﻬﻮﺭ ﺍﳌﻄﺎﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ‪ .‬ﻛﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰﺍﺕ ﺑﲔ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺘﲔ ﻫﻲ ﰲ ﺍﳊﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﲤﻴﻴﺰﺍﺕ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺒﻴﺔ ﺑﲔ‬
‫ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﲔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﳕﻮﺫﺝ ‪ Mounoud‬ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺗﻔﺴﲑﺍ ﻣﺘﻤﻴﺰﺍ ﺑﺎﳌﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻬﻮ‬
‫ﻳﻌﺘﱪ ﺃﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺑﻐﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﻣﺴﺘﻮﺍﻫﺎ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺒﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎ ﻭﺟﺎﻧﺒﺎ ﺗﺼﻮﺭﻳﺎ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﻣﺘﺼﻠﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﻫﺬﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋﲔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﰲ ﺁﻥ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ‪ ,‬ﲝﻴﺚ ﺃﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺇﱃ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺗﺼﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﺧﲑﺓ ﺗﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺑﺪﻭﺭﻫﺎ ﺇﱃ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻭﻫﻜﺬﺍ ﺇﱃ‬
‫‪‬ﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﲑﻭﺭﺓ‪ .‬ﻭﳜﺘﻠﻒ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﻋﻦ ﻏﲑﻩ ﰲ ﻛﻮﻧﻪ ﻳﻌﺘﱪ ﺃﻥ ﻫﺬﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋﲔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻣﺘﺰﺍﻣﻨﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻟﻜﻦ ﺑﺪﺭﺟﺔ ﻣﺘﻔﺎﻭﺗﺔ ﲝﻴﺚ ﻳﻈﻬﺮﺍﻥ ﰲ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﺭﻏﻢ ﺳﻴﻄﺮﺓ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ‪ ,‬ﻭﰲ ﻛﻮﻧﻪ ﻳﺮﻛﺰ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺑﲔ ﻫﺬﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻋﲔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭﻳﺮﺑﻂ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﰲ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺟﺪﻟﻴﺔ‪ ,‬ﰒ ﰲ ﻛﻮﻧﻪ ﻳﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻔﻬﻤﺔ )‪ (conceptualisation‬ﻛﻤﻴﻜﺎﻧﺰﻡ ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‪ ,‬ﻭﺃﺧﲑﺍ ﰲ ﻛﻮﻥ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺻﺎﱀ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺘﻄﺒﻴﻖ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻻﺷﺘﻐﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﺃﻭ ﺣﻞ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻣﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﱐ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﺎﻻﺷﺘﻐﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻻ ﻳﻘﻞ ﺃﳘﻴﺔ ﻋﻨﻪ ﰲ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻧﻈﺮﺍ ﻟﻠﺪﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﻠﻌﺒﻪ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﰲ ﺗﻔﺴﲑ ﺣﻞ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ‪ .‬ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺍﳌﻼﺋﻢ‬
‫ﰲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳊﺎﻟﺔ ﻫﻮ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺷﻚ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﺪﺍﻭﻻ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺜﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‬

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‫ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺮﳛﻴﺔ )‪ (déclarative‬ﻭﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺋﻴﺔ )‪ .(procédurale‬ﻓﻬﻮ ﲤﻴﻴﺰ ﻻ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‪ ,‬ﺑﻞ ﻳﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﳏﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭﺷﻜﻠﻬﺎ‪ ,‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻳﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺇﱃ ﺣﺪ ﻛﺒﲑ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰﺍﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﺩﻭﻥ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺮﳛﻴﺔ ‪‬ﻢ ﳏﻴﻄﻨﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻲ ﻭﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻭﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﱐ ﻭﻛﻞ ﻣﺎ‬
‫ﻳﺘﻀﻤﻨﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺣﺪﺍﺙ ﻭﻭﻗﺎﺋﻊ‪ ،‬ﲝﻴﺚ ﺗﻘﺪﻡ ﻟﻨﺎ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ‪ .‬ﻣﺜﻼ "ﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﺍﳌﻐﺮﺏ ﰲ ﴰﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺇﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ"‪ ،‬ﻓﻬﺬﻩ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺗﺼﺮﳛﻴﺔ ﻧﻌﱪ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﻟﻐﻮﻳﺎ ﻭﰲ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻫﻲ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻭﳎﺮﺩﺓ‪ .‬ﰲ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺋﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻓﻌﻠﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﻣﻬﺎﺭﺓ )‪ (savoir faire‬ﺳﻮﺍﺀ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻣﻬﺎﺭﺓ ﺣﺴﻴﺔ ﺣﺮﻛﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺃﻡ ﺫﻫﻨﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻣﺜﻼ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺃﺭﺩﺕ ﺃﻥ ﺃﺟﺪ ﺍﳌﻮﻗﻊ ﺍﳉﻐﺮﺍﰲ ﻟﻠﻤﻐﺮﺏ ﻓﺈﱐ ﺳﺄﲝﺚ ﰲ ﺧﺮﻳﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺭﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻹﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺔ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﰲ ﺃﻋﻼﻫﺎ ﻷﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ ﰲ ﺍﻷﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﻨﻮﺏ‪ .‬ﻓﻬﺬﻩ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ‬
‫ﺇﺟﺮﺍﺋﻴﺔ ﻷ‪‬ﺎ ﺗﻘﺪﻡ ﻟﻨﺎ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﱵ ﳚﺐ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﰲ ﺣﻞ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ‪ .‬ﻭﺣﺴﺐ ﺟﻮﺭﺝ‬
‫ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺮﳛﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺋﻴﺔ ﳜﻠﻂ ﺑﲔ ﻣﻌﻴﺎﺭﻳﻦ‪ ,‬ﺍﳌﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ‬
‫ﲤﻈﻬﺮ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‪ :‬ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺮﳛﻴﺔ ﻳﻌﱪ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﻟﻔﻈﻴﺎ ﻭﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﰲ ﻛﻼﻣﻨﺎ‪ ,‬ﻭﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺋﻴﺔ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﰲ‬
‫ﺳﻠﻮﻛﻨﺎ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﺍﳌﻌﻴﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﱐ ﻫﻮ ﳏﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ‪ ,‬ﺇﺫ ﺃﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﺮﳛﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺣﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺣﺪﺍﺙ ﻭﺍﻷﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺋﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻧﻮﻇﻔﻬﺎ ﰲ ﲢﻘﻴﻖ‬
‫ﻣﻬﻤﺔ ﻣﺎ )‪.(1988 ،George‬‬
‫ﻭﲤﺎﺷﻴﺎ ﻣﻊ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺭﺑﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﳉﻮﺍﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺴﺆﺍﻝ‪ :‬ﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ؟ ﳚﺐ‬
‫ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴﺘﻨﺪ ﺇﱃ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﺎﳉﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺑﺎﻻﺷﺘﻐﺎﻝ‪ .‬ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﻓﺈﻥ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺒﻬﺎ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻟﻀﺮﻭﺭﻳﺔ ﻟﻜﻞ ﺍﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻔﻜﲑ ﻭﺣﻞ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﻭﺗﻌﻠﻢ‬
‫ﺗﺘﺤﺪﺩ ﰲ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰﻳﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻬﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻻ ﺗﻌﱪ ﻋﻦ‬
‫ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﳕﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ‪ ,‬ﺑﻞ ﺗﻌﱪ ﻋﻦ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ ﳏﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﰲ ﻛﻞ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﺎ‬
‫ﺃﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻭﺗﺘﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﺇﱃ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﻳﺴﺘﺤﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﻻ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺰﻣﺎﻥ ﻭﻻ ﰲ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻜﺎﻥ‪ .‬ﻓﻬﻲ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﻏﲑ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺠﺰﻱﺀ‪ ،‬ﻭﻣﻊ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺣﻈﻴﺖ ﺑﺄﳘﻴﺔ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺣﺴﺐ‬
‫ﺍﻻﲡﺎﻫﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﲡﺎﻩ ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ ﻣﺜﻼ ﺃﻋﻄﻰ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰﻳﺔ‪ ,‬ﻣﻌﺘﱪﺍ ﺃﻥ ﻫﺬﻳﻦ ﺍﻷﺧﲑﻳﻦ ﺛﺎﻧﻮﻳﺎﻥ ﻭﺗﺎﺑﻌﺎﻥ ﻟﻠﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻝ ﺇﻥ‬
‫ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ ﺍﺧﺘﺰﻝ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﺣﱴ ﲰﻴﺖ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺗﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺋﻴﺔ‬
‫)‪ .(opératoire‬ﻓﺎﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ ﻫﻮ ﳕﻮ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺍﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻣﻬﺎ ﰲ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻬﺎﻡ ﺍﳌﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻛﺎﻻﺣﺘﻔﺎﻅ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻒ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺠﻤﻴﻊ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻀﻤﲔ… ﻓﻬﻮ ﻳﻨﻄﻠﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻞ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﳉﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺫﻫﺐ ﻋﻜﺲ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻭﺭﻛﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻣﻌﺘﱪﺍ ﺇﻳﺎﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺘﻮﻟﺪ‬
‫ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ )‪ .(Anderson ،Rosch ،Nelson‬ﻓﺎﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳌﻜﺘﺴﺒﺔ ﲣﺘﺰﻥ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﻛﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﻴﺪﺓ‬

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‫ﺍﳌﺪﻯ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﺗﺼﺮﳛﻴﺔ ﻭﺇﺟﺮﺍﺋﻴﺔ‪ ,‬ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻭﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻬﺎ ﻳﻌﻄﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﻭﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺀﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ‬
‫ﺗﻄﺒﻖ ﰲ ﺣﻞ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﲝﻴﺚ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻻﲡﺎﻩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻞ‪.‬ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻻ‬
‫ﺗﻜﻔﻲ ﻟﺘﻔﺴﲑ ﺍﻻﺷﺘﻐﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ‪ ,‬ﻓﻼﺑﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﺭﻣﺰﻱ ﺃﻭ ﻟﻐﺔ ﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﺎﳉﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﺘﻮﺍﺻﻞ ﻭﺣﻞ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ )‪ .(1990 :Weil_Baris ،1990 :Vergnaud‬ﻓﺎﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺐ ﲟﻮﺍﺯﺍﺓ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺭﻣﺰﻳﺔ ﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ 1 -4‬ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺑﺄ‪‬ﺎ ﺃﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﻛﻴﻔﻤﺎ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻧﻮﻋﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﻓﻤﺜﻼ ﺇﻥ ﻋﺰﻝ ﻭﲨﻊ ﻋﺪﺩ ﻣﻌﲔ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﻫﻮ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒ‪ .‬ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻌﻞ ﻫﻨﺎ ﲟﻌﲎ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﻠﻤﻮﺱ ﳛﺪﺙ ﺁﺛﺎﺭﺍ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ‪ ,‬ﻭﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ ﺍﺻﻠﻪ‬
‫ﺣﺮﻛﻲ ‪ ,‬ﺇﺩﺭﺍﻛﻲ ﺃﻭ ﺣﺪﺳﻲ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﻓﻬﻲ ﺍﻷﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﻠﻤﻮﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺍﺳﺘﺪﳎﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩ ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻴﺎ‬
‫ﻭﺃﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﲤﺜﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﻳﻮﻇﻔﻬﺎ ﰲ ﺍﳌﻴﺎﺩﻳﻦ ﺍﳌﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻬﻨﺎﻙ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻜ ‪‬ﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺌﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ )ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻨﺒﺎﻁ‪ ,‬ﺍﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺀ…( ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﳊﺴﺎﺑﻴﺔ )ﺍﳉﻤﻊ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﺏ‪ ,‬ﺍﻟﻘﺴﻤﺔ…( ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﳍﻨﺪﺳﻴﺔ )ﺍﻟﻘﻄﻊ ‪ ,‬ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻘﻞ…( ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻭﻏﲑﻫﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻄﺒﻖ ﰲ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻴﺎﺩﻳﻦ ﺍﳌﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﻴﺎﺳﺎ ﺑﺎﻷﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﲢﻮﻳﻞ ﺗﺘﺨﺬ ﺻﻴﻐﺔ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﻭﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ‬
‫ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬﻳﺔ ‪‬ﺪﻑ ﺇﱃ ﲢﻘﻴﻖ ﻣﻬﻤﺔ ﻣﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺘﻬﺎ ﺗﺘﺤﺪﺙ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﳉﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺀﺍﺕ )‪ (Procédures‬ﻋﻮﺽ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﺗﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺀﺍﺕ ﺑﺄ‪‬ﺎ ﳎﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﰲ ﺷﺮﻭﻁ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ ﻟﻠﻮﺻﻮﻝ‬
‫ﺇﱃ ﻫﺪﻑ ﳏﺪﺩ‪ .‬ﻓﺘﻌﻘﺪ ﺍﳌﻬﺎﻡ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻈﺮﻭﻑ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ ‪‬ﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻳﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ‪ ,‬ﻭﺗﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﻳﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻤﺎ ﻭﺗﻨﺴﻴﻘﺎ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﺣﱴ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﺔ‪ .‬ﻭ‪‬ﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻌﲎ ﻳﺼﺒﺢ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺀ‬
‫ﻗﺮﻳﺒﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺑﻞ ﺻﺎﺭ ﻳﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﻛﻤﺮﺍﺩﻑ ﳍﺎ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺜﺔ‪ .‬ﻟﻜﻦ ﻣﻊ‬
‫ﺫﻟﻚ ﻧﺮﻯ ﺃﻥ ﻧﻮﻋﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺀ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻱ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺃﺭﺩﻧﺎ ﺗﻮﺧﻲ ﺍﻟﺪﻗﺔ ﰲ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎﺕ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻠﻖ ﻧﻌﺘﱪ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ ﲣﺘﻠﻒ ﻧﺴﺒﻴﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺀ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﰲ ﻛﻮ‪‬ﺎ‬
‫ﺇﺟﺮﺍﺀ ﻭﺍﻉ ﻭﻣﺮﺍﻗﺐ‪ .‬ﻓﻌﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﳔﺘﺎﺭ ﺇﺟﺮﺍﺀﺍ ﺑﲔ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺀﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻧﺘﻮﻓﺮ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ )ﺍﻟﻮﻋﻲ( ﻭﻧﻨﻔﺬﻩ‬
‫ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻣﺮﺍﻗﺒﺔ ﻓﺎﻷﻣﺮ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺁﻧﺬﺍﻙ ﺑﺎﻻﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﲞﻼﻑ ﺍﻹﺟﺮﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺁﻟﻴﺎ ﻭﻏﲑ ﻣﺮﺍﻗﺐ ﻭﻳﺘﻢ‬
‫ﺗﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺃﻃﻮﻣﺎﺗﻴﻜﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ 2-4‬ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ‬
‫ﻛﺎﻥ ﻟﻠﻔﻼﺳﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﻖ ﰲ ﺍﻻﻫﺘﻤﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻣﻨﺪ ﺃﺭﺳﻄﻮ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻋ ‪‬ﺮﻓﻮﻫﺎ ﻛﻮﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﻓﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﳎﺮﺩﺓ‪,‬‬
‫ﰒ ﺗﺒﻌﻬﻢ ﺍﻟﻠﺴﺎﻧﻴﻮﻥ ﻭﺩﺭﺳﻮﻫﺎ ﰲ ﺇﻃﺎﺭ ﺩﻻﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﻭﺍﻋﺘﱪﻭﻫﺎ ﲟﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﳌﺪﻟﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻔﻈﻲ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ‬

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‫ﻓﻘﺪ ﺟﺎﺀ ﺍﻫﺘﻤﺎﻣﻬﻢ ﺑﺎﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻣﺘﺄﺧﺮﺍ ﺟﺪﺍ ﻭﱂ ﻳﻨﻄﻠﻖ ﺇﻻ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺴﺘﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﺮﻳﻦ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻻﲡﺎﻩ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺎﱐ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺋﻲ )‪ .(Cognitivisme développemental‬ﺭﻏﻢ ﻣﺎ ﻛﺘﺒﻪ ‪،Vygotsky op cit ،Bartlett 1934‬‬
‫‪ Piaget op cit‬ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻼﺛﻴﻨﺎﺕ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﳌﻤﻨﻬﺠﺔ‪ ,‬ﺍﳌﺮﻛﺰﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﱂ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺇﻻ ﻣﻊ ‪ Nelson‬ﻭ‪Rosch‬‬

‫ﻭ‪ Bruner‬ﻭﻏﲑﻫﻢ ﰲ ﺇﻃﺎﺭ ﺳﻴﻜﻠﻮﺟﻲ ﳕﺎﺋﻲ‪ ،‬ﺟﻌﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﻭﺍﺷﺘﻐﺎﻟﻪ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻼﺣﻆ ﺃﻥ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﺑﺼﻔﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻳﺘﻌﺎﻣﻠﻮﻥ ﻣﻊ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻭﻛﺄ‪‬ﺎ ﺑﺪﻳﻬﻴﺔ ﻭﺷﻔﺎﻓﺔ ﻻ ﲢﺘﺎﺝ ﺇﱃ ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻘﺘﺼﺮﻭﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﻫﺎ ﻛﻴﺎﻧﺎﺕ ﺫﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﲤﺜﻼﺕ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﻛﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﻴﺪﺓ ﺍﳌﺪﻯ ﻟﻴﻤﺮﻭﺍ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮﺓ ﺇﱃ‬
‫ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺗﻜﻮ‪‬ﺎ ﻭﺑﻨﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﻭﻇﻴﻔﺘﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﺗﻌﺮﻑ ‪ (1982) Nelson‬ﺍﳌﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺑﺄﻧﻪ "ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺔ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﻏﲑ ﺗﺎﺑﻌﺔ‬
‫ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮﺓ ﻟﻠﻤﺪﻯ ﺍﻹﺩﺭﺍﻛﻲ ﻭﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺴﻤﻴﺔ"‪ .‬ﻓﺤﺴﺐ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﳌﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳋﺼﺎﺋﺺ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺜﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﲤﻴﺰ ﺷﻴﺌﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ﻭﺍ‪‬ﺮﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﻜﻠﻤﺔ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻤﺜﻼ "ﺍﻟﻄﺎﺋﺮ" ﻫﻮ ﺣﻴﻮﺍﻥ ﻟﻪ ﻣﻨﻘﺎﺭ‬
‫ﻭﺟﻨﺎﺣﲔ ﻭﻳﻄﲑ‪ ,‬ﻓﻬﺬﻩ ﺍﳋﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﻛﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻭﺿﺮﻭﺭﻳﺔ ﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﺋﺮ‪ ،‬ﻭﻛﻤﺎ ﺃ‪‬ﺎ ﳎﺮﺩﺓ ﻳﺸﺘﺮﻙ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻛﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﻔﻮﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺒﻐﺎﺀ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺴﺮ… ﻭﺗﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﺑﺎﻷﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﻭﺍﻷﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻷﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﻭﺣﱴ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﻌﺘﱪ‬
‫ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻉ ﺍﻷﺧﲑ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﺑﻊ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﺋﻘﻲ ﺃﺻﻌﺐ ﰲ ﺗﻜﻮ‪‬ﺎ ﻭﺗﻌﻠﻤﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﺍﻻﺧﺮﻯ‬
‫ﻷ‪‬ﺎ ﻻ ﺗﻌﺮﻑ ﲞﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ‪ ,‬ﺑﻞ ﺑﻌﻼﻗﺎ‪‬ﺎ ﻣﻊ ﻣﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﳑﺎ ﳚﻌﻠﻬﺎ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﲡﺮﻳﺪﺍ ﻭﺗﻌﻘﻴﺪﺍ ﻣﻦ ﻏﲑﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻭﻳﻘﺮ‪‬ﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﻛﻤﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺰﻣﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﳌﻜﺎﻥ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺪ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﻄﺖ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﰲ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﲟﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻔﺌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻮﺭﻳﺔ )‪ (catégorie conceptuelle‬ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺌﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ) ‪catégorie‬‬

‫‪ .(naturelle‬ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺌﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺻﻨﻒ ﻳﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﺮﺓ ﺍﳌﺒﻨﻴﻨﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﺘﻤﺜﻠﺔ ﰲ ﺍﳋﺼﺎﺋﺺ‬

‫ﺍﳌﻤﻴﺰﺓ ﺍﻟﱵ ﲢﺪﺩ ﻣﺪﻯ ﺍﻧﺘﻤﺎﺀ ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﻣﺎ ﳍﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﺌﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﺣﺴﺐ ﺭﻭﺵ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻔﺌﺎﺕ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻷﺻﻨﺎﻑ ﺗﺘﻠﺨﺺ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﺻﺢ ﰲ ﳕﻮﺫﺝ ﺃﺻﻠﻲ )‪ (prototype‬ﻳﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻛﻤﺮﺟﻊ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺗﻨﺘﻤﻲ ﺃﻡ‬
‫ﻻ ﺗﻨﺘﻤﻲ ﳍﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﺌﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﻌﺼﻔﻮﺭ ﳝﺜﻞ ﻓﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻴﻮﺭ ﻋﻜﺲ ﺍﻟﻨﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﺭﻏﻢ ﺃ‪‬ﺎ ﻃﺎﺋﺮ‪ .‬ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﻔﺌﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺗﺄﺧﺬ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺧﻄﺎﻃﺎﺕ )‪ (schémas‬ﻛﺒﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﻷﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﺃﻭ ﺳﻴﻨﺎﺭﻳﻮﻫﺎﺕ )‪ (script‬ﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻷﻓﻌﺎﻝ‪ .‬ﻓﻜﻞ ﻣﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﻩ ﰲ ﺁﻥ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻓﺌﺔ ﻭﺧﻄﺎﻃﺔ‪ ,‬ﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﻤﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺯﺍﻭﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﱵ ﳝﺜﻼ‪‬ﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺮﺑﻄﻬﻤﺎ ﺑﻔﺌﺎﺕ ﻭﺧﻄﺎﻃﺎﺕ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ‪ ,‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﺪﻝ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻷﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﰲ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻤﺎﺕ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ‬
‫ﴰﻮﻟﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻤﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺟﺔ ﻣﺜﻼ ﻳﺪﻝ ﰲ ﺁﻥ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﺌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻫﻲ ﻓﺌﺔ ﺻﻐﲑﺓ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺘﺤﺮﻛﺎﺕ ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳋﻄﺎﻃﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﲢﻴﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻭﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﻷﺟﺰﺍﺀ )ﺍﳍﻴﻜﻞ‪ ,‬ﺍﳌﻘﻮﺩ‪ ,‬ﺍﻟﻌﺠﻼﺕ‪,‬‬
‫ﺍﳌﻘﻌﺪ…( )‪ .(1975 ،Rosch‬ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﺸﻲﺀ ﻳﻘﺎﻝ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻸﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻨﻄﻮﻱ ﲨﻴﻌﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﺃﻭ‬
‫ﺃﻫﺪﺍﻑ ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻘﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﺬﻫﺎﺏ ﺇﱃ ﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻓﻌﻞ ﳕﻮﺫﺟﻲ ﻟﻠﺘﻨﻘﻞ ﻳﺸﻜﻞ‬
‫ﻓﻴﻪ ﺍﳌﺸﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﻗﺪﺍﻡ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺮﻛﻮﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺟﺔ ﺃﻭ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﺭﺓ ﺻﻴﻐﺎ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﻴﻘﻪ ﲟﻌﲎ ﺃﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻎ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﻓﺌﺎﺕ ﺻﻐﺮﻯ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺒﲑﺓ "ﺍﻟﺬﻫﺎﺏ ﺇﱃ ﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﻣﺎ"‪ .‬ﻭﲝﻜﻢ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻁ ﻭﺗﺪﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﺌﺎﺕ‬

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‫ﻭﺍﳋﻄﺎﻃﺎﺕ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺗﺮﺍﺗﱯ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻫﻲ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﻋﻘﺪ ﺩﻻﻟﻴﺔ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ ﻭﺍﺳﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﺌﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻭﺍﳋﻄﺎﻃﺎﺕ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -3-4‬ﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺯﻳﺎﺩﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻓﺎﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺐ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺃﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺭﻣﺰﻳﺔ ﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺃﳘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻜﻞ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﲢﺘﺎﺝ ﺇﱃ ﺭﻣﻮﺯ ﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻠﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﲑ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﻭﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﲟﺜﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻣﺘﺪﺍﺩ ﳍﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺃﳘﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﳋﺼﻮﺹ ﰲ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﳌﻴﺎﺩﻳﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﺍ‪‬ﺮﺩﺓ ﻛﺎﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ‪ ,‬ﺇﺫ ﻻ ﳝﻜﻦ‬
‫ﻓﻬﻢ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻴﺎﺩﻳﻦ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻟﻐﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ ‪‬ﺎ‪ ،‬ﺃﻱ ﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺴﺘﻌﻤﻠﻬﺎ ﻟﺼﻴﺎﻏﺔ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ‬
‫ﻭﺣﻠﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﺑﺼﻔﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﺇﻥ ﻛﻞ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﺮﰲ ﳌﻌﺎﳉﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻻ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺸﺘﻐﻞ ﺑﺪﻭﻥ ﺭﻣﻮﺯ ﻟﻠﺘﻮﺍﺻﻞ‬
‫ﻭﺣﻞ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰﻳﺔ ﺃﺩﻭﺍﺕ ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﻟﺼﻴﺎﻏﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﺻﻮﺭﻧﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﺗﺒﻠﻴﻐﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻟﻶﺧﺮ‪ .‬ﻭﻫﻲ ﺇﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﺛﻘﺎﰲ ﻳﺘﻮﺯﻉ ﺇﱃ ﻋﺪﺓ ﺃﳕﺎﻁ‪ :‬ﺍﻟﺮﻣﻮﺯ ﺍﳊﺮﻛﻴﺔ ‪ ,‬ﺍﻟﺮﻣﻮﺯ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺗﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻣﻮﺯ‬
‫ﺍﳋﻄﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﲤﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﻮﺯ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻣﻮﺯ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ )ﺍﻷﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻤﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ…( ﻭﺑﺎﳋﺼﻮﺹ ﰲ‬
‫ﺷﻜﻠﻬﺎ ﺍﳌﻜﺘﻮﺏ ﺃﻫﻢ ﻭﺃﻗﻮﻯ ﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﳑﺎ ﻳﻔﺴﺮ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﲢﻈﻰ‬
‫‪‬ﺎ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﻭﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺋﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻮﺍﺟﻪ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻠﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻹﻃﺎﺭ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ) ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮ( ﻭﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ﳕﺎﺋﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺈﺫﺍ‬
‫ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﺪﻳﻬﻴﺔ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﻭﺟﺰﺋﻴﺎ‪‬ﺎ ﺍﻟﺪﻗﻴﻘﺔ ﱂ ﺗﻮﺿﺢ ﺑﻌﺪ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﲡﺎﻩ ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ‬
‫ﻳﺮﻯ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻱ ﺗﺎﺑﻊ ﻟﻠﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﻭﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﻪ )‪ (1972 ،Sinclair de Zwart‬ﻓﻜﻞ ﲢﻮﻝ ﻣﻌﺮﰲ‬
‫ﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﱃ ﲢﻮﻝ ﻟﻐﻮﻱ‪ ،‬ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻄﻔﻞ ﻣﺆﺷﺮﺍ ﺩﺍﻻ ﻋﻦ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ‬
‫ﻭﺻﻞ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻷﺧﲑ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ‪ Chomsky‬ﻓﻴﺪﺍﻓﻊ ﺑﺸﺪﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺧﺼﻮﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﻭ ‪‬ﺷ‪‬ﺒﻪ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﻼﻟﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﻋﻦ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﻳﻌﺘﱪ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﻭﳕﻮﻫﺎ ﻫﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻧﻀﺞ ﻓﻄﺮﻱ ﺗﺘﻢ ﰲ ﻣﻌﺰﻝ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ‪ .‬ﻭﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻮﺍﻗﻒ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﻴﺰﺓ ﺣﻮﻝ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ‪ Vygotsky‬ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻌﻄﻲ ﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺩﻭﺭﺍ ﻫﺎﻣﺎ‬
‫ﰲ ﺗﻘﻮﻳﺔ ﻭﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ‪ ,‬ﻭﻣﻮﻗﻒ ‪ Sapir‬ﻭ‪ Worf‬ﺍﻟﻠﺬﺍﻥ ﳜﺘﺰﻻﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻮﻡ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻛﻞ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻮﺍﻗﻒ ﺍﳌﻌﱪ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﺗﺘﺠﺎﺫ‪‬ﺎ ﻓﺮﺿﻴﺘﺎﻥ‪ :‬ﻓﺮﺿﻴﺔ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺗﻌﻄﻲ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻮﻳﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻭﻓﺮﺿﻴﺔ ﻟﺴﻨﻴﺔ ﺗﺮﻛﺰ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﻭﺗﻌﻄﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻮﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﻝ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺒﻬﺎ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻫﻲ‪ :‬ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰﻳﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻜﻞ ﲢ ‪‬ﻮﻝ ﻣﻌﺮﰲ ﻳﺸﻤﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺮﻭﺭﺓ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭﺗﺒﻘﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﻭﺃﳘﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻛﻞ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻉ ﺧﻼﻑ ﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﻹﲡﺎﻫﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﻘﺎﺭﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -5‬ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻭﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‬

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‫ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﺑﺎﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻛﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﺪﻳﻬﻴﺔ ﻻ ﲢﺘﺎﺝ ﺇﱃ ﺗﱪﻳﺮ ﻣﺴﺒﻖ‪ ,‬ﲝﻴﺚ ﳝﻜﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﻫﺎ ﻛﻤﻌﺎﺩﻟﺔ ﺍﺧﺘﺰﺍﻟﻴﺔ ﳛﻴﻞ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ‪ .‬ﺇﻥ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﻛﻤﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﺗﺮﺑﻮﻳﺔ ﺗﻜﻤﻦ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﰲ ﺗﺒﻠﻴﻎ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭﺗﻠﻘﻴﻨﻬﺎ‪ ,‬ﺃﺻﺒﺤﺖ‬
‫ﳑﺮﺍ ﺇﺟﺒﺎﺭﻳﺎ ﻟﻜﻞ ﺍﻷﻃﻔﺎﻝ‪ ,‬ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻘﻀﻮﻥ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻓﺘﺮﺓ ﻃﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺎ‪‬ﻢ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﺀ ﺃﻭﻻﺋﻚ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﲢﺮﻣﻬﻢ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻈﺮﻭﻑ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻘﻬﻢ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ‪ .‬ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﳌﺒﺪﺋﻲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﳕﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﻭﺗﻌﻠﻤﺎﺗﻪ ﻳﺘﺄﺛﺮﺍﻥ ﰲ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ‪‬ﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﻭﺇﻥ ﻛﺎﻧﺎ ﻻ ﻳﻨﺤﺼﺮﺍﻥ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ‬
‫ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﳏﻄﺔ ﺭﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻭﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺣﺎﲰﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‪ ,‬ﻓﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺍﺑﺔ ﲟﻜﺎﻥ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﳕﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﰲ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺰﻝ ﻋﻦ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﻭﻛﺄ‪‬ﺎ ﻏﲑ ﻣﻮﺟﻮﺩﺓ ﻭﻏﲑ ﻣﺆﺛﺮﺓ‪ .‬ﻟﻜﻦ ﺍﻹﻗﺮﺍﺭ ‪‬ﺬﻩ ﺍﳊﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﻭﺃﳘﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﳌﺒﺪﺋﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻳﺴﺘﺪﻋﻲ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺗﱪﻳﺮﺍ ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺎ ﻳﻌﻄﻲ ﳏﺘﻮﻯ ﺩﻗﻴﻘﺎ ﳍﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻜﺸﻒ ﻋﻦ ﺁﺛﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﰲ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‪ .‬ﺑﻌﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺗﺄﺧﺬ ﻣﻜﺎﻧﺔ ﻣﺘﻤﻴﺰﺓ ﰲ ﺳﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‪,‬‬
‫ﻓﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﻀﺮﻭﺭﻱ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺘﺴﺎﺀﻝ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻻﺕ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﲢﺪﺙ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﰲ ﻋﻼﻗﺘﻪ ‪‬ﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﺆﺳﺴﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻮﻳﺔ ﺣﱴ ﻧﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻠﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﻘﻮﻡ ﺑﻪ‪ ,‬ﻭﺗﻘﻮﱘ ﻣﺪﻯ ﺇﳚﺎﺑﻴﺔ ﺁﺛﺎﺭﻩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﳕﻮ ﻭﺗﻄﻮﺭ‬
‫ﺫﻫﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -1-5‬ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ‬
‫ﻣﻨﻬﺠﻴﺎ‪ ,‬ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻷﻃﻔﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﲔ ﻭﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﲔ ﺃﺑﺴﻂ ﻭﺃﻳﺴﺮ ﻭﺳﻴﻠﺔ ﻹﺑﺮﺍﺯ‬
‫ﺁﺛﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻔﺎﺀﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻭﻣﻌﺎﺭﻓﻪ‪ ,‬ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﻌﻞ ﻣﺎ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﻪ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﻮﺙ ﺍﳌﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﱵ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﺤﻀﺎﺭ ﺃﳘﻬﺎ ﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﳜﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﱄ‪.‬‬
‫ﻳﻌﺘﱪ ﻋﺎﱂ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﻓﻴﺎﰐ ‪ (1934) Vygotsky‬ﺃﻭﻝ ﻣﻦ ﺭﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﻟﻠﻄﻔﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ‬
‫ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻭﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺀﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻛﺄﺩﻭﺍﺕ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ‪‬ﺗﻄ ‪‬ﻮﺭ ﻓﻜﺮ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺪ ﺃﻛﺪ ﻫﺬﺍ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺭ ﺍﻹﳚﺎﰊ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﻠﻌﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﳌﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ ﻛﻨﻈﺎﻡ ﺭﻣﺰﻱ ﳎﺮﺩ ﰲ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺴﻤﻴﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺴﲑﻭﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﻋﻤﻼ ‪‬ﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺟﻪ‪ ,‬ﻗﺎﺩ ‪ (1976) Luria‬ﺑﻌﺜﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻠﻤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺇﱃ ﺁﺳﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻄﻰ ﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺁﺛﺎﺭ ﺍﻹﺻﻼﺣﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﱵ ﺃﺩﺧﻠﺘﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺍﳊﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺍﳌﺮﻛﺰﻳﺔ ﰲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﺎﺋﻒ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﻜﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﱂ ﺗﻜﻦ ﺃﻧﺸﻄﺘﻬﻢ ﺗﺘﺠﺎﻭﺯ‬
‫ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻔﻼﺣﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪﻱ ﺍﶈﻜﻮﻡ ﲟﻈﺎﻫﺮ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺰﻟﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺑﺎﻗﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺎﻡ ﻟﻮﺭﻳﺎ ﲟﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ‬
‫ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﲔ ﲟﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﺑﻘﻴﺖ ﺗﻘﻠﻴﺪﻳﺔ ﻭﺃﻣﻴﺔ‪ ,‬ﻣﺴﺘﻌﻤﻼ ﺍﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﲡﺮﻳﺒﻴﺔ ‪‬ﻢ ﺍﻹﺩﺭﺍﻙ‪,‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ‪ ,‬ﺍﳌﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﺪﻻﻝ ﻟﻜﺸﻒ ﻭﲢﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺍﺭﻕ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮﻱ ﻭﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺪ ﺃﺳﻔﺮ‬
‫ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﺳﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻫﺎﻣﺔ ﲤﺜﻠﺖ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﻹﳚﺎﰊ ﻟﻠﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻜﺮ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺎﻥ ﺣﻴﺚ ﺇﻥ‬
‫ﺍ‪‬ﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻠﺖ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﳎﺮﺩﺓ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺖ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ‬

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‫ﻟﻸﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﲤﺎﻣﺎ ﻋﻜﺲ ﺍ‪‬ﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻠﺖ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻣﻠﻤﻮﺳﺔ‪ ,‬ﻓﻜﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺎ‪‬ﺎ ﺗﺎﺑﻌﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﻴﺎﻕ ﻭﻣﻮﺟﻬﺔ ﺑﺎﳋﺼﻮﺻﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺩﺭﺍﻛﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﻟﻸﺷﻴﺎﺀ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﺑﻌﺪ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺑﺜﻼﺛﲔ ﺳﻨﺔ ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ‪ (1966) Greenfield‬ﻭﻫﻲ ﻋﺎﳌﺔ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺃﻣﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ‬
‫ﻫﺮﻓﺎﺭﺩ ﻭﺑﺘﻮﺟﻴﻪ ﻣﻦ ‪ Bruner‬ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻛﺎﻥ ﻟﻪ ﻃﺮﺡ ﻣﻄﺎﺑﻖ ﻟﻄﺮﺡ ‪ Luria‬ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﺄﳘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﰲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ‪ ,‬ﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﺔ ﺑﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺛﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﳌﻔﻬﻮﻡ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺃﻃﻔﺎﻝ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻴﻠﺔ‬
‫‪ Wolof‬ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻨﻐﺎﻝ‪ ,‬ﻣﻌﺘﻤﺪﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻛﻤﺘﻐﲑ ﳏﺪﺩ ﻭﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ‪ .‬ﻓﻘﺎﺭﻧﺖ ﺑﲔ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺘﲔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻃﻔﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﲔ ﻭﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﲔ‪ ،‬ﺍﳌﺘﺠﺎﻧﺴﲔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺴﻦ ﻭﺍﻻﻧﺘﻤﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻭﻱ ﻭﺍﳊﻀﺮﻱ‪ ,‬ﻟﺘﺠﺪ ﺑﺪﻭﺭﻫﺎ ﻓﻮﺍﺭﻕ‬
‫ﻫﺎﻣﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺀ ﻭﺍﻹﳒﺎﺯ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ‪ .‬ﻓﻔﻲ ﻣﻬﻤﺔ ﺗﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒ ﺃﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﻣﺄﻟﻮﻓﺔ )ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﻠﻪ‬
‫‪ (Luria‬ﺗﺒﲔ ﳍﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻷﻃﻔﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﲔ ﻭﺍﻷﻃﻔﺎﻝ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﲔ ﳜﺘﻠﻔﻮﻥ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ‬
‫ﻳﻜ ‪‬ﻮﻧﻮﻥ ‪‬ﺎ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ‪ ,‬ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﺘﺤﺪﺛﻮﻥ ‪‬ﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺍ‪‬ﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ‬
‫ﻛﻮﻧﻮﻫﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺪ ﺍﻋﺘﱪﺕ ‪ Greenfield‬ﺃﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺍﺭﻕ ﺗﺮﺟﻊ ﺇﱃ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﻃﻔﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﲔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﲑ‬
‫ﺍ‪‬ﺮﺩ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻘﻞ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻌﻲ ﻟﻸﺷﻴﺎﺀ‪ ,‬ﲞﻼﻑ ﺍﻷﻃﻔﺎﻝ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﲔ ﺍﻟﺬﻳﻦ ﻳﺘﻤﻴﺰ ﺗﻔﻜﲑﻫﻢ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺒﻌﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﻧﺪﻣﺎﺝ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﻕ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻧﺴﺘﺤﻀﺮ ﺃﺧﲑﺍ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ‪ (1981) Scribner Cole‬ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺪﺧﻞ ﰲ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻹﻃﺎﺭ‪ ,‬ﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﺗﻔﺼﻞ ﺑﲔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺀﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ‪ ,‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺃ‪‬ﻤﺎ ﳜﺘﻠﻔﺎﻥ ﻭﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﺗﺄﺛﲑﻩ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺘﻤﻴﺰ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺑﻘﺒﻴﻠﺔ ﺻﻐﲑﺓ ﰲ ﻟﻴﱪﻳﺎ ﺑﺈﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ "ﻓﺎﻱ" ﻭﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺘﻮﻓﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻟﻐﺔ‬
‫ﻣﻜﺘﻮﺑﺔ ﳏﻠﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﺑﺎﻹﳒﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻮﺿﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ ﲰﺤﺖ ﻟﻠﺒﺎﺣﺜﺔ ﲟﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﻭﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺗﻌﺮﻑ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺀﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺍﶈﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﻜﻦ ﻏﲑ ﻣﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﻭﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺃﻣﻴﺔ ﻭﻏﲑ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻗﺪ ﰎ ﺍﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﺎﺋﻒ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﳍﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻨﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻣﻬﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﻟﻺﺩﺭﺍﻙ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﺍﻛﺮﺓ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺀﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻒ‪ .‬ﻓﺠﺎﺀﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﻟﺘﺆﻛﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻳﺮﻓﻊ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻔﺴﲑ ﺍﳌﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺍﳌﺘﻀﻤﻨﺔ‬
‫ﰲ ﺇﳒﺎﺯ ﺍﳌﻬﺎﻡ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﻘﺘﺮﺣﺔ‪ ،‬ﲝﻴﺚ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﱪﻳﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻗﺪﻣﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﻮﻥ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻣﻮﺟﻬﺔ‬
‫ﺑﺎﳌﻬﺎﻡ ﻭﻏﻨﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﻣﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﺑﺘﻠﻚ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻗﺪﻣﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﻓﺮﺍﺩ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﲔ‪.‬ﻭ ﻳﻌﺘﱪ ﺃﺻﺤﺎﺏ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ‬
‫ﺑﺄﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺗﺆﻛﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﻟﻸﲝﺎﺙ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﺗﻀﻴﻒ ﺷﻴﺌﺎ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺍ ﻳﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﰲ ﺃﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻳﺆﺛﺮ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺴﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﻔﻈﻴﺔ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺆﺛﺮ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺟﺢ ﻟﻠﻤﻬﺎﻡ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﲝﺎﺙ ﻭﻏﲑﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺃﺟﺮﻳﺖ ﰲ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺎﺕ ﻭﺑﺎﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻝ ﻣﻬﺎﻡ ﲡﺮﻳﺒﻴﺔ ﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ‪ ,‬ﺗﺒﲔ‬
‫ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎ ﻭﺑﺼﻔﺔ ﻣﻠﺤﻮﻇﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻷﻃﻔﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﲔ ﻳﺘﻔﻮﻗﻮﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﻃﻔﺎﻝ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﺘﻤﺪﺭﺳﲔ ﰲ ﻣﻬﺎﻡ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺗﻔﺘﺮﺽ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺷﺘﻐﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﻋﺮﺽ ﻣﻔﺼﻞ ﻭﺗﻘﻮﱘ ﺩﻗﻴﻖ ﳍﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﲝﺎﺙ ﻋﻨﺪ ‪Fush‬‬

‫‪ (1979) Brewer‬ﻭ‪(1980) Rogoff‬؛ ﲝﻴﺚ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﻠﺼﺎﻥ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﰲ ﺟﻞ ﺍﳊﺎﻻﺕ ﻟﻪ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﺇﳚﺎﰊ‬

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‫ﺟﺪﺍ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻳﻜﻤﻦ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﺎ ﰲ ﲢﻮﻳﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻣﻦ ﻃﺎﺑﻌﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻌﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻲ ﺍﳌﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﰲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﻕ ﺇﱃ ﻃﺎﺑﻊ ﻧﻈﺮﻱ ﳎﺮﺩ ﻭﻣﺘﺤﺮﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻌﻲ‪ .‬ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﻔﺴﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﻮﻥ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺍﺭﻕ ﰲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﺑﲔ ﻓﻜﺮ ﺍﻷﻃﻔﺎﻝ؟ ﻳﺮﻯ ‪ (1966) Bruner‬ﻭ‪ (1972) Scribner Cole‬ﺃﻥ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺗﺘﻤﻴﺰ ﲞﺎﺻﻴﺘﲔ‬
‫ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﺘﲔ‪ :‬ﺍﻷﻭﱃ ﻫﻲ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﻐﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺋﺪﺓ ﰲ ﺗﺒﻠﻴﻎ ﻭﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ‪ ,‬ﻭﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ ﺃﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻳﺘ ‪‬ﻤﺎﻥ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﻠﻲ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺑﺘﻘﺪﳝﻬﺎ ﻣﻮﺍﺿﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﻮﺯ ﺃﻭ‬
‫ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﻬﺎ )ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ…( ﻭﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺳﻴﺎﻗﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﲢﺪﺙ ﻓﻴﻪ‪ ,‬ﺗﺰﻭﺩ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﲟﻤﺎﺭﺳﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻓﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﳎﺮﺩﺓ ﻭﻏﲑ ﺳﻴﺎﻗﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻟﻨﺄﺧﺬ ﻣﺜﻼ ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺎﺕ ﻟﺘﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻄﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻔﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻏﲑ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺒﻨﲔ ﻳﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺍﻷﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﳊﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻷﺷﻴﺎﺀ‪ ،‬ﲝﻴﺚ ﺗﻜﺘﺴﺐ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﰲ ﺍﺭﺗﺒﺎﻃﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻷﺷﻴﺎﺀ‬
‫ﺍﶈﺴﻮﺳﺔ‪ ,‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻷﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﻓﻬﻮ ﻻ ﻳﺴﺘﻌﻤﻠﻬﺎ ﳌﻌﺎﳉﺔ ﺃﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ‪ ,‬ﺑﻞ‬
‫ﻳﻌﺎﰿ ﺍﻷﻋﺪﺍﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻷﻋﺪﺍﺩ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻷﻋﺪﺍﺩ )ﺭﻣﻮﺯ ﳎﺮﺩﺓ( ﻫﻲ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﺷﻴﺎﺀ‪ .‬ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺍﻷﻣﺮ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻐﺔ‪ ,‬ﻓﺎﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺃﺛﻨﺎﺀ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺑﻪ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻜﻼﻡ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﻓﻌﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺻﻞ ﻭﻻ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﻗﻮﺍﻋﺪ ﻟﻐﻮﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺻﺮﳛﺔ ﳎﺮﺩﺓ ﲟﻌﺰﻝ ﻋﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﳍﺎ ﰲ ﺣﺎﻻﺕ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﻓﺎﻟﻌﻜﺲ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ؛ ﺇﺫ ﺃﻥ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻳﺘﻠﻘﻰ ﺗﻌﻠﻴﻤﺎ ﺻﺮﳛﺎ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﰲ ﺣﺪ ﺫﺍ‪‬ﺎ ﺑﻐﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻟﺘﺼﺒﺢ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﳎﺮﺩﺓ )ﺍﻟﻜﺘﺎﺑﺔ‪ ,‬ﺍﻟﻘﺮﺍﺀﺓ‪ ,‬ﺍﻟﻨﺤﻮ‪ ,‬ﺍﻟﺼﺮﻑ…(‪ .‬ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﻻ ﻳﻌﺎﰿ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬
‫ﺑﻞ ﻳﻌﺎﰿ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻐﺔ‪ .‬ﻛﻞ ﺍﳊﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﺘﻢ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ‪ ،‬ﺃﻱ ﺍﳊﺎﻻﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻠﻘﺎﺋﻴـﺔ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻋـﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻜـﻮﻥ ﺣﺎﻻﺕ ﺗﻌﻠـﻢ ﺿﻤﲏ )‪ ،(implicite‬ﻻ ﻳﻘﺪﻡ‬
‫ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﻄﻔﻞ ﺃﻱ ﺷﻲﺀ ﺣﻮﻝ ﳏﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺑﺎﻛﺘﺴﺎ‪‬ﺎ‪ .‬ﲞﻼﻑ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻫﻲ ﺣﺎﻻﺕ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺘﺪﺭﻳﺲ ﻭﺑﺼﻔﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﺣﺎﻻﺕ ﻟﻠﺘﻜـﻮﻳﻦ ﺗﺘﻤﻴـﺰ ﺑﺘﻌﻠـﻢ ﺻـﺮﻳﺢ )‪ (explicite‬ﺫﻱ ﻃﺎﺑﻊ ﻧﻈﺮﻱ‬
‫ﺻﻮﺭﻱ‪ .‬ﻭﺗﺰﻛﻲ ‪ (1974) Donaldson‬ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺴﲑ ﻵﺛﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﺑﻮﺿﻮﺡ ﺃﻛﱪ ﺣﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﺗﻌﺘﱪ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‬
‫ﻳﺄﰐ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺑﻠﻐﺔ ﻭﻓﻜﺮ ﻣﻮﺟﻬﲔ ﺑﺎﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﺇﱃ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺍﳋﺎﺭﺟﻲ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻌﻲ ﺍﳌﻠﻤﻮﺱ‪ ,‬ﺃﻭ ﺑﻠﻐﺔ‬
‫ﻭﻓﻜﺮ ﳎﺴﺪﻳﻦ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﻕ‪ .‬ﻭﻟﻜﻲ ﻳﻨﺠﺢ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﻓﻬﻮ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺑﺄﻥ ﻳﻌﻜﺲ ﻟﻐﺘﻪ ﻭﻓﻜﺮﻩ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺩﺍ‪‬ﻤﺎ ﻭﺃﻥ ﳝﺮ ﺇﱃ ﻟﻐﺔ ﻭﻓﻜﺮ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﻕ ﺣﱴ ﻳﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﺄﻣﻞ ﰲ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﻹﻣﻜﺎﻧﻴﺎﺕ ﻭﺃﻥ ﻳﻌﺎﰿ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺮﻣﻮﺯ‪ .‬ﻳﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟـ‪ Donaldson‬ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﻣﻦ ﻓﻜﺮ ﻣﻌﻴﺶ )‪ (vécu‬ﺇﱃ ﻓﻜﺮ ﻣﻌﻜﻮﺱ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺍﺗﻪ )‪ (réfléchie‬ﻳﺼﺒﺢ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺑﻔﻀﻠﻪ ﻭﺍﻋﻴﺎ ﺑﻠﻐﺘﻪ ﻭﻓﻜﺮﻩ ﻛﺒﻨﻴﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻠﺔ ﻭﳏﺮﺭﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻴﺎﻗﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻭﻣﻨﻔﺼﻠﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺍﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﳍﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﻳﺘﻀﺢ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﻗﻒ ﻭﺍﳌﻌﻄﻴﺎﺕ ﺃﻥ ﺁﺛﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻜﺮ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺗﻜﻤﻦ ﰲ ﲢﻮﻳﻞ ﻫﺬﺍ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺧﲑ ﻣﻦ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺘﻪ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﻗﻴﺔ ﺇﱃ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﳎﺮﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺎﻕ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻳﺄﰐ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺑﻔﻜﺮ ﻋﻤﻠﻲ‬
‫ﻣﻠﻤﻮﺱ ﻭﳏﺪﺩ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻴﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻌﻲ ﻟﻸﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﻭﺍﻷﺣﺪﺍﺙ‪ ,‬ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺗﻔﺮﺽ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺗﻔﻜﲑﺍ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺍ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻪ‬

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 ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺠﺮﻳﺪ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻤﻴﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﻮﺯ ﺍﻟﻠﻐﻮﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ ‪‬ﺪﻑ ﺻﻮﺭﻧﺔ ﺫﻫﻨﻪ )‬
‫‪formalisation de‬‬

‫‪.(L’esprit‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﻌﻜﺲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻮﺍﻗﻒ ﻭﺍﳌﻌﻄﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺣﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺋﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺮﻯ ﰲ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ ﺍ‪‬ﺮﺩﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺼﻮﺭﻳﺔ‪ ,‬ﺍﳊﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺴﺘﻘﺮ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻛﺂﺧﺮ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﰲ ﳕﻮﻩ‬
‫ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -2-5‬ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ‬
‫ﺣﺴﺐ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺬﻛﺮ ﺗﻠﻌﺐ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺩﻭﺭﺍ ﻫﺎﻣﺎ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺪﻓﻊ ﺑﺎﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺇﱃ ﻭﻟﻮﺝ ﺍﻟﻔﻜﺮ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺼﻮﺭﻱ ﺍ‪‬ﺮﺩ‪ ،‬ﲝﻴﺚ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻛﻴﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃ‪‬ﺎ ﺗﺴﺮﻉ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‪ .‬ﻟﻜﻦ ﰲ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺛﺎﻥ‬
‫ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺇﺷﻜﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻭﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺗﻌﺘﱪ ﺑﺎﻷﺳﺎﺱ ﺇﺷﻜﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﺗﺘﻠﺨﺺ ﰲ ﺳﺆﺍﻝ‬
‫ﳏﻮﺭﻱ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﳋﺼﻮﺻﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﲤﻴﺰ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﻲ ﻋﻦ ﻏﲑﻩ‪ .‬ﻭﺳﻮﻑ ﻟﻦ ‪‬ﺘﻢ ﻫﻨﺎ ﺑﺎﳉﺎﻧﺐ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺪﺍﻏﻮﺟﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﻳﺪﺍﻛﺘﻴﻜﻲ ﺍﳌﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﰲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻹﺷﻜﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻟﻨﺮﻛﺰ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻄﺮﺃ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﰲ ﻋﻼﻗﺘﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﺳﻨﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﻨﻄﺎﻕ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﳌﻘﺎﺭﻧﺔ ﺑﲔ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ‬
‫ﻳﺘﻮﻓﺮ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻭﺑﻌﺪﻩ ﺣﱴ ﻧﺘﺒﲔ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﻱ ﺗﺄﺧﺬﻩ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﲢﺖ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ‪ .‬ﺗﻌﺘﱪ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻧﺎﺣﻴﺔ ﺷﻜﻠﻬﺎ ﻛﻤﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﺭﲰﻴﺔ ﻭﻣﺆﺳﺴﺎﺗﻴﺔ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻣﺎ ﻗﻮﺭﻧﺖ‬
‫ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺫﺟﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩﻳﺔ ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻻ ﻳﺄﰐ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﻭﻫﻮ ﺧﺎﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﻮﻓﺎﺽ ﻻ‬
‫ﻳﻌﺮﻑ ﺷﻴﺌﺎ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﺒﺪﻭ ﻟﻠﻜﺜﲑﻳﻦ‪ ،‬ﺑﻞ ﺇﻧﻪ ﰲ ﺳﻦ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺳﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺑﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻤﺮﻩ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻗﺪ ﺍﻣﺘﻠﻚ ﺭﺻﻴﺪﺍ‬
‫ﻗﻮﻳﺎ ﻭﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻜﻴﻒ ﺑﺴﻬﻮﻟﺔ ﻣﻊ ﳏﻴﻄﻪ ﻭﲟﻌﺎﳉﺔ ﺟﻞ ﺍﳌﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﺍﻟﱵ‬
‫ﺗﻮﺍﺟﻬﻪ‪ .‬ﻟﻘﺪ ﻛﺸﻒ ﺍﲡﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﻔﺎﺀﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺒﻜﺮﺓ ﻟﻠﺮﺿﻴﻊ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﲡﺎﻩ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﺎﱐ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺋﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻬﺔ ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻐﲎ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﰲ ﻭﺍﻹﳚﺎﰊ ﺟﺪﺍ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﻮﻓﺮ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺑﺪﺍﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﲝﻴﺚ ﺃﺑﺮﺯ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ﺩﻭﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻜﻔﺎﺀﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﻄﺮﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺜﺎﱐ ﺩﻭﺭ ﺍﻹﻛﺮﺍﻫﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭﺗﻨﻈﻴﻤﻬﺎ ﺧﻼﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻮﺍﺕ ﺍﻷﻭﱃ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺎﺗﻪ‪ .‬ﻭﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻣﺎ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﻴﺔ ﲟﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺍﳌﻴﺎﺩﻳﻦ ﺍﳌﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﺎ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺀ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﻭﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻉ ﻭﺍﻟﻠﻐﺔ ﻭﺣﱴ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ‪ Welman.‬ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﺆﻛﺪ ﻛﺜﲑ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﲔ ) ‪ (1992 Spelke 1991, Gelman; Welman 1994 Vosniadou ,1985 Carey‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‬
‫ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺣﻘﻴﻘﻴﺔ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ‪ .‬ﻓﺤﺴﺐ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻻﲡﺎﻩ ﺍﳉﺪﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻓﺈﻥ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺗﺘﻨﻈﻢ ﻭﺗﺄﺧﺬ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺑﻜﻞ ﻣﺎ ﻟﻠﻜﻠﻤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻌﲎ‪ ،‬ﲝﻴﺚ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‬
‫ﻫﻮ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ‪ .‬ﻭﺗﺘﻤﻴﺰ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ﻻﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‬
‫ﲟﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﳋﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻛﻴﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﺼﻮﺻﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭﺗﻨﻮﻉ ﳏﺘﻮﻳﺎ‪‬ﺎ ﻭﻣﻴﺪﺍﻧﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﺗﺪﺭﺝ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻴﺘﻬﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﺎﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳌﻜﺘﺴﺒﺔ ﻻ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﰲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺑﻨﻴﺎﺕ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ ﺻﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﻛﻮﻧﻴﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻗﺎﻝ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﺑﻴﺎﺟﻲ‪ ،‬ﺑﻞ‬

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‫ﻫﻲ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻭﻣﻔﺎﻫﻴﻢ ﺃﻣﱪﻳﻘﻴﺔ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﰲ ﺳﻦ ﻣﺒﻜﺮ ﻭﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﺴﻴﺎﻕ ﻣﻌﲔ ﻭﺫﺍﺕ ﳏﺘﻮﻯ ﳏﺪﺩ‬
‫ﻭﻻ ﺗﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺮﻭﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﳕﺎﺋﻲ ﻣﻌﲔ‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﻻﻫﺘﻤﺎﻡ ﲟﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺘﺮﺍﻭﺡ ﻣﺎ‬
‫ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﻟﻸﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﻭﺍﻷﺣﺪﺍﺙ ﺍﳋﺎﺻﺔ ﻭﺑﲔ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ‪,‬‬
‫ﻭ‪‬ﺬﺍ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﺃﻛﱪ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺌﺔ ﻭﺍﳋﻄﺎﻃﺔ ﻷ‪‬ﺎ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﺟﻮﺍﻧﺐ ﺃﻭﺳﻊ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺃﻥ ﺑﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺒﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﲞﺼﻮﺹ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﻥ ﻣﺎ ﳍﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺎﺳﻚ ﻭﺍﻻﻧﺴﺠﺎﻡ‬
‫ﻣﺎ ﻳﺆﻫﻠﻬﺎ ﻷﻥ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﻭﺃﻥ ﺗﻘﺎﺭﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻣﺼﺎﺩﺭﻫﺎ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﻭﻣﺒﺎﺩﺋﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﺒﻴﺔ ﻭﻭﻇﻴﻔﺘﻬﺎ ﰲ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳉﺪﻳﺪﺓ‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻛﻴﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﰲ ﺗﻔﺴﲑ ﺍﻟﻈﻮﺍﻫﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆ ‪‬ﺎ ﻋﻮﺽ ﺍﻟﻮﻗﻮﻑ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻭﺻﻒ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻈﻮﺍﻫﺮ ﻭﺗﺼﻨﻴﻔﻬﺎ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺸﺄﻥ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻔﺌﺔ ﻭﺍﳋﻄﺎﻃﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻗﺪ ﻳﺴﺘﻐﺮﺏ ﺍﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻘﻮﻝ ﺑﺄﻥ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﻜﺘﺴﺒﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻫﻲ ﻋﺒﺎﺭﺓ‬
‫ﻋﻦ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﻭﺣﻮﻝ ﺫﺍﺗﻪ‪ .‬ﻓﻜﻴﻒ ﻳﻌﻘﻞ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘﻮﻓﺮ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ؟‬
‫ﳚﻴﺐ ) ‪ (Gelman ; Welman op cit‬ﺑﺄﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻳﺘﻮﻓﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﰲ ﻣﻴﺪﺍﻥ ﻣﺎ ﻛﻠﻤﺎ ﺍﺳﺘﻮﰱ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻭﻁ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﺍ‪ -‬ﺃﻥ ﳛﺘﺮﻡ ﺟﻮﻫﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻴﻴﺰﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﳌﻨﻄﻖ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﳛﻜﻤﻬﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺪﻱ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻴﺪﺍﻥ‬
‫ﺏ‪ -‬ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ ﺃﺛﻨﺎﺀ ﺗﻔﻜﲑﻩ ﺣﻮﻝ ﻇﻮﺍﻫﺮ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻴﺪﺍﻥ ﻣﺒﺎﺩﺉ ﺳﺒﺒﻴﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ‬
‫ﺝ‪ -‬ﺃﻥ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻋﺘﻘﺎﺩﺍﺗﻪ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﺒﻴﺔ ﻣﺘﻤﺎﺳﻜﺔ ﻟﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﺇﻃﺎﺭﺍ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎ ﻣﺘﺮﺍﺑﻄﺎ‬
‫ﺩ‪ -‬ﺃﻥ ﲤﺜﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻬﺎ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﰲ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﺑﺎﻟﻈﻮﺍﻫﺮ‬
‫ﻭﺗﻔﺴﲑﻫﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﺇﻻ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﳌﻘﺼﻮﺩﺓ ﻫﻲ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺳﺎﺫﺟﺔ ﻻ ﺗﻌﲏ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺮﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﺄﻟﻮﻓﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻬﻲ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﻳﻜﻮ‪‬ﻧﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺗﻠﻘﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺍﻧﻄﻼﻗﺎ ﻣﻦ ﲡﺎﺭﺑﻪ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﻔﺎﻋﻼﺗﻪ ﻣﻊ ﺍﶈﻴﻂ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻵﺧﺮ‪ ,‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃ‪‬ﺎ ﲣﺘﻠﻒ ﰲ ﻛﺜﲑ ﻣﻦ ﺍﳉﻮﺍﻧﺐ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﺇﱃ ﺍﻵﻥ ﺃﳒﺰﺕ ﺃﲝﺎﺙ‬
‫ﻭﺩﺭﺍﺳﺎﺕ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﱵ ﻳﻜﻮ‪‬ﺎ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﰲ ﺍﳌﻴﺎﺩﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -1‬ﺍﳌﻴﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ )ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺍﳊﻲ( ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﲢﺘﻮﻱ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﺎﺋﻨﺎﺕ ﻣﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ‬
‫ﺑﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻋﺘﻘﺎﺩﺍﺗﻪ ﲟﻴﻜﺎﻧﺰﻣﺎﺕ ﺳﺒﺒﻴﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﰲ ﳐﺘﻠﻒ ﺃﺟﻨﺎﺱ ﻭﺃﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎﺕ‪.‬‬

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‫ﻓﺎﻹﻫﺘﻤﺎﻡ ﻳﻨﺼﺐ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻴﺪﺍﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻇﻮﺍﻫﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﳊﻴﺎﺓ ﻭﺍﳌﻮﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻮﻻﺩﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﻔﻮﻟﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﻴﺨﻮﺧﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺍﳌﺮﺽ… ) ‪.(1985 ،Carey‬‬
‫‪ -2‬ﺍﳌﻴﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻲ )ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻲ( ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﻨﻄﻮﻱ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻬﻤﻪ ﳋﺎﺻﻴﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻭﺳﻠﻮﻛﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺷﻴﺎﺀ ﺍﳉﺎﻣﺪﺓ ﻭﺗﻔﺎﻋﻼ‪‬ﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﺒﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺰ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻴﺪﺍﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻇﻮﺍﻫﺮ ﻣﺜﻞ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺓ ﻭﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ ﻭﺍﳉﺎﺩﺑﻴﺔ… ) ‪.(1988 ،Spelke‬‬
‫‪ -3‬ﺍﳌﻴﺪﺍﻥ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﱐ )ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺴﻲ ﺍﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ( ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﺘﺤﺪﺩ ﻓﻴﻪ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﰲ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻓﻪ ﻟﻠﺤﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﻟﻜﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﳊﺎﻻﺕ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺳﺒﺒﻴﺔ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﻭﺑﲔ‬
‫ﺍﳌﺆﺛﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﶈﻴﻄﻴﺔ ﻭﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﻭﺑﲔ ﺁﺛﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻮﻙ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﻨﺼﺐ ﺍﻻﻫﺘﻤﺎﻡ ﰲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﳌﻴﺪﺍﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻇﻮﺍﻫﺮ ﻧﻔﺴﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻭﺍﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻔﻜﲑ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺴﻴﺎﻥ ﻭﺍﻹﺩﺭﺍﻙ ﻭﺍﻻﻧﻔﻌﺎﻝ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻼﻡ… ) ‪(1997 ،Melot‬‬
‫ﺍﻧﻄﻼﻗﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺟﻪ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﰲ ﻋﻼﻗﺘﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻛﺴﲑﻭﺭﺓ ﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‬
‫ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﻛﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺫﺟﺔ ﺇﱃ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻳﺄﰐ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﲟﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺜﻼﺕ ﺍﳌﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﰲ ﺇﻃﺎﺭ ﻧﻈﺮﻱ ﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﺑﻌﻴﺪﺓ ﻭﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ‬
‫ﻋﻦ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﻴﺔ‪ .‬ﻭﻳﺴﻤﻲ ‪ (1985) Vygotsky‬ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺑﺎﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳌﺎﻗﺒﻞ ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔ‪ ,‬ﻟﻜﻨﻨﺎ ﻧﻔﻀﻞ‬
‫ﺗﺴﻤﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﺗﻔﺎﻕ ﻣﻊ ﻛﺜﲑ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﲔ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﺎﺫﺟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎ‪‬ﺎ ﻳﻜﻮﻥ ﺗﻠﻘﺎﺋﻴﺎ ﻭﻳﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺍﻹﺩﺭﺍﻙ ﺍﻟﺴﻄﺤﻲ ﻭﺍﳌﺒﺴﻂ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﻘﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺳﺦ ﺑﺄ‪‬ﺎ ﺍﳊﻘﻴﻘﺔ‪ .‬ﺃﻣﺎ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺘﺒﻨﺎﻫﺎ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﻓﻬﻲ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﻷ‪‬ﺎ ﳑﻨﻬﺠﺔ ﻭﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﻟﱪﻫﻨﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﺤﺘﻬﺎ‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﺃ‪‬ﺎ ﺃﻗﺮﺏ ﺇﱃ ﺍﳊﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﻱ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺴﲑ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆ‪ .‬ﻭﻟﺘﻮﺿﻴﺢ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﲢﻮﻝ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﰲ ﻋﻼﻗﺘﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻤﺪﺭﺱ ﻧﺄﺧﺬ ﻣﺜﺎﻻ ﻣﻦ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ‬
‫‪ (1994) Vosiniadou‬ﺣﻮﻝ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺫﺟﺔ ﰲ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﻚ‪ ،‬ﻭﺑﺎﻟﻀﺒﻂ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻤﺎﺫﺝ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺬﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ‪ .‬ﻓﺤﺴﺐ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺚ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻻﻋﺘﻘﺎﺩﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻠﺬﺍﻥ ﻳﻜ ‪‬ﻮﻧﺎﻥ ﺻﻤﻴﻢ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﻃﻔﺎﻝ‬
‫ﺣﻮﻝ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﻭﺍﳌﺸﺘﻘﺎﻥ ﻣﻦ ﲡﺎﺭ‪‬ﻢ ﺍﻹﺩﺭﺍﻛﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺨﺼﻴﺔ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻮﺍﺟﻬﻮﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺴﲑﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻠﺮﺍﺷﺪ ﳘﺎ‪:‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻛﻞ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻈﻬﺮ ﻣﺴﻄﺢ ﻓﻬﻮ ﻣﻨﺒﺴﻂ‬
‫‪ -‬ﻛﻞ ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻏﲑ ﻣﺪﻋﻮﻡ ﻳﺴﻘﻂ‬
‫ﻓﻬﺬﻩ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺳﺎﺫﺟﺔ ﲡﻌﻞ ﺍﻷﻃﻔﺎﻝ ﻳﻌﺘﻘﺪﻭﻥ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﻣﻨﺒﺴﻄﺔ ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﻏﲑ ﻣﺴﺘﺪﻳﺮﺓ‪ .‬ﻟﻜﻦ‬
‫ﺣﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻳﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﰲ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﺑﺄﻥ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﻣﺴﺘﺪﻳﺮﺓ ﻓﺈﻥ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺘﻪ ﺍﻷﺻﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺘﺤﻮﻝ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ ﻣﺘﻄﺎﺑﻘﺔ‬
‫ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﳉﺪﻳﺪﺓ‪ ،‬ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻋﱪ ﺗﺰﻭﻳﺪﻩ ﺑﻨﻤﻮﺫﺝ ﺫﻫﲏ ﻟﻠﺪﺍﺋﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻔﺎﺭﻏﺔ )ﻧﻮﻉ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻛﻮﺭﻳﻮﻡ‬
‫ﻧﺼﻔﻪ ﳑﻠﻮﺀ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺮﺍﺏ ﻳﻌﻄﻲ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺓ ﺃﺭﺿﺎ ﻣﻨﺒﺴﻄﺔ ﳝﻜﻦ ﺍﳌﺸﻲ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ( ﻳﺴﻤﺢ ﺑﺈﺳﺘﺪﻣﺎﺝ‬

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‫ﺍﻻﻋﺘﻘﺎﺩ ﺍﳉﺪﻳﺪ "ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﻣﺴﺘﺪﻳﺮﺓ"‪ .‬ﻭﻳﺒﲔ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ ﺃﻥ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﻫﻲ‬
‫ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﻣﺘﻤﺎﺳﻜﺔ ﻭﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﲡﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺎﺳﻚ ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ ﺗﻮﻟﻴﺪﻳﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻠﻄﻔﻞ ﺑﺈﻧﺘﺎﺝ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ‬
‫ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺣﻮﻝ ﻗﻀﺎﻳﺎ ﻟﻴﺲ ﻟﻪ ﺃﻳﺔ ﺧﱪﺓ ‪‬ﺎ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﺒﲔ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺄﺛﲑ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻳﻜﻤﻦ ﰲ‬
‫ﲢﻮﻳﻠﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺷﻜﻠﻬﺎ ﺍﻷﻭﱄ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺫﺝ ﺇﱃ ﺷﻜﻞ ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺷﺒﻪ ‪‬ﺎﺋﻲ‪ .‬ﺇﻻ ﺃﻧﻪ ﻻ ﳚﺐ ﺗﺼﻐﲑ ﻣﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‬
‫ﻏﲑ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻻﺳﺘﺨﻔﺎﻑ ‪‬ﺎ ﻷ‪‬ﺎ ﺭﻏﻢ ﺳﺬﺍﺟﺘﻬﺎ ﺗﺘﻤﺘﻊ ﺑﻘﻮﺓ ﻭﻓﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻛﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﻤﺎﺡ ﻟﻪ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻜﻴﻒ ﻣﻊ‬
‫ﳏﻴﻄﻪ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﺑﺎﻷﺣﺪﺍﺙ ﻭﺗﻔﺴﲑﻫﺎ‪ .‬ﻭﻻ ﳛﻖ ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﺇﳘﺎﻝ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻋﺘﺒﺎﺭﻫﺎ ﻓﻠﺴﻔﺔ‬
‫ﺯﺍﺋﺪﺓ ﻋﺪﳝﺔ ﺍﳉﺪﻭﻯ‪ ،‬ﻷ‪‬ﺎ ﻫﻲ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﻌﻤﻖ ﻭﻋﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻮﺍﻗﻊ ﻭﺗﻌﻄﻴﻪ ﻓﻬﻤﺎ ﺻﺤﻴﺤﺎ ﻟﻸﺷﻴﺎﺀ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻷﺣﺪﺍﺙ ﳑﺎ ﳚﻌﻠﻪ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﻜﻴﻔﺎ ﻣﻊ ﳏﻴﻄﻪ ﻭﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻐﻴﲑﻩ‪.‬‬
‫ﰲ ‪‬ﺎﻳﺔ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﳌﺴﺘﻔﻴﺾ ﻻﺑﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﻛﻴﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﳘﻴﺔ ﺍﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﻭﺩﻭﺭﻫﺎ ﺍﳊﺎﺳﻢ ﰲ‬
‫ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ‪ .‬ﻓﻨﻤﻮ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﻭﺗﻌﻠﻤﺎﺗﻪ ﻳﺘﺄﺛﺮﺍﻥ ﰲ ﺣﺪﻭﺩ ﻛﺒﲑﺓ ﺑﺎﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ‪ .‬ﺇﻥ ﺍﻛﺘﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﳌﻌﺎﺭﻑ ﺳﻮﺍﺀ‬
‫ﻣﻦ ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﺃﻡ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﳚﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﺎﳌﺪﺭﺳﺔ ﻛﻤﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﳏﻮﺭﻳﺔ ﰲ ﺳﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻄﻔﻞ‪ .‬ﻓﻜﻞ‬
‫ﺍﶈﺎﻭﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺪﺍﻏﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺣﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻀﻴﻘﺔ ﺃﺿﺤﺖ ﻗﺎﺻﺮﺓ ﰲ ﻣﺴﻌﺎﻫﺎ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻡ‪ .‬ﻓﺒﺪﻭﻥ‬
‫ﻣﻘﺎﺭﺑﺔ ﴰﻮﻟﻴﺔ ﲡﻤﻊ ﺑﲔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺃﻭ ﺑﲔ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﻻ ﳝﻜﻦ ﻓﻬﻢ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﻔﺎﺀﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻭﺍﳋﱪﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﻌﺮﻓﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﻄﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺮﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﱵ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺮ ﺍﳊﺎﱄ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺗﻘﺪﻡ ﺍ‪‬ﺘﻤﻌﺎﺕ ﻭﺗﻄﻮﺭﻫﺎ‬
‫ﻭﺭﻫﺎﻧﺎ‪‬ﺎ ﺍﻹﺳﺘﺮﺍﺗﻴﺠﻴﺔ‪.‬‬

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