Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 3229–3236

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Zero carbon buildings refurbishment––A Hierarchical pathway

Yangang Xing a,∗ , Neil Hewitt b , Philip Griffiths b
a
Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff University, Bute Building, King Edward VII Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3NB, Wales, UK
b
Centre for Sustainable Technologies, University of Ulster, Newtownabbey, BT37 0QB, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Buildings account for almost half of energy consumptions in European countries and energy demand
Received 17 December 2010 in building continues to grow worldwide. Fossil fuels are finite reserves. Impacts of peak oil will be
Accepted 6 April 2011 perceived soon or later in the next decades. The scale of the challenge in reducing fossil fuel dependency
in the built environment is vast and will require a dramatic increase in skills and awareness amongst
Keywords: the construction professions. Building refurbishment towards zero carbon is established itself as one
Building refurbishment
critical aspect to decouple from fossil fuels and tackle with future energy crisis. However, it is a very
Zero carbon
complex phenomenon cuts across disciplines. This paper categorises a range of technologies for building
Renewable applications
refurbishment in a sequential manner. A hierarchical process with embedded techniques (insulations,
energy efficient equipment and micro-generation) is presented in this paper as a pathway towards zero-
carbon building refurbishment.
© 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3230
2. Building energy end uses in UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3230
3. A hierarchical process towards zero-carbon buildings refurbishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3230
4. Retrofit building fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3231
4.1. Current best practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3231
4.2. Emerging insulation materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3232
4.2.1. Aerogel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3232
4.2.2. Multiple-layer insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3232
4.2.3. Transparent insulation materials (TIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3232
4.2.4. Gas-filled panels (GFPs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3232
4.2.5. Vacuum insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3232
5. High energy efficient building services equipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3232
5.1. Lighting sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3232
5.1.1. Low energy lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3232
5.1.2. Passive lighting sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3232
5.1.3. Electrochomistic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3233
5.2. Heating sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3233
5.2.1. Solar thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3233
5.2.2. Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3233
5.2.3. Heat pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3233
5.2.4. Combined heat and power (CHP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3233
5.2.5. District heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3233
5.2.6. Thermal storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3234
5.3. Ventilations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3234
5.3.1. Natural ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3234
5.3.2. Mechanical ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3234
6. Micro-generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3234

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 0 28 903 68635; fax: +44 0 28 903 68239.
E-mail addresses: xygnet@hotmail.co.uk, xingyangang@hotmail.com (Y. Xing).

1364-0321/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2011.04.020
3230 Y. Xing et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 3229–3236

7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3234
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3234
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3235

1. Introduction

In EU, shifting away from heavy industry towards service sector

activities, building has become the largest sector in terms of energy
consumption. Currently buildings still rely on fossil fuels for energy
supply. Yet buildings presently account for some 45% of carbon
emissions and it has been estimated that 80% of the buildings that
we will be occupying in 2050 have already been built [1]. Although
the definition of zero carbon is still subject to future clarifications,
the UK government has set up goals in delivering new zero carbon
buildings [2,3]: Zero carbon dwellings and schools form 2016; zero
carbon public sector building from 2018; Zero carbon commercial
building from 2019. However, zero carbon new buildings have lim-
ited impacts on overall carbon reduction. New buildings only add
roughly less than 1% to the stock in UK a year. Existing buildings rep-
resent the greatest opportunity for efficiency improvements and
sustainable development. Fig. 1. Overall energy consumption in UK 2007
Source: Department of Energy and Climate Change – secondary analysis of data from
Building refurbishment towards zero carbon faces tremendous
the Digest of UK Energy.
technical challenges. Recent papers [4–6] examined new zero
carbon buildings. A number of researches is carried to explore
low carbon building techniques and issues [7–9]. Several assess- There is a clear trend that older properties have much lower
ment tools, such as PassivHaus [10], Code for Sustainable Homes, energy performance. It is estimated there are approximately 9.2
Ecohomes from BRE (reviewed in [11]) offer sets of criteria to million dwellings (43%) in England with features are difficult to
evaluate a building design. Nevertheless, there is still a lack of refurbish (i.e. solid wall, no loft space or off-main gas supply), 84%
specific and rigours process for zero carbon building refurbish- of this group is in the private sector. Solid wall properties and those
ment. off the mains gas network makes up the majority of the hard to treat
Based on a review in existing UK building stocks and refurbish- stock [13]. Solid wall properties include traditional 9” (about 23 cm)
ment techniques, the authors developed a hierarchical pathway masonry, single leaf masonry, concrete walls, metal panelled walls
incorporating categorized techniques in a sequential process. A goal and timber panelled walls. It has been pointed out and over half the
of this a hierarchical pathway is to minimize energy demand and existing housing stock in the UK has inadequate levels of insulation
match energy demand with local renewable energy supply. The [14]. It can be seen in Figure 2 that only very small proportion of
authors argue that this pathway is a key to a successful refurbish- existing buildings are achieved energy efficiency rating (above 86
ment project totally decoupling a built environment from fossil in SAP 2001rating scale [15]). SAP modelling tool have been sub-
fuels. It can offer a clear vision and choices of refurbishment tech- sequently updated, however it remains as an insufficient tool to
niques for relevant stakeholders involved in building sectors and provide an insightful guidance for zero-carbon building refurbish-
policy analysis domain. ment. In summary, there is a lack of a clear pathway enable relevant
stakeholders to effectively tackle the complex phenomenon and
2. Building energy end uses in UK significantly reduce carbon emission in building sectors.

Since 2000, close to 80% of the total working population in 3. A hierarchical process towards zero-carbon buildings
UK were employed in the service sector. The increased number refurbishment
of employees has resulted in an increase in floor area requiring
more energy for space heating. In the year 2007, close to 80% of Building refurbishment is a complex undertaking cutting across
energy consumed in services sectors are for space heating, light- different technical fields and facing challenges in incorporating
ing and cooling [12]. As show in Fig. 1, at 2007 in UK, space heating renewable energy in a built environment.
accounts for 25% of overall energy consumptions, followed by other Although the definition of “zero carbon building” is still sub-
building related energy uses, such as water heating for 9%, lighting ject to further wider consultations and consensuses, but it would
and appliances – for 7%, and cooking for 2%. According to this calcu- be practical to define the concept base a set of criteria in a
lation, building energy uses account for 43% of overall energy uses hierarchical stages, such as insulation, building services and micro-
in 2007 in UK. Domestic energy consumption has increased by 32% generations. The authors established a hierarchical approach to
since 1970 and by 19% since 1990 [12]. As in 2007, space heat- achieve zero carbon refurbishment. The first step is to reduce
ing accounts for 56% of domestic energy consumption. Since 1990 energy demand by retrofitting building fabrics to higher stan-
the number of households has increased by 10%, population has dards; the second step is to install energy efficient equipments,
increased by 4% and household disposable income has increased the last step is to establish on-site low and zero carbon energy
by 30%. Between 1970 and 2000, energy consumption in lighting supply technologies with smart grid connections and control as
and appliances increased by 15%, while energy use in cooking has shown in Fig. 3. Indeed, zero-carbon building as a dynamic concept
fallen by 16%. Energy efficiency improvements, such as increased can be explored at different stages in whole life cycle of build-
levels of insulation and the introduction of more efficient electrical ing. Embedded energy at up-stream carbon emission, on the other
appliances, have meant that domestic energy consumption has not hand, material disposal at down stream phases are very important
increased at a greater rate. when examine whole life cycle impacts of a building as discussed
 Y. Xing et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 3229–3236 3231

Fig. 2. Energy efficiency in existing dwellings stock [13].

Fig. 3. A hierarchical process towards zero carbon refurbishment.

in a previous research [11]. However, a very specific purpose of thermal linings, laminated insulation plasterboard (i.e. thermal
this paper is to investigate technical aspects of building refur- board), or built-up system using fibrous insulation such as mineral
bishment to reduce operational energy consumption and decouple wood held in place using a studwork frame. Cavity Wall insulation
building energy systems from fossil fuels. From energy assessment (CWI) is one effective energy efficiency measure. It usually only
point of view, this process will reinforce refurbishment project takes a few hours to install depending on the size of the house
to focus on energy conservation and demand reduction. The key or and other factors, such as access and preparations. In UK, com-
indicators include energy demand and renewable energy pene- monly used insulation materials include mineral wool, expanded
trations. This hierarchical process (Fig. 3) can help to reduce the polystyrene bead (EPS Bead), and Urea formaldehyde foam (UF
complexity in carrying out a refurbishment project. It will allow Foam). The three materials have roughly equivalent thermal insula-
architects, engineers or buildings to prioritise the most important tion properties, and are resistant to water penetration by capillary
design considerations at each design stage rather than consider actions. Cellulose insulation – organic plant fibber is another useful
all together as in a ‘flat’ model. In the following sections, current material, but its performance can be compromised if it comes into
advances and emerging techniques for zero carbon refurbishment contact with moisture. Water vapour barrier is often used in inter-
are reviewed. nal insulation to avoid condensations. A study also shows that a
hydrophilic mineral wool can perform very well in terms of thermal
4. Retrofit building fabrics insulation and condensation reduction for an internal insulation
[16–18]. It is noticed that quality assurance and specifications were
4.1. Current best practices found to be important, especially to ensure insulation materials
to be installed with a manner of homogeneously distribution and
Space heating is the largest building energy end use. To retrofit constant density.
building fabrics is vitally important to reduce energy demand in Many buildings leak heat through gaps in the joins of their win-
buildings. External insulation is often the desired solution for insu- dows or doors. Heat losses by ventilation can be strongly reduced
lations for solid walls. External solutions usually comprises of an by improving the air tightness of the building. Draught proof-
insulation layer fixed to the existing wall, such as a protective ing is one of the most inexpensive and effective energy efficiency
render or decorative cladding. Timber panels, stone or clay tiles, measures. The different types of materials include brushes, foams,
brick slips or aluminium panels are often used for cladding. Ben- sealants, draught excluders, and tapes. Heat loss from loft is consid-
efits of external wall insulation for solid walls include no internal ered as one important aspect to address. Most UK loft insulations
living space loss, minimum disruption, and condensation risk is are around 150 mm or less of flexible insulation slabs [14], which
reduced. However, in some cases, internal insulation is the only require significant increase in extra loft insulations. Benefits which
option available, such as for the purposes of maintaining original green roofs can offer in winter heating reduction as well as summer
façade features in historical buildings. Internal solid wall insula- cooling in building retrofitting projects are reviewed and discussed
tion typically consists of either dry lining in the form of flexible [19]. Detailed assessment of the roof conditions and green roof
3232 Y. Xing et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 3229–3236

materials need to be future investigated in order to device a sus- 4.2.4. Gas-filled panels (GFPs)
tainable green roof retrofitting solutions. Gas-filled panels (GFPs) consist of a barrier envelope and a
A number of buildings were refurbished to high level of thermal gas between reflective layers (a baffle). The gas can be air or
performance, e.g. the PassivHaus standard [20], which has two key a heavier gas to decrease thermal advection and conduction. A
requirements for energy demand: space heating energy demand low-emissivity barrier envelope is used to enclose the gas and to
lower than 15 kWh/m2 yr, and total primary energy demand lower decrease the heat transfer due to radiation, while a low-emissivity
than 120 kWh/m2 yr. PassivHaus requirements can be met by super baffle structure is included to decrease inner gas convection and
insulations and heat recover systems with overall heat transfer radiation. However, compared with other high performance ther-
coefficient of only about 0.1 W/m2 . Based on a review of certified mal insulation materials and solutions, e.g. vacuum insulation
PassivHaus projects [10], on average, u-value for exterior walls is panels (VIPs), the future of GFPs may therefore be questioned [28].
around 0.11 W/m2 k, for roof is around 0.13 W/m2 k and or floor is
around 0.086 W/m2 k, less then one third of the current building 4.2.5. Vacuum insulation
regulations [21] (Part L – Conservation of fuel and power) in UK. Vacuum insulation uses the insulating effects of a vacuum to
By having really good insulation it allows the building to retain produce much higher thermal resistance than conventional insu-
the heat that is generated within the house by activities (cooking, lation. Vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) are regarded as one of the
electrical goods, people’s body heat etc.) and also via passive means most promising high thermal performance insulation solutions on
(direct solar gain or heat stored in thermal mass). Nevertheless, cur- the market. Research revealed that if optimized kernels and bar-
rent higher level of thermal insulations proposes challenges in cost rier laminates as well as stringent quality control are employed, a
and extra space required for thicker building envelops. Section 4.2 centre u-value of 0.2 W/m2 K can be achieved for a VIP thickness
summarised emerging high performance thermal building insulat- of only 2 cm [29]. It has a thermal resistance about a factor of 10
ing materials which can offer much higher thermal resistance with higher than that of equally thick conventional polystyrene boards
thinner insulation. or mineral wool fibres. Vacuum insulation can enable think, high
insulation construction for walls, roofs and floors. Vacuum insu-
4.2. Emerging insulation materials lation has been used for building refurbishment projects where
available spaces are restricted for thicker thermal insulation [30].
It is perceived that wall thickness of well insulated buildings It is noted that quality control of VIPs is a very important issue [31].
is typically exceeding 600 mm. Continuous increase of insulation Feasible paths beyond VIPs are investigated and possibilities such as
thickness can result in more complex design, construction, main- vacuum insulation materials (VIMs) and nano insulation materials
tenance, an adverse net-to-gross floor area and possible heavier (NIMs) [32]. Vacuum glazing systems with very low u-values have
load bearing constructions. Thus, a range of lower ␭ (thermal con- employed multiple glass panes, inert gases and numerous low emit-
ductibility) insulation materials have been developed and utilised, tance coated surfaces [33,34]. These systems usually require three
such as aerogel, multi-layer insulation, transparent insulation, gas or more panes of glass and are twice as wide as standard double-
filled insulation, and vacuum insulation. glazing. It can be expected that within the trend of rising energy
costs, high performance thermal building insulating materials may
4.2.1. Aerogel have great potential in the housing refurbishment market.
Aerogel has been studied extensively in the last few decades
[22–24] as an insulation materials owing to its low thermal con- 5. High energy efficient building services equipments
ductivity. Aerogel materials tend to have less than 0.013 W/mk
thermal conductivity. It only requires less than one tenth of the 5.1. Lighting sources
thickness of traditional insulation materials, which makes it very
attractive insulation materials for refurbishment as. Aerogel filed 5.1.1. Low energy lighting
insulation panels as commercial products are installed in building It is estimated that electrical lighting constitutes 30% of total
refurbishment projects in UK. domestic electricity consumptions and 19% of global electricity use,
and [35,36]. It is suggested that lighting energy use can be reduce
4.2.2. Multiple-layer insulation by 75–90% compared to conventional practice through combing
Multiple layers of insulation are usually used to achieve bet- daylighting, energy efficient lighting and control [37]. Conventional
ter thermal performance. One early example is so-called multi-foil incandescent lights can only convert 5% of the input energy and rest
films consist of a series of reflective layers interspersed with layers being converted into waste heat. Currently, LEDs already achieve
of wadding and foam. It is expected that low levels of heat transfer up to 100 lm/w. Replacement of inefficient lamps is usually the first
can be achieved based on their ability to reflect longwave radiative choice for low carbon refurbishment due to facts of significantly
(also called infrared radiation) energy. However, it has noticed that reduction of electricity usage with relatively cheaper means.
multi-foil products performance degrade over time as dust accu-
mulating on the surface will diminish its performance. A research 5.1.2. Passive lighting sources
shows a complicated 19-layers foil films insulation material with Apart from low energy lighting, passive methods have been
best possible materials do not obtain a lower u-value than 200 mm explored to improve daylighting penetration and visual comfort,
of mineral wool insulation [25]. e.g. passive solar glazed sunspace. It usually takes the form of
a conservatory or glazed balcony which has been encouraged as
4.2.3. Transparent insulation materials (TIS) a low-energy feature in refurbished buildings. However, doubts
It reported that transparent insulation materials (TIS) can allow have been raised previously as to whether any real energy sav-
solar energy transmittance of more than 50% and thermal con- ings are possible and whether in fact these spaces increase energy
ductivity of less than 0.2 W/m2 k [26,27]. Transparent insulation consumption. Researchers [38] argued that sunspaces can be an
materials can be produced by utilising different type optical appropriate and effective system all over Europe during the win-
absorber or cavity structures. Generally, overheating control and ter. It demonstrated that sunspace can be an effective way to ensure
cost issues are the two major issues associated with transparent good daylighitng in a refurbished high-rise social housing build-
insulation. ing in Germany [39]. Nevertheless, glazing materials have higher
 Y. Xing et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 3229–3236 3233

heat transfer coefficient causing heat losses in winter and over- heating. There are great potential of solar energy can be harvested
heating problems in summer, especially roof window which can for buildings [49].
admit direct solar gains. Better performing glazing materials can
also reduce overheating problems. It revealed aerogel glazing can 5.2.2. Biomass
provide up to 7% cooling energy saving in some buildings in hot cli- Biomass for energy could reduce carbon life cycle and Green-
mate [40]. Aerogel as a replacement material for windows has been house Gases (GHG) emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels
investigated based on the assumption that it can offer improved and diversify energy supply at reasonable costs. Biomass is, there-
thermal insulation properties over the best-performing glazing sys- fore, preference heating sources for low energy buildings [50]. The
tems. However, some technical issues remain to be solved such as efficiency of biofuel systems tends to be lower than that of fos-
fragility and lack of complete transparency for lights transmission. sil energy systems. However, recent technological developments
It has been reported that developed monolithic silica aerogel glaz- have increased the efficiency of bioenergy systems considerably
ing has a total solar energy transmittance (g-value) higher than (e.g. Biomass Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle – BIGCC) [50].
plain double glazing and at the same time has a heat loss coefficient Nevertheless, researchers and practitioners disclosed concerns sur-
equal to the best triple layered gas filled glazing units [41]. rounding the sourcing, processing, transporting of biomass fuel,
and increases in NOx and particulate emissions as a result of
biomass boilers [51,52].
5.1.3. Electrochomistic materials
Electrochromism is the phenomenon displayed by some mate-
rials of reversibly changing color when a burst of charge is applied. 5.2.3. Heat pumps
Electrochromic materials are used to control the amount of light Heat pumps as renewable energy supply recover heat from dif-
and heat allowed to pass through windows. Electrochromic devices ferent sources for use in domestic and non-domestic buildings.
are essentially multilayer electrochemical cells characterized by Air source heat pumps are considered as better options for build-
the ability of changing reversibly their optical transmittance under ing refurbishment due to its ease of installation and less space
the action of a low electric field, thus providing responsive and requirement comparing with ground source heat pumps. Recent
dynamic modulation of the thermal and optical properties of progresses in heat pump systems have centred upon advanced
the buildings’ glazed surfaces [42,43]. One example of an elec- cycle designs and cycle components (including choice of working
trochromic material is polyaniline which can be formed either fluid), and exploiting utilisation in a wider range of applications.
by the electrochemical or chemical oxidation of aniline. Polymer- Some recent research efforts have markedly improved the energy
based solutions have recently been developed with the promise to efficiency of heat pump, e.g. to optimize heat pump system to
provide flexible and cheap electrochromics in a variety of colors supply domestic hot water and complex space heating [53,54];
[44]. Energy saving potential of these devices regarding optimized optimize the efficiency of an air source heat pump operation under
solar heat gain, daylight control and occupants’ comfort has been a range of conditions through a series defrosting cycles [55]; and
investigated and some beneficial impacts of using electrochromic incorporation of a heat-driven ejector to the heat pump improv-
are being verified [45–47]. From an energy conservation perspec- ing system efficiency by more than 20% [56]. However, a recent
tive it is better to have windows in their low-transparent state relatively large-scale field trial of domestic heat pumps in the UK
whenever there are cooling needs. One type of switchable glaz- has found that its performance is very sensitive to installation and
ing uses an electrochromic film to control the transmittance and commissioning practices [57]. In the USA, according to a survey
reflectance of the glass: clear glass with high transmittance or that more than 50% of all heat pumps have significant problems
dark glass with low transmittance [43]. However, it has been with low airflow, leaky ducts, or incorrect refrigerant charge [58].
noticed that, high visible transmittance is still needed even exter- Heat pumps are still relatively new techniques in UK housing refur-
nal temperature is very hot. An occupancy-based control system is bishment markets. Better understanding of heat pumps seasonal
proposed and evaluated [48] in preventing glare, and at the same performance, installation and operational issues is required for
time allowing the occupants to access to suitable daylights by lim- higher penetration of heat pumps in housing refurbishment mar-
iting the perpendicular component of the incident solar irradiation ket.
to avoid glare. Smart windows technology sets off the potentials of
future improving glassing products and building control systems. 5.2.4. Combined heat and power (CHP)
Monitoring and evaluation of the performance of smart windows Combined heat and power (CHP) utilising the waste heat pro-
is a key to established impacts of new glazing techniques on whole duced during the generating of electricity has a critical role to play
building performance. in reducing emissions and increasing the use of renewable energy.
CHP can improve efficiency by over 30% comparing to generating
heat and electricity separately. It can also be used to provide low
5.2. Heating sources
carbon cooling. Using CHP to provide cooling can make CHP more
economically attractive as it provides a use for heat year- round
Heating accounts for about 40% of final energy consumption
and improves the efficiency of operation of the plant.
(around 85% of domestic energy consumptions) in UK in the year
2009 [12]. In this section, heating technologies (solar panels, heat
pump, CHP, biomass boilers, district heating and thermal storage) 5.2.5. District heating
are reviewed. District heating is a system for distributing heat generated in a
centralized location for heating requirements such as space heat-
ing and water heating. District heating plants has been expected to
5.2.1. Solar thermal provide higher efficiencies and better pollution control than local-
Solar thermal collectors have been the favourite technique ized heating sources due to the factors that district heating system
in utilising renewable energy. There are two dominant collec- will be more likely to be maintained, operated and controlled more
tor types: vacuum tube collector with higher energy efficiency professionally, especially through District heating schemes are not
accounts for more than half of global market share and followed by as common in the UK as in some other EU countries. However, the
flat-plate collectors with more than 30% global share. They both are UK government has developed a policy framework to encourage the
primarily suitable for preparing hot water and to providing space deployment of district heat networks in local communities [3]. A
3234 Y. Xing et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 3229–3236

number of techniques were proposed to improve efficiency of a dis- been investigated to improve the thermal performance of build-
trict heating system including scheduling pipe installation, flexible ing, and external architectural skin [69,70]. Ventilated facade is a
piping, and optimisation to reduce investment and operational cost system consisting of an external facade cladding, a sub-structure
[59]. Sparsely distributed housing stocks proposed challenges in anchored to the wall surface of the building, an insulating material
implementing district heating systems, mainly due to high connec- and an air gap between the cladding and the insulating material.
tion costs. However, researchers suggested that profitable sparse The mass air flow inside the ventilated duct, due to the buoy-
heating system in Sweden is possible. It was noticed the importance ancy effects, carries away heat load through natural convection
in developing business logic and effective customer interactions especially during peak load hours of the day (when electricity
[60]. Combining gradual expansion of district heating with individ- costs more). In multi-stories buildings, ventilated façade has been
ual heat pumps in remaining houses is found to be the most likely identified as useful technique in cold climates during the heating
scenario of future renewable energy systems in Danish housing season [71].
sector [61].
6. Micro-generation
5.2.6. Thermal storage
Seasonal thermal storage can play a significant role in balance The last technical step in this zero carbon refurbishment pro-
heat demand and renewable energy supply. One example is under- cess is micro-generation. It has been anticipated that the impacts of
ground thermal energy storage (UTES). UTES is a well research area. peak oil will force building users to reply more and more on renew-
A research carried out in Anneberg, Sweden shows and solar heat- able heating/cooling sources. Most applications in daily life will rely
ing systems coupled with UTES provide 60% of total heat demand on electricity and renewable heat energies. Consequently, future
(space heating and domestic hot water) [62]. The Anneberg residen- building energy system will progress dramatically to adapt renew-
tial area consists of 90 building units of 100 m2 each. It was shown able energy supplies. Micro-generation is the generation of zero or
that 3000 m2 of roof-mounted solar collectors and borehole storage low-carbon heat and/or power to meet own energy demand on site.
system of 6000 m2 (99 boreholes, borehole depth 65 m). Under- There is a wealth of micro-generation technologies: such as wind,
ground cold-water reservoir for passive cooling purposes in hot arid solar, PV panels, and hydro, either commercially available or at an
regions is explored [63]. Phase change materials (PCMs) can prove advanced stage of development [37,72–74]. Performance of micro-
lantern heat in shorter term. Passive applications include the addi- generation systems are found various widely from Manufacturers’
tion of microencapsulated PCM impregnated in wall board, which quotes and laboratory studies owing to installation and opera-
will act to offset air-conditioning plant by allowing the wall/ceiling tional problems [73]. Smarter control of a micro-grid can enable
system to absorb heat at for example 25 ◦ C thus effectively acting as more dynamic ‘real-time’ flows of information on the micro-gird
mass and slowing the response of the building to solar gains. PCM and more interaction between energy generation and consumption
can offer a more compact solution than water with marginal costs [75]. In building energy systems, loads that meet the communi-
(estimated at around £2/kg). Researchers [64] have also explored cation and control requirements can be shifted to help manage
possibility in using hydrogen as seasonal storage mechanism for the grid and with little impact on occupants. It can be processed
low energy buildings. by various mean, for examples using thermal storage, pre-cooling,
and load shifting of non-critical equipments. Through proper appli-
5.3. Ventilations cation of demand-side management (DSM) technologies, it is
possible to reduce the need of new installed intermittent power
5.3.1. Natural ventilation to achieve the renewable penetration targets and match power
Natural ventilation is considered as a powerful means to generation to consumer demand [76–78]. It is noted that it is impor-
improve indoor air qualities. A number of researches reviewed and tant to develop integrated simulation model to facilitate future
studied natural ventilations techniques such as night ventilations, research in load shifting, transient stability, protection and control
thermal mass, shading devices (such as overhangs and side-fins), strategies.
buried pipes and evaporative cooling [65–67]. Overheating is per-
ceived increasingly as an issue needs to be adjusted in the last
7. Conclusions
few decades, as increasing the thickness or thermal resistance of
insulation, and reduce the ventilation rate of the building. With
Fossil fuels are finite resource, which will run out soon or
proper control system, natural ventilation techniques have great
later. Zero carbon refurbishment is proposed to decouple built
potentials to avoid overheating problems in buildings.
environment from fossil fuels and integrate with local renew-
able energies. However, zero carbon refurbishment is a very
5.3.2. Mechanical ventilation
complicated task involving a range of advanced technologies.
Mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR) is consid-
It is facing challenges in promoting awareness and increasing
ered as more efficient than natural ventilation and can ensure better
relevant skills sets among relevant stakeholders. In this paper,
air quality [68]. A heat recovery system conserves energy by remove
advanced technologies are reviewed and categorised in sequen-
heat from extracted air to the incoming air. However, the seasonal
tial manner as a hierarchical pathway. Key technologies reviewed
performance of MVHR needs to be studied in details in ambient
include building insulations, high efficient building services equip-
temperature and buildings’ thermal properties to see whether heat
ments (lighting, heating and ventilation), and micro-generation.
gain compensates heat demand from a heat generator. Dynamic
The illustrated hierarchical pathway towards zero-carbon refur-
insulation as a concept means a construction where the air is
bishment can help designers and engineers to reduce complexity
being forced through the insulation from the colder outside air
by prioritising design considerations at each stage in design and
into the heated buildings. For conduction heat in the insulation is
evaluation process.
preheating the incoming air. Theoretical u-value of the integrated
building envelop can be reduced towards zero if balance can be
maintained between conduction heat losses in the insulation and Acknowledgement
heat gain in the incoming air. The concept of dynamic insulation
is well known in Scandinavia and used in agricultural and residen- The financial support of Irish Cross Border programmes is grate-
tial buildings. Dynamic insulations in buildings refurbishment have fully acknowledged.
 Y. Xing et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011) 3229–3236 3235

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