FUEL

&
COMBUSTION
 CONTENTS
• Definition of fuel
• Calorific Values of fuel
• Classifications of fuels
• Basic requirements of a good fuel
• Comparison between various types of fuels
• Proximate & Ultimate Analysis of fuels
• Theoretical Determination of Calorific Value by
Dulong’s formula
• Theoretical Air Required for Combustion of Fuel.
 FUEL
Definition:
Fuel is defined as a material which librates heat after
reacting with oxygen or air when it reaches to its
ignition temperature.
Heating Product of
e.g. Fuel + Air combustion + Heat
• Basic constituents of any fuel are generally
Carbon, Hydrogen & volatile matter.
• Volatile matter consists of carbon combined with
hydrogen together with the other gases forming
constituents which are driven off by heat.
 CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS:
Calorific Value of Solid/Liquid Fuels:
The Calorific Value of Solid/Liquid fuels is defined as the
number of heat units ( in kJ or MJ) liberated by the
complete combustion (burning) of one kg or litre of fuel.
• It’s unit is kJ/kg or kJ/litres for solid fuels and liquid
fuels respectively.

Calorific Value of Gaseous Fuels:

The Calorific Value of Gaseous fuels is defined as the
number of heat units ( in kJ or MJ) liberated by the
complete combustion (burning) of one m3 of fuel at S.T.P.
• It’s unit is kJ/m3 for gaseous fuels.
 CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS:
• Fuels mainly contain Carbon & Hydrogen.
• Hydrogen reacts with oxygen and forms water vapour.
i.e.
2H2 + O2 = 2 H2O (Water vapour)
• The vapour formed carries some amount of heat with
it.
• If this vapour formed is cooled, it will be condensed
and will give away its latent heat.

• Thus fuels containing Hydrogen in it are having two

calorific values namely Higher Calorific Value & Lower
Calorific Value.
 CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS:
Higher Calorific Value (H.C.V.):
The Higher Calorific Value of a fuel is defined as the total
heat liberated by complete combustion of one kg/one
litre/one m3 of fuel, including the heat recovered from
condensed water vapour.
Lower Calorific Value (L.C.V.):
The Lower Calorific Value of a fuel is defined as the heat
liberated by complete combustion of one kg /one
litre/one m3 of fuel, excluding the heat recovered from
condensed water vapour.
L.C.V.= H.C.V. – (mass of H2O x Latent Heat)
NOTE: The latent heat is referred at std. atm. pressure
i.e. at 760mm Hg or at 1.01325 bar) which is
equal to 2257 kJ/kg.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
FUELS
FUELS

SOLID LIQUID GASEOUS

All these types of fuel are further classified into two

main types as follows;
(1) Natural fuels
(2) Artificial fuels
 CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
SOLID FUELS
Solid fuels are of two types;
(1) Natural Solid fuels
(2) Artificial Solid fuels
(1) Natural Solid Fuels:
Natural solid fuels are of following types;
(a) Wood
(b) Peat
(c) Lignite or Brown Coal
(d) Bituminous Coal
(e) Anthracite
 (a) Wood:
• Mainly consists of Carbon, Hydrogen and water.
• Its Calorific Value varies according to the kind of
wood & water content in it.
• It is not used as commercial fuel.
• It is raw material for other solid fuels.

(b) Peat:
• It is the first stage in the formation of coal from wood
& vegetable matter & is derived from earth.
• It contains 20% to 30% of water.
• It burns without smoke or soot formation.
• Its calorific value is approx. 14,500 KJ/kg.
 (c) Lignite or Brown Coal:
• It is very soft, inferior quality coal.
• It contains 60% or more Carbon.
• It also contains 15% to 20% moisture.
• It is used as low grade fuel.
• It is non – caking type of coal.
• It burns with large smoky flame having C.V. equal to
21,000 kJ/kg.
(d) Bituminous Coal:
• It is soft & shiny black in appearance.
• It contains about 70% Carbon & 20% – 30% Volatile
matter.
• It burns with long yellow and smoky flame.
• It may be caking or non – caking type.
• Its calorific value is approx. 31,500 KJ/kg.
 (e) Anthracite Coal:
• It is very hard & brittle.
• It contains 90% or more Carbon.
• It also contains 8% to 10% volatile matter.
• It is used as High grade fuel.
• It is non – caking type of coal.
• It does not give smell when burning.
• It’s Calo.Value is approx. 36,000 kJ/kg.
(2) Artificial Solid Fuels:
Artificial Solid Fuels are of following types;
(a) Wood Charcoal
(b) Coke
(c) Briquetted Coal
(d) Pulverised Coal
 (a) Wood Charcoal:
• It is obtained by burning wood in retorts with
insufficient air to a temp. of 310ºC.
• It contains 80% to 90% Carbon.
• It can burn easily without smoke.
• Its Calorific Value is approx. 28,000 kJ/kg.
(b) Coke:
• It is made by burning Bituminous coal by driving out
its volatile elements in absence of air.
• It is hard, brittle & porous.
• The coke formation process is called Carbonization.
• It contains 85% to 95% Carbon.
• Its Calo.Value is approx. 32,500 kJ/kg.
 (c) Briquetted Coal:
• It consists of finely ground coal mixed with proper
binder and pressed together into Briquettes(Blocks).
• This increases heating value of coal & decreases the
losses.

(d) Pulverised Coal:

• It is powder form of coal.
• It is formed by crushing the coal.
• This fine particle atomised coal is burnt by supplying
the air to it.
• Low grade fuel is efficiently burnt by pulverising it.
• It gives better control, complete combustion with less
excess air, higher flame temp. etc…
 CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
LIQUID FUELS:
Liquid fuels are of two types;
(1) Natural Liquid fuels
(2) Artificial Liquid fuels

(1) Natural Liquid Fuels:

Natural Liquid fuels are of following types;

(a) Crude petroleum
(b) Fossile fuels.
 (a) Crude Petroleum:
• It is obtained from natural reservoirs in the earth’s
crust through wells.
• Distillation is the process of heating the crude
petroleum and condensing the vapour thus formed
at various temp. and pressures.
• By Distillation of crude oil, petrol, kerosene, diesel,
fuel oils, tar etc… are obtained.
(b) Fossile Fuels:
• Due to reactions of Vegetable matters & animals
embodied with earth, after very long period at high
pressure and temp. fossile fuels are formed.
 (2) Artificial Liquid Fuels:
Artificial Liquid fuels are of following types;
(a) Hydrocarbons
(b) Vegetable matter (Alcohol)
(a) Hydrocarbons:
• Hydrocarbon is a substance having Carbon &
Hydrogen as basic constituents.
• Most of artificial liquid fuels are obtained from
mixture of different Hydrocarbons.
• The main Hydrocarbons are;
(1) Paraffins (CnH2n+2)
(2) Olefines (CnH2n) /Ring compound
(3) Naphthenes (CnH2n) /Chain compound
(4) Aeromatics or Benzenes (CnH2n – 6)
 (a) Petrol:
• Petrol or Gasoline is obtained by distillation of crude
oil from 65º to 220ºC.
• Its Calorific value is 44,250 kJ/kg.
• It is used for light petrol engines, aviation and small
industrial installation.
(b) Kerosene/Paraffin oil:
• Kerosene or Peraffin oil is obtained by distillation of
crude oil from 220º to 345ºC.
• It is heavier and less volatile than petrol.
• Its Calorific value is 44,000 kJ/kg.
• It is used for heavy road traction, tractors and
internal combustion engines.
 (c) Fuel oil:
• Fuel oil (Diesel oil) is obtained by distillation of crude
oil from 345º to 470ºC.
• Its Calorific value is 44,250 kJ/kg.
• It is heavy and non – volatile.
(d) Tar:
• It is by – product of coal gas and used as raw
material for Benzene.
(e) Alcohol:
• It is formed by fermentation of vegetable matter.
• Widely used as commercial fuel.
• Its calorific value is 26,800 kJ/kg.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
GASEOUS FUELS:
Gaseous fuels are of two types;
(1) Natural Gaseous fuels
(2) Artificial Gaseous fuels

(1) Natural Gas:

• Natural gas consists of mainly methane & ethane,
propane and also oxygen, Carbon monoxide, Nitrogen,
and Carbon dioxide etc...
• Its calorific value varies from 35,500 kJ/m3 to 46,000
kJ/m3.
 (2) Artificial Gaseous Fuel:
• Artificial gaseous fuels are prepared gases of fixed
composition like acetylene(C 2 H 2 ), methane(CH 4 ),
ethylene(C2H4) etc…
• The artificial industrial gases are Coal gas, Producer
gas, Water gas, Mond gas, Blast furnace gas, Cock –
oven gas, Marsh gas etc…
(a) Coal Gas/ Illuminating Gas:
• It is obtained by distilling coal in retorts.
• It mainly consists of Hydrogen, CO, CO 2 , CH 4 ,
Nitrogen etc…
• Its calorific value varies from 21,000 kJ/m3 to 25,000
kJ/m3.
 (b) Producer Gas:
• It is obtained by passing insufficient air through a bed
of incandescent coke or charcoal in gas producer.
• It consists of CO, CO2,H2, N2
• It is cheaply available.
• Its calorific value varies from 4,200 kJ/m 3 to 6,600
kJ/m3.
(c) Water Gas/Blue Gas:
• It is obtained by passing steam through incandescent
bed of cock or coal containing carbon.
• It burns with blue flame and hence also called blue
gas.
• Its calorific value varies from 11,500 kJ/m3 to 23,000
kJ/m3.
 (d) Mond gas:
• It is obtained by injecting large quantity of steam in
producer.
• It is used in gas engines.
• Its calorific value is 5,800 kJ/m3.

(e) Blast – furnace Gas:

• It is obtained as by–product in the production of Pig
iron.
• It is mixture of H2, CO, CO2, N2 and CH4.
• It contains considerable amount of dust in it.
• Its calorific value is 3,800 kJ/m3.
 (f) Coke – Oven Gas:
• It is produced by high temp. carbonization of
bituminous coal.
• It is by – product from coke oven.
• It is mixture of methane & hydrogen.
• Its calorific value varies from 14,500 kJ/m 3 to
19,000 kJ/m3.
(g) Marsh Gas:
• It is a simple Hydrocarbon (Methane) produced in
nature by the decay of vegetable matters under
water.
• Its calorific value is 23,000 kJ/m3.
(h) Oil Gas:
• Produced by vaporisation and thermal cracking of
oils and steam.
• Its calorific value is 17,000 to 25,000 kJ/m3.
 REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FUEL
• It should have low ignition temperature.
• It should have high calorific value.
• It should freely burn with high combustion
efficiency.
• It should not produce harmful gases or smoke.
• It must produce less ash.
• It must be cheaper and should be easily available.
• Its storage must be easy.
• Its transportation & handling should be easy.
• It should not react with material of furnace.
 ADVANTAGES & DIS – ADVANTAGES OF
LIQUID FUELS OVER SOLID FUELS
Advantages:-
(1) Higher calorific value
(2) Economy in storage as less space required
(3) Easy control of combustion
(4) Higher combustion efficiency
(5) Non – corrosive to boiler plates
(6) No ashes formed during combustion
(7) No storages losses
(8) Better economy in handling
(9) Clean source and free burning without dust
(10) No wear & tear of grate bars
(11) Easy to start & stopping of combustion
 ADVANTAGES & DIS – ADVANTAGES OF
LIQUID FUELS OVER SOLID FUELS
Dis – advantages:-
(1) Higher cost
(2) Danger of explosion
(3) It is to be heated to lower its viscosity in cold
atmosphere
(4) Non availability in certain areas.
(5) Costly containers are required for storage & handling
 ADVANTAGES & DIS – ADVANTAGES OF
GASEOUS FUELS OVER OTHER FUELS
Advantages:-
(1) Easy control of fuel supply & hence easy and accurate
control of furnace temperature
(2) High temp. is obtained at moderate cost
(3) Can be directly used as working substance in I.C.
engines.
(4) Free from solid & liquid impurities
(5) They do not produce ash and smoke
(6) They undergo complete combustion with minimum
air supply.
(7) Easily transported.
(8) Distribution is easy with help of pipe lines.
 ADVANTAGES & DIS – ADVANTAGES OF
GASEOUS FUELS OVER OTHER FUELS
Dis - advantages:-

(1) They are readily inflammable.

(2) They require large storage capacity if public supply
line (Gas line) is not available.
(3) Leakage of harmful odorless gaseous fuel can cause
serious problems.
 ANALYSIS OF FUEL
Any type of fuel is a combination of number of elements
like;
(1) Carbon (5) Sulphur
(2) Hydrogen (6) Volatile matter
(3) Nitrogen
(7) Ash
(4) Oxygen
In order to determine the amount of various
constituents present inside fuels, two main methods are
used. They are;
(1) Proximate or Physical Analysis
(2) Ultimate analysis or Chemical Analysis
 PROXIMATE / PHYSICAL
ANALYSIS:
• In this analysis individual elements are not
determined. Only percentage of moisture, Volatile
matter, Fixed carbon and ash are determined .
• Proximate analysis is easier and quicker.
• It is done for commercial purposes.
• Sulphur content is determined separately.
• The components of fuels are expressed in % of total
mass.
 PROXIMATE / PHYSICAL ANALYSIS:

• To determine Moisture contents, coal sample is

heated at 120ºC & diff. of mass gives value of
moisture which will be evaporated.
• To find Volatile matters, dried coal is converted to fine
particle form & then is heated at steady 925ºC temp.
for 7 minutes in a silica crucible in absence of air.
• Then the crucible is cooled & weighed. Loss of weight
is given as Volatile matter weight.
 PROXIMATE / PHYSICAL ANALYSIS:

• The Ash content in coal is determined by taking

weight of coal & by burning the same at 760ºC in
Presence of O2.

• All combustible matters burns at this temp. & leaves

ash as residue.

• Then, the Fixed carbon content is determined by

subtracting the moisture content, volatile matters
and ash content from a known weight of sample.
 ULTIMATE / CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
• It is more precise chemical test for finding the chemical
composition, i.e % by mass of various elements
including C,H2,N2,S, O2 & ash .
• The analysis is useful for finding H.C.V. & L.C.V. of solid
and liquid fuels by Dulong’s formula.
• It is also useful for analysis of flue gas in determining
% by mass of C, H2, O2, N2, SO2 etc…
 ULTIMATE / CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
• The Ash content is determined as in case of proximate
analysis.
• To determine Carbon & Hydrogen content in the fuel,
a known sample of coal is burnt in a strongly oxidized
atmosphere. Carbon dioxide and water vapour are
produced and are weighed.
• The CO2 is absorbed in KOH solution & water vapour
is collected in Chloride tube, then they are weighed.
 ULTIMATE / CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Ø The Nitrogen & Sulphur contents are determined by
complex chemical analysis.
Ø The Oxygen in the coal is determined by subtracting
the C, H2, N2, S & ash content from the known weight
of coal .
Ø The analysis is made on wet or dry basis.
Ø The broad analysis is as follows;
(1) C = 50 – 90% (4) N2 = 0.5 – 30%
(2) H2 = 2 – 5.5% (5) S = 0.5 – 7%
(3) O2 = 2 – 40% (6) Ash = 2 – 30%
FIXED CARBON:
• Fixed carbon is the carbon which is not in
combination with any other elements of fuel.
• It is difficult to ignite and burns with out any flame.

CARBON VALUE / CARBON EQUIVALENT:

• The mass of carbon required to produce the same
amount of heat as one kg of fuel is called Carbon
value or Carbon equivalent.
Calorific Value of fuel
Carbon Value=
Calorific Value of Carbon
DETERMINATION OF CALORIFIC VALUE
• The calorific value of any fuel can be determined by
two ways;
(1) Theoretical method and
(2) Experimental methods
(1) Theoretical method:
• Theoretically, Calorific Value of a fuel can be
calculated by using a formula called “ Dulong’s
formula”.
• If ultimate analysis is known and C.V. of individual
elements are also known, then C.V. of given fuel can
be calculated by Dulong’s formula.
• The formula is given as;
C.V.= 33800x %C + 144500(%H2 – %O2/8)
100 100
Where… + 9300x %S kJ/kg
100
% of C, H2, O2 & S are per kg of fuel
C.V. of C = 33800 kJ/kg
C.V. of H2 = 144500 kJ/kg
C.V. of S = 9300 kJ/kg
• When Oxygen is present along with Hydrogen in fuel,
it will form water vapour.
• H 2 – O 2 /8 represents available Hydrogen for heat
release.
• Mass of H2 is 1/8th the mass of O2.
Exercise:
The sample of oil fuel has following composition on
mass basis.
Carbon = 86.5%
H2 = 11%
S = 2.5%
Calculate higher & lower calorific values of the oil fuel.
Take enthalpy of evaporation of steam at std.atm. pr. as
2257 kJ/kg.
Solution:
Using Dulong’s formula;
H. C.V.= 33800x %C + 144500(%H2 – %O2/8)
100 100
+ 9300x %S kJ/kg
100
H.C.V.= 45364.5 kJ/kg
L.C.V.= H.C.V. – (mass of H2Ox Latent heat)
For calculating mass of H2O,

2H2 + O2 = 2 H2 O
4 kg 32 kg 36 kg
Thus,
Mass of H2O = 36/4 *%H2
= 9 * %H2
= 0.99 kg
100
.
.. L.C.V.= 45364.5 – ( 0.99x 2257)

L.C.V.= 43130.07 kJ/kg

 COMBUSTION OF FUELS
Definition:
C o m b u st i o n o f a f u e l i s a c h e m i ca l re a c t i o n o f
constituents of fuel with oxygen as a result of which
heat is librated.
• The smallest quantity of a fuel which takes part in
chemical reaction is a molecule.
• It is convenient to use molecular weight in
calculations.
• The mass of any substance is equal to its molecular
weight as per Avogadro’s hypothesis.
• Thus, 1 kg – mole of H 2 equal to 2 kg H 2 ( i.e. its
molecular weight)
 COMBUSTION OF FUELS
Molecular weight of some basic elements is as per
following table.
MOLECULAR
SUBSTANCE SYMBOL
WEIGHT
Hydrogen H2 2
Oxygen O2 32
Nitrogen N2 28
Carbon C 12
Sulphur S 32
Water H 2O 18
Methane CH4 16
Acetylene C 2H 2 26
 COMBUSTION DIFFERENT FUEL
ELEMENTS
Combustion of Carbon:
(a) With sufficient oxygen, carbon forms Carbon dioxide.
C + O2 = CO2
12 kg 32 kg 44 kg
1 8/3 11/3
1 kg 2.667 kg 3.667 kg
(b)With insufficient oxygen, carbon forms Carbon
Monoxide.
2C + O2 = 2CO
24 kg 32 kg 56 kg
1 kg 1.33 2.33 kg
COMBUSTION DIFFERENT FUEL ELEMENTS
Combustion of Carbon Monoxide:
With sufficient oxygen, carbon Monoxide is converted to
Carbon dioxide.
2CO + O2 = 2CO2
56 kg 32 kg 88 kg
1 kg 0.5714 kg 1.5714 kg
Combustion of Hydrogen:
With sufficient oxygen, Hydrogen is converted to water
vapour.
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
04 kg 32 kg 36 kg
1 kg 8 kg 9 kg
COMBUSTION DIFFERENT FUEL ELEMENTS
Combustion of Sulphur:
With sufficient oxygen, Sulphur is converted to Sulphur
dioxide.
S + O2 = SO2
32 kg 32 kg 64 kg
1 kg 1 kg 2 kg
• It is less important from calorific point of view.
• It forms SO 2 which reacts with water vapour and
forms Sulphuric acid which is dangerous.
• It should be minimum inside the fuel.
COMBUSTION DIFFERENT FUEL ELEMENTS
Combustion of Hydrocarbons:
Hydrocarbon when combined with oxygen, forms carbon
dioxide and water vapour.
Paraffins (CnH2n+2):
(a) Methane (CH4)
CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O
16 kg 64 kg 44 kg 36kg
1 kg 4 kg 2.75 kg 2.25 kg
(b) Ethane (C2H6)
2C2H6 + 7O2 = 4CO2 + 6H2O
60 kg 224 kg 176 kg 108 kg
1 kg 3.733 kg 2.933 kg 1.8 kg
COMBUSTION DIFFERENT FUEL ELEMENTS
Paraffins (CnH2n+2):
(c) Propane (C3H8)
C 3H 8 + 5O2 = 3CO2 + 4H2O
44 kg 160 kg 132 kg 72 kg
1 kg 3.6363 kg 3 kg 1.6363 kg
Olefins (CnH2n):
(a) Ethylene (C2H4)
C 2H 4 + 3O2 = 2CO2 + 2H2O
28 kg 96 kg 88 kg 36 kg
1 kg 3.4286 kg 3.1428 kg 1.2857 kg
COMBUSTION DIFFERENT FUEL ELEMENTS
Aeromatics (CnH2n – 6):
Benzene (C6H6)
C 6H 6 + 7.5O2 = 6CO2 + 3H2O
78 kg 240 kg 264 kg 54 kg
1 kg 3.0769 kg 3.3846 kg 0.6923 kg

Actylene (C2H2)

2C2H2 + 5O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O

52 kg 160 kg 176 kg 36 kg
1 kg 3.0769 kg 3.3846 kg 0.6923 kg
 OXYGEN & NITROGEN CONTENT IN AIR
• I t i s a s s u m e d t h at t h e a ir to b e s u p p l i e d fo r
combustion contains only Nitrogen and Oxygen.
• The N2 and O2 content varies as per followings;

On mass basis On volume basis

N2 = 77% & O2 = 23% N2 = 79% & O2 = 21%

• Thus, 1 kg of O 2 is associated with 77/23 kg i.e.

3.3478 kg of N2 and mixture is 4.3478kg air on mass
basis
• Similarly, 1 m3 of O2 is associated with 79/21 m3 i.e.
3.7619 m 3 of N 2 and mixture is 4.7619m 3 air on
volume basis
 THEORETICAL/MINIMUM/CHEMICALLY
CORRECT/STOICHIOMETRIC AIR
REQUIRED
• It is defined as the minimum air required for the
complete combustion of all the constituents of the
fuel.
• Let 1 kg of fuel contains following elements;
Carbon = C% Oxygen = O%
Hydrogen = H% Sulphur = S%
• For complete combustion of Carbon,
O2 required = 2.67 kg
• For complete combustion of Hydrogen,
O2 required = 8 kg
• For complete combustion of Sulphur,
O2 required = 1 kg
 THEORETICAL/MINIMUM/CHEMICALLY
CORRECT/STOICHIOMETRIC AIR
REQUIRED
• Thus, total oxygen required for combustion is,
O2 required = {(2.67 x %C) + (8 x %H) + %S}
• Fuel contains oxygen and that much less amount of
oxygen is required for combustion.
O2 required = {(2.67 x %C) + (8 x %H) + %S – O2}
• Now air contains 23% oxygen on mass basis.
• For required amount of oxygen the air to be supplied
is given by the formula;
Min. =(100/23) {(2.67x%C) + (8x%H) + %S – O }
2
air reqd.
 EXCESS AIR
• Air contains 77% of N2 by mass and 23% of O2.
• N2 is inert and reduces speed of combustion.
• In order to increase the speed of combustion and
also the combustion temp. some extra air is to be
supplied
• This extra air which is more than chemically correct
air supplied is also called Excess air.
• Too much Excess air results in,
(1) Less combustion temp.
(2) More air to be handled
(3) More heat carried by flue gases
(4) Less combustion efficiency
 EXCESS AIR
The excess air supplied can be calculated as follows;
Excess air = Actual air – Minimum air
Wexcess = Wactual – Wmin

And % excess air can be calculated as follows;

Wactual – Wmin
% excess air = x 100
Wmin
NOTE:
If Wexcess value is negative, it indicates that the actual
air supplied is less that the min. air required. It will
result in incomplete combustion which leads to
formation of CO.
It is also called Deficit air.
 Exercise:
Determine from first principle, minimum quantity of air
required for complete combustion of 1 kg of,
(1) Carbon (2) Methane (3) Hydrogen
(4) Alcohol (5) Benzene

Solution:
(1) For Carbon,
Wmin = 100/23 (2.67x 1)
Wmin = 11.6087 kg/kg of carbon
(2) For Methane,
Wmin = 100/23 (4 x 1)
Wmin = 17.391 kg/kg of Methane
(3) For Hydrogen,
Wmin = 100/23 (8 x 1)
Wmin = 34.7826 kg/kg of hydrogen

(4) For Alcohol ( C2H6O ),

C 2H 6O + 3 O 2 = 2 CO2 + 3 H2O
46kg 96kg
1kg 2.0869kg
Wmin = 100/23 (2.0869x 1)
Wmin = 9.0737 kg/kg of Alcohol
(5) For Benzene (C6H6),
Wmin = 100/23 (3.0769 x 1)
Wmin = 13.3778 kg/kg of Benzene
 Exercise:
The ultimate analysis by mass of a solid fuel is as
below;
C = 78%, H2 = 3%, O2 = 3%, S = 1%,
Ash= 10% and Moisture = 5%.
Determine the actual mass of air supplied if excess air
is 30%.
Solution:
C = 0.78, H2 =0.03, O2 =0.03, S = 0.01

Wexcess = 0.3 x Wmin

Step – 1
For calculating the minimum air required,
Wmin=100/23{(2.67x 0.78)+(8x0.03)+0.01 – 0.03}
Wmin= 10.0113 kg/kg of fuel
Also,
Wexcess = 0.3 x Wmin
= 0.3 x 10.0113
= 3.0034 kg/kg of fuel
Finally,
Wactual = Wmin + Wexcess
= 10.0113 + 3.0034
= 13.0146 kg/kg of fuel
 CONVERSION OF VOLUMETRIC TO
GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS
• If volumetric analysis ( % by volume) of the flue gas
is given then it can be converted to Gravimetric (%
by mass) analysis.
• The proportionate mass of any substance is the
product of its fractional volume and melecular
weight.
• If V is the volume of any flue gas whose mass is
equal to molecular weight then to calculate its mass,
mass, m = %volume * Molecular weight
V (Constant)
i.e m1 = v1M1 / V, m2 = v2M2 / V, m3 = v3M3 / V
 CONVERSION OF VOLUMETRIC TO
GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS
• Finally the constant volume V will be cancelled and
thus we can generalise the formula of relative or
proportionate mass as,
proportionate / relative mass m = % volume * mol. wt.
or m = %v * M
• It can be tabulated as per follow e.g.
• If CO2 % by volume in flue gas is given equal to 10%.
Then,
Its relative / propotionate mass = 10* 44 = 440
• Convert following volumetric analysis into mass
analysis of an exhaust gas of an IC Engine,
 CONVERSION OF GRAVIMETRIC TO
VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
• If Gravimetric (% by mass) of the flue gas is given
then it can be converted to volumetric analysis ( %
by volume) analysis.
• The mass of any substance is proportionate to the
product of its volume and melecular weight.
• The relative volume can be calculated by using
following formula
Relative volume = %mass / Molecular weight
or, v=m/M
i.e v1 = %m1 / M1, v2 = %m2 /M2
• Convert following analysis given in % by mass inte
Volumetric analysis.