NCERT Short

Notes
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
NCERT
Shorts
Components of Food
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

What is Food?
• Food is a basic requirement for all living organisms. It provides energy for carrying out normal physiological
activities. There are different components and they have different nutrients.

What is the Function of Various Nutrients?

Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are present mostly in the form of starch. They provide us with energy. Wheat, potato, and rice are
good sources of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates present in food items are tested by iodine test. Few drops of dilute
iodine solution are added to the sample food item. If the colour changes from brown to blue-black, the presence of
starch is confirmed.

Proteins
• Proteins are the bodybuilding nutrients. They help in the growth and repair of our body. Eggs, meat and lentils are
good sources of proteins. Proteins in the food sample are tested by copper sulfate and caustic soda solutions. The
sample food item is made into very dilute paste and the above solutions are added to it. If the colour of the resulting
solution changes to purple, the presence of protein is confirmed.

Fats
• Fats are high energy nutrients. They are needed in a moderate amount by the body. Fats are the reserve food
material of our body. Oils, ghee and butter are the sources of fat. Fats in the food are tested by a simple paper test.
A little amount of sample food is wrapped in a paper and crushed. If the paper gets an oily patch, the presence of fat
in the food is confirmed.

Vitamins and Minerals

• These are needed in a requisite amount for the proper functioning of the body. The problem of hidden hunger is
because of the deficiency of vitamins and minerals in our body.

Fibres

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Components of Food Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
• Fibres are materials that add bulk to the food. Humans cannot use fibres as a nutrient. But they help in the easy
movement of the food along with the digestive system. These include vegetable peels, toppings of fruits etc. They
are also known as roughage.

• Balanced Diet: A balanced diet is a diet that has all the necessary nutrients in the amount that is needed for normal
body functioning.

• Deficiency Diseases: Deficiency diseases are caused by the lack of certain nutrients. These diseases can be treated
by a properly balanced diet. Some Common Deficiency diseases along with their causes is given below

Vitamins and Minerals Deficiency Diseases Symptoms

Vitamin-A Night blindness Poor vision

Vitamin-B1 Beri-Beri Weight loss and weak muscle strength

Vitamin-C Scurvy Bleeding gums

Vitamin-D Rickets Soft, tender and weak bones

Vitamin E Crohn’s disease Pale skin and Rapid aging

Vitamin-K Haemorrhage Excessive bleeding with delay in clotting

Calcium Osteomalacia and osteoporosis Brittle bones

Phosphorus Bad teeth and Rickets Twisted limbs and brittle teeth

Iron Anaemia Low red blood cell count

Iodine Goitre Enlarged thyroid glands

Vitamins
• Vitamins are the essential nutrients that help us in maintaining normal body functions and also to fight off
infections.

• Fruits and vegetables are the major sources of vitamins.

• Vitamins also keep our eyes, bones, teeth, gums and skin healthy.

• A, B complex, C, D, E and K are the vitamins we get from different foods.

• B and C are water soluble vitamins whereas A, D, E and K are fat soluble vitamins.

Vitamins Functions of Vitamins

Vitamin-A Keeps eyes and skin healthy

Vitamin-B1 Helps the body use energy from the food we eat

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Components of Food Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
 Vitamins Functions of Vitamins

Vitamin-C Help heal wounds, maintains healthy gums and blood vessels, fights infections

Vitamin-D Keeps teeth and bones healthy

Vitamin E Maintains healthy skin and hair, slows down aging, a powerful antioxidant

Vitamin-K An important factor in blood clotting, bone healing and body repair

Minerals
• Minerals are important substances that help your body’s form and function on many different levels.

• Minerals are essential for various metabolic functions including growth and organ functioning.

• Important minerals required for our body are sodium, potassium, calcium, zinc, iron, phosphorus, magnesium etc.

• Sodium and potassium are responsible for maintaining electrolyte balance.

• Calcium, magnesium and phosphorus are responsible for bone formation.

• Iron is an important element of Haemoglobin.- pigment responsible for red colouration in RBC.

Probable Questions
1) Which of the following is water soluble Vitamin?

A. Vitamin A

B. Vitamin D

C. Vitamin B

D. Vitamin E

2) Which of the following has the highest calorific value?

A. Protein

B. Carbohydrates

C. Fats

D. Vitamins

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Components of Food Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
NCERT
Shorts Fibres and Fabrics
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

What are Fibres and Fabrics?

• Fibres are the materials, which are available in the form of thin, continuous and flexible strands spun into yarn and
made into fabrics. Fabrics are defined as a cloth material made by knitting or weaving or of threads together.

Source : NCERT

Types of Fibres
There are two types of fibres classified according to their origin.

• Natural fibres: These fibres are naturally obtained from plants and animals. Cotton and jute are fibre obtained from
plants. Silk and wool are fibre obtained from animals.

• Synthetic fibres: These fibres are artificially synthesized by humans within the industry by the application of simple
chemicals. Examples: Acrylic, polyester, nylon, rayon, acetate, are a few examples of Synthetic fibre.

Animal Fibres
• Silk and wool are fibre obtained from animals. Wool fibres come from sheep, camel, goat, and yak. Silk fibres are
obtained from the silkworm and the process of obtaining silk from the silkworm is called sericulture. The silk thread
or the yarn is obtained from the silk moth’s cocoon.

The Life Cycle of a Silkworm

• After mating, female silk moth lays around 200 – 300 eggs at a time.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Fibres and Fabrics Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
• The egg hatches and new silkworms arise and feed on mulberry leaves for around 30 days and move into the next
stage.

• Cocoon, a protective layer or a silky web spun is developed around the larvae, which is the size of a small cotton ball
made of a single silk thread.

• Pupa stage. A stage where silk fibres is obtained by killing the pupa and plunging the cocoon into boiling water and
unwinding the silk thread.

• The last stage of a life cycle, in which the completely developed pupa changes into an adult moth.

Plant Fibres
Cotton, wool and jute are the fibres obtained from the plant source.

• Jute fibre is obtained from the stem of jute plants. It is soft, shiny and long fibre with a silky texture.

• Cultivated in rainy seasons and is basically grown in the states of West Bengal, Bihar and Assam.

Constituents of Cotton
Cotton
• Cotton is obtained from cotton bolls, which are taken directly from the surface of cotton seeds.

• It is grown in black clayey soil with a warm climate. It requires absolute frost free conditions.

• The processing of cotton involves Ginning, Spinning, Weaving and Knitting.

Source : NCERT

Ginning
• The plant from which cotton is picked contains seeds. The process of removing these seeds from cotton pods is
known as ginning.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Fibres and Fabrics Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
• Ginning can be done using hands or by machines.

Spinning
• The process of making yarn from thin strands of fibres is called spinning.

• It can be done by hand or on a spinning wheel.

Weaving
• Two distinct yarns are arranged together on weaving machines, known as looms, to make a fabric.

Source : NCERT
Knitting
• Knitting is one of the most popular methods to make fabrics from yarns. In this process, a single yarn is used to make
a piece of fabric.

Synthetic Fibres
• These are not obtained from natural sources. These are prepared in laboratories using various petrochemical
products. These are also known as man-made fibres. These are more durable than natural fibres.

Probable Questions
1) Which of the following is a synthetic fibres?

A. Cotton

B. Silk

C. Jute

D. Polyester

2) Which of the following is a polyamide?

A. Polyester

B. Silk

C. Rubber

D. Nylon

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Fibres and Fabrics Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
NCERT
Shorts Separation of Substances
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Mixture
• A mixture is a material made up of two or more different substances, which are mixed but are not combined
chemically. Examples include cement (sand, gravel and water), smog (smoke and fog).

Separation
• Separation is the process of separating one or more components from a mixture. Examples are distillation,
sedimentation and filtration.

Handpicking
• Handpicking is a method of separation used to separate large sized impurities like pieces of dirt,stones from pack
of grains.

Source : NCERT

Threshing
• Threshing is the process of beating stalks to separate the grains from the harvested crop. It is done manually by
farmers, or by threshing machines.

Source : NCERT

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Separation of Substances Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
Winnowing
• Winnowing is the method of separation used to separate heavier and lighter components of a mixture by wind or
by blowing air. Normally, this is used to separate husk from grains.

Source : NCERT

Sieving
• Sieving is a method of separation in which the mixture is passed through a filter or a sieve. The larger particles,
usually the impurities, do not pass through the filter, and hence collect on the sieve. The finer particles flow past the
sieve and can be collected below.

Source : NCERT

Filtration
• Filtration is the process of passing the mixture through a filter to remove the solid particles from the fluid
components of the mixture. For instance, if we pass muddy water through a fine filter, we can notice that the mud
gets filtered and the water passes through.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Separation of Substances Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
Sedimentation
• When the heavier component in the mixture settles when water is added to it, the process is called sedimentation.
This method is used in separating grains from dust and soil.

Decantation
• Decantation is the process after sedimentation that involves removing the water, along with the impurities.

Condensation
• The process of conversion of water vapour into its liquid form due to contact with a cooler surface is called
condensation. Example includes formation of water droplets on a metallic lid, while boiling water.

Evaporation
• The process of conversion of water into its vapour is called evaporation. The process of evaporation takes place
continuously wherever water is present.

Solution
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is a
substance dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent.

Saturated Solution
• A saturated solution is a solution containing the maximum concentration of a solute dissolved in the solvent. For
example, a saturated solution of sugar in water is that in which no more sugar can be dissolved.

Churning
• Churning is the process of shaking up cream or whole milk to make butter.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Separation of Substances Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
 Probable Questions
1) Which of the following methods is used in separating grains from dust and soil?

A. Evaporation

B. Decantation

C. Sedimentation

D. Filtration

2) Which of the following is a homogeneous mixture?

A. Salt Solution

B. Oil

C. Milk

D. Smog

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Separation of Substances Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
NCERT
Shorts Changes Around Us
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Physical Change
• Properties such as shape, size, colour and state of a substance are called its physical properties. A change in which a
substance undergoes a change in its physical properties is called a physical change. A physical change is generally
reversible. In such a change no new substance is formed.

Chemical Change
• A change in which one or more new substances are formed is called a chemical change. A chemical change is also
called a chemical reaction. All new substances are formed as a result of chemical changes. For example, if a metal is
to be extracted from an ore, such as iron from iron ore, we need to carry out a series of chemical changes.

Source : NCERT

The following events may accompany a chemical change

• Heat, light or any other radiation (ultraviolet, for example) may be given off or absorbed.

• Sound may be produced.

• A change in smell may take place or a new smell may be given off.

• A colour change may take place .

• A gas may be formed.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Changes Around Us Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
Prevention of Rusting
• Rusting refers to the coating of iron oxide on iron. The two main conditions required are the presence of moisture
and absence of coating to prevent rusting. The process of depositing a layer of zinc on iron to prevent rusting is
called galvanisation.

Crystallisation
• Large crystals of pure substances can be formed from their solutions in a process called crystallisation. It is an
example of a physical change. The most common example is obtaining salt from sea water and formation of Copper
sulphate crystals.

Source : NCERT

Probable Questions
1) Which of the following is an example of chemical change

A. Crystallisation of salt

B. Melting of ice

C. Sublimation of iodine

D. Rusting

2) Which of the following is an example of reversible change

A. Melting of ice.

B. Burning of Magnesium rod.

C. Rusting of iron.

D. Burning of coal.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Changes Around Us Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
NCERT
Shorts Body Movements
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

What is meant by Movements?

• Movement is the change in the position of a body part with respect to the whole body. It is one of the significant
features of all living beings. The blinking of the eyes, breathing, eating are all examples of movement.

• These movements are possible because of joints. Joints are points in our body where two or more parts of our
skeleton are connected together. Different joints help our body carry out different activities and movements.

Types of Joints

Name of the Joint Part Of Body Where Found Function

Ball and Socket Joint Hip area, joint of the shoulder It allows movements in all directions

Pivotal Joint Joins the head and neck It allows the head to swivel around

Hinge Joint Elbow It allows back and forth movement

Fixed Joint Bones in head held with fixed joints It helps to keep bones intact and provides structure

Source : NCERT Source : NCERT Source : NCERT

Source : NCERT

Source : NCERT

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Body Movements Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
• All bones in our body form a framework and provide shape to our body. This framework is called a skeleton.

• Hand is made up of several small bones called Carpals.

• Chest bones and backbone together form the rib cage. Backbone consists of 33 small, disk-like bones called
vertebrae. Rib Cage protects the internal parts of our body and provides a definite structure.

• Bones in the shoulder are called shoulder bones and bones in the abdominal region are called pelvic bones.

• Skull is made up of many bones which are fused together. It protects our brain. Cartilages are also part of skeletal
joints and joints of the body. Unlike bones, they are soft and flexible.

• Muscles are subjected to contraction and relaxation and work in pairs.

Locomotion
• Movements that result in the change of place are termed as locomotion. Walking, cycling. running, and swimming
is some of the locomotory movements.

Amoeboid Movements
• Some cells of the human body like the white blood cells exhibit amoeboid movement. Cytoskeletons and
microfilaments are also involved in this type of movement.

• Some of our internal tubular organs exhibit ciliary movement. Cilia are present in trachea which helps in removing
foreign particles, dust etc. The movement of ova in the female reproductive tract is also a type of ciliary movement.

• Whenever we move, our limbs are involved. They are the muscular movements. In locomotion and other types of
body movements in humans, the contractile property of the muscles is used.

• Movements involve perfect coordination of the muscular, skeletal and neural system. There are a variety of muscles
and joints involved in movements.

Body Movement in Earthworm

• Earthworms do not have bones but are made up of several rings joined end to end.

• It is able to shorten and extend its body with the help of muscles.

• It is able to move through the soil as a result of repeated contractions and expansions.

• It excretes a slimy substance which aids its movement.

• It has many tiny bristles projecting out which are connected with muscles enabling them to get a good grip.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Body Movements Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
 Source : NCERT

Body Movement in Snail

• The outer skeleton is called the shell. It is not made up of bones and does not help in movement. The body consists
of a head and a thick structure projecting out of the shell, which is the foot. It is made up of strong muscles. Their
motion is wavy.

Source : NCERT

Body Movement in Cockroach

• They have three pairs of legs and can walk, climb, fly. The body is covered with a hard exoskeleton. The exoskeleton
is made up of a number of plates joined together. They have 2 pairs of wings attached to the body. They have
muscles too which helps them move when they fly.

Source : NCERT

Body Movement in Fish

• The tail and head of a fish are smaller as compared to the middle portion. They are said to have a streamlined body
which allows the fish to gain motion and swim.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Body Movements Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
 Source : NCERT

Body Movement in Birds

• The hollow bones and the strong muscular system helps the birds during flight. A bird flaps its wings while flying.

Source : NCERT

Probable Questions
1) Which is the largest bone in the human body?

A. Femur

B. Incus

C. Stapes

D. Clavicle

2) The presence of a streamlined body is a feature of

A. Earthworm

B. Jelly Fish

C. Ringworm

D. Fishes

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Body Movements Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
NCERT
Shorts Living Organisms
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Organisms
• An organism is simply defined as any living thing which has the capability to reproduce and to intake nutrition.

Characteristics of Living Organisms

1. Living organisms are made of cells. They can be unicellular or multicellular.

2. Living organisms need energy for survival.

3. Living organisms grow.

4. Living organisms reproduce.

5. Living beings adapt to their environmental conditions.

6. Living beings show response to the stimuli.

Nutrition
• The process by which animals obtain food and utilize it for all the activities is called as nutrition.

• Every organism requires nutrition for obtaining energy.

• Organisms which derive nutrition by their own i.e. photosynthesis are called autotrophs. Examples are green plants.

• Organisms which derive nutrition from other organisms are called heterotrophs. Example fungi, goat, cow etc.

• Organisms which derive nutrition from decaying or dead matter are called saprotrophs. Examples include bacteria
and fungi.

Growth
• All living organisms grow and exhibit growth in different ways.

• Their body cells divide and grow and thus overall growth is attained.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Living Organisms Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
Respiration
• The process by which food is oxidised inside the body is called respiration.

• It is through respiration that the body finally obtains energy from the food it takes.

• Some animals may have different mechanisms for the exchange of gases, which is a part of the respiration process.
E.g. Earthworms breathe through their skin and fish have gills for using oxygen dissolved in water.

• In humans, we respire by breathing in oxygen and breathing out the carbon dioxide.

Response to Stimulus
• Changes in our surroundings that makes living organisms respond to them are called stimuli.

• All living beings react to changes in their surroundings.

Excretion
• Excretion refers to the process of elimination of waste products from the body.

Reproduction
• All living organisms give rise to a new organism of their own kind, by a process called reproduction.

• The mode of reproduction may be different, in different animals and plants.

• Some animals produce their young ones through eggs. These are called oviparous animals. Eg snakes, hens, frogs.

• Some animals give birth to the young ones directly. These are called viviparous animals. Eg Cow,goat,dog.

Adaptation
The presence of specific features or certain habits, which enable a plant or an animal to live in its surroundings, is
called adaptation.

• Different animals are adapted to their surroundings in different ways.

• Eg: Fish have slippery scales on their bodies.

• These scales protect the fish and also help in easy movement through water.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Living Organisms Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
Surroundings
• The different surroundings or areas have different organisms that live in.

• E.g.: The deserts have camels, the mountains have goats and yak.

Biotic Components
• The living components of a habitat are called biotic components.

• Eg: plants, animals, microorganisms.

Abiotic Components
• The non-living components of a habitat are called abiotic components.

• E.g.: rocks, soil, air, water etc

Terrestrial Habitats
• The plants and animals that live on land are said to live in terrestrial habitats.

• E.g.: forests, grasslands, deserts, coastal and mountain regions.

Aquatic Habitats
• The habitats of plants and animals that live in water are called aquatic habitats.

• E.g.: ponds, swamps, lakes, rivers and oceans.

• Aquatic habitats could be fresh water (river, pond) or marine (sea) or even estuarine (delta of river meeting with
the sea).

Probable Questions
1) Which are the following are adaptations of desert plants?

A. Presence of thick surface

B. Leaves modified into thorns

C. Photosynthesis at night

D. All of the above

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Living Organisms Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
NCERT
Shorts Magnets
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

What is a Magnet?
• Objects, which attract magnetic materials like cobalt, nickel and iron are called as a magnet.

• The magnets, obtained naturally from a Magnetite rock, are called as the natural magnets and those magnets
prepared by the combination of certain mineral ores are called as the artificial magnets.

• Magnetic Materials: Cobalt, nickel and iron are some examples of Magnetic Materials. These materials easily attract
a magnet.

• Non-magnetic Materials: Aluminium, zinc, wood, and rubber are called the Non-magnetic Materials, as these
materials are not attracted towards the magnet even when they are brought closer to the magnets.

Source : NCERT

A Bar Magnet

Magnetic Compass
• The magnetic compass is a simple device, which has been used from the ancient times by the sailors and other
travellers to find directions. A magnetic compass is composed of a small box with a glass top and a magnetic needle,
which moves and indicates the directions.

Source : NCERT

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Magnets Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
Properties of Magnets
• Every magnet has two poles- north pole and south pole.

• The magnetic force is strongest at the poles rather than the middle.

• A freely suspended magnet always points in the North South Direction.

Types of Magnets
• There are two types of magnets-permanent and temporary magnets. Permanent magnets do not need an external
magnetic field for functioning whereas temporary magnets need an external magnetic field to function otherwise
they lose their magnetism.

Uses of Magnets
• In computers: Magnetic elements present on a hard disk helps to represent computer data which is later read by the
computer to extract information.

• In radios and TV’s :Magnets are used inside TVs, Sound speakers and radios. The small coil of wire and a magnet
inside a speaker transforms the electronic signal to sound vibrations.

• In Generators :Magnets are used inside a generator to transform mechanical energy to electrical energy where
there are other kinds of motors which use magnets to change electrical energy to mechanical energy.

• Magnets are used in filtering machines which separates metallic ores from crushed rocks.

• It is also used in food processing industries for separating small metallic pieces from grains etc.

• Magnets are used in MRI machines which are used to create an image of the bone structure, organs, and tissues.

• The dark strip on the back of debit and credit cards is of magnetic nature and are used to store data.

Probable Questions
1) Which of the following is not an ore of iron

A. Haematite.

B. Magnetite

C. Siderite

D. Dolomite

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Magnets Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
 Probable Questions
2) Which of the statements is false?

A. A freely suspended magnet always points in the north-south direction.

B. The magnetic force is lowest at the ends and highest at the middle.

C. Magnetic compass is used for navigation.

D. The poles of the Earth’s magnetic field is oriented at a direction opposite to the geographic poles.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Magnets Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
NCERT
Shorts Crop Production and Management
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Types of Crops
• Depending on the season of sowing the crops are classified into

• Kharif Crops: The crops which are sown in the rainy season are called kharif crops. The rainy season in India is
generally from June to September. Paddy, maize, soyabean, groundnut and cotton are kharif crops.

• Rabi Crops: The crops grown in the winter season (October to March) are called rabi crops. Examples of rabi crops
are wheat, gram, pea, mustard and linseed.

• Zaid Crops: The crops grown in the summer season (April-May) are called Zaid crops. Examples of Zaid crops are
Watermelon, cucumber.

Basic Practices in Crop Production

• Preparation of Soil: One of the most important tasks in agriculture is to turn the soil and loosen it. This allows the
roots to penetrate deep into the soil. The loosened soil helps in the growth of earthworms and microbes present in
the soil. These organisms are friends of the farmer since they further turn and loosen the soil and add humus to it. In
addition, dead plants and animals get decomposed by soil organisms. In this way, various nutrients in the dead
organisms are released back into the soil. These nutrients are again absorbed by plants. Since only a few centimetres
of the top layer of soil supports plant growth, turning and loosening of soil brings the nutrient-rich soil to the top so
that plants can use these nutrients. Thus,turning and loosening of soil is very important for cultivation of crops. The
process of loosening and turning off the soil is called tilling or ploughing.

• Agricultural Implements: Before sowing the seeds, it is necessary to break soil clumps to get better yield. This is
done with the help of various tools. The main tools used for this purpose are the plough, hoe and cultivator.

• Plough: This has been used since ancient times for tilling the soil, adding fertilisers to the crop, removing the weeds
and turning the soil. This is made of wood and is drawn by a pair of bulls or other animals (horses and camels). It
contains a strong triangular iron strip called ploughshare. The main part of the plough is a long log of wood which is
called a ploughshaft. There is a handle at one end of the shaft. The other end is attached to a beam which is placed
on the bulls’ necks. One pair of bulls and a man can easily operate the plough.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Crop Production and Management Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
 Source : NCERT

• Hoe: It is a simple tool which is used for removing weeds and for loosening the soil. It has a long rod of wood or
iron. A strong, broad and bent plate of iron is fixed to one of its ends and works like a blade. It is pulled by animals.

Source : NCERT

• Cultivator: In contemporary times ploughing is done by tractor-driven cultivators. The use of cultivators saves
labour and time.

Source : NCERT

• Seed drill : Seed drill is used for sowing with the help of tractors. This sows the seeds uniformly at equal distance
and depth. It ensures that seeds get covered by the soil after sowing. This protects seeds from being eaten by birds.
Sowing by using a seed drill saves time and labour. Appropriate distance between the seeds is necessary to avoid
overcrowding of plants. This allows plants to get sufficient sunlight, nutrients and water from the soil. At times a few
plants may have to be removed to prevent overcrowding.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Crop Production and Management Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
 Source : NCERT

• Manure and Fertilisers : Manure is an organic substance obtained from the decomposition of plant or animal
wastes. Whereas fertilisers are of chemical origin produced in factories. Some examples of fertilisers are urea,
ammonium sulphate, super phosphate, potash, NPK Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium. The use of fertilisers
has helped farmers to get better yield of crops such as wheat, paddy and maize.

• Advantages of Manure: The organic manure is considered better than fertilisers. This is because of the following
reasons.

 It enhances the water holding capacity of the soil.

 It makes the soil porous due to which exchange of gases becomes easy.

 It increases the number of friendly microbes.

 It improves the texture of the soil.

• Irrigation : The supply of water to crops at regular intervals is called irrigation. Water is important for proper growth
and development. Water is absorbed by the plant roots. Along with water, minerals and fertilisers are also
absorbed. Plants contain nearly 90% water. Water is essential because germination of seeds does not take place
under dry conditions. Nutrients dissolved in water are transported to each part of the plant. Water also protects the
crop from both frost and hot air currents.

 Sources of irrigation : The sources of water for irrigation are wells, tubewells, ponds, lakes, rivers, dams
and canals.

• Traditional Methods of Irrigation : The water available in wells, lakes and canals is lifted up by different methods in
different regions, for taking it to the fields. Pumps are commonly used for lifting water. Diesel, biogas, electricity and
solar energy is used to run these pumps.

• Modern Methods of Irrigation : Modern methods of irrigation help us to use water economically. The main methods
used are as follows:

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Crop Production and Management Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
 i. Sprinkler System: This system is more useful on the uneven land where sufficient water is not available.
The perpendicular pipes, having rotating nozzles on top, are joined to the main pipeline at regular inter-
vals. When water is allowed to flow through the main pipe under pressure with the help of a pump, it es-
capes from the rotating nozzles. It gets sprinkled on the crop as if it is raining. Sprinkler is very useful for
lawns, coffee plantation and several other crops

ii. Drip system : In this system, the water falls drop by drop directly near the roots. So it is called a drip sys-
tem. It is the best technique for watering fruit plants, gardens and trees. Water is not wasted at all. It is a
boon in regions where availability of water is poor.

Probable Questions
1) Which of the following is a rabi crop

A. Rice

B. Maize

C. Mustard

D. Cotton

2) Which of the following are examples of Weedicide

A. Auxin

B. 2,4-D

C. Diclofenac

D. DDT

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Crop Production and Management Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
NCERT
Shorts Microorganisms
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

What are Microorganisms?

The living organisms which are invisible to the naked eye but can be seen with the help of a microscope are known as
microbes or microorganisms. They exist in nature in almost every habitat. They are ubiquitous. They can be classified as
unicellular or multicellular depending upon the number of cells in their body.

Classification of Microorganisms
Microbes are categorized into four major groups namely Bacteria, Fungi, Bacteria and Protozoa. However viruses are
microscopic but differ from microbes. They differ in their independent existence , as they can exist only in the cells of
their hosts. These host organisms can be of animals, bacteria and plants. A virus is typically coated by protein and has a
nucleic acid molecule. It can have either DNA or RNA as its genetic material but not both.

Uses of Microorganisms
Microorganisms are used for varied purposes such as

• Baking industry: Microbes like yeast are used in the baking industry to make cakes, bread, pastry etc.

• Milk Products: Micro-organisms like Lactobacillus used in the production of milk products. It produces curd from
milk.

• Microbes were being used since time immemorial in the production of alcohol.

• Microbes are used in the production of organic acids. Examples include citric acid, lactic acid, fumaric acid and
gluconic acids.

• Microbes are used in the production of steroids.

• Microbes are used in the production of vitamins.

• Microorganisms synthesize enzymes such as Lipase, Lactase, Amylase, Pectinase, Penicillinase.

• They increase the fertility of the soil by fixing nitrogen.

• They help in the treatment of sewage.

• They are used in pest control. For example genetically engineered bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis is used in the
control of Cotton bollworm.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Microorganisms Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
Bacteria
• Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms.

• They are the earliest living organisms in the world.

• They are of four major types namely Bacillus, Vibrio, Cocci and Spirilla.

• There are many disease causing bacteria like Salmonella typhi (typhoid), Treponema pallidum (Syphilis),
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Tuberculosis) etc.

• However a large number of Bacterial species also find their use in day to day activities and prove helpful to mankind.

• Probiotics are live bacteria and yeasts that are good for your health, especially the digestive system.

Source : NCERT

Fungi
• Fungi are saprophytic organisms. They derive their nutrition from dead matter.

• They are mostly multicellular except yeast which is unicellular.

• They are edible like Oyster mushrooms, Cremini mushroom, Button mushroom etc.

• Some of the fungi are used in the production of acetic acid, palmitic acid, aspartic acid etc.

• Two of the most important of fungi are in the making of the dough in the baking industry and in the production of
ethanoic acid.

Protozoa
• Protozoa are single-celled microscopic animals which include flagellates, ciliates, sporozoans and many other forms.

• Few examples are amoeba, paramecium, euglena and plasmodium.

• They are found abundantly in different environments and surroundings.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Microorganisms Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
 Source : NCERT

Viruses
• Viruses are organisms that possess nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA) but lack the replicating machinery.

• Most important examples of Viruses are influenza virus, HIV, Rabies virus, poliovirus and tobacco mosaic virus.

Source : NCERT

Vaccines
A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active and acquired immunity to a disease.

• Vaccines are usually made for viral diseases but there exist vaccines for bacterial diseases like meningitis and
tuberculosis too.

• A few examples are Salk vaccine for Polio, Influenza vaccine, Rabies vaccine.

• Vaccines can be live, attenuated and dead vaccines depending upon the condition of the vaccine being
administered.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Microorganisms Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
Antibiotics
Antibiotics are substances produced by living organisms like fungi which arrest the growth of other organisms. The first
antibiotic in the world was Penicillin produced by the fungi Penicillium notatum. It was discovered in 1940 by Alexander
Fleming.

Probable Questions
1) Which of the following is a multicellular organism

A. Amoeba

B. Paramecium

C. Salmonella typhii

D. Sponges

2) Which of the following is not capable of independent existence

A. Protozoa

B. Fungi

C. Bacteria

D. Virus

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Microorganisms Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
NCERT
Shorts Cell Structure and Its Functions
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

What is a Cell?
A cell is defined as the basic unit of life which is instrumental for carrying out all the basic life processes. Robert Hooke
discovered cells in the late 17th Century.

Characteristics of Cells
Following are the various essential characteristics of cells

• Presence of membrane bound cell organelles which performs specialised functions.

• Based on whether there are membrane bound cell organelles or not, cells are of two types- prokaryotic cell and
eukaryotic cell. Prokaryotic cells do not contain membrane bound cell organelles whereas eukaryotic cells contain
them.

• Cells are of two types- plant and animal cell. Plant cells have cell wall and vacuoles while animal cells lack them.
Animal cells have centrioles whereas plant cells do not.

• The organisms are of two types depending upon the number of cells in them. Unicellular organisms contain only
one cell whereas multicellular organisms contain more than one cell.

Animal Cell
Source : NCERT Source : NCERT

Cell Membrane
• The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances in and out of the cells.
The cell membrane is present in all the cells.

• It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its surroundings.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Cell Structure and Its Functions Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
 Source :
Plasma Membrane

Cell Wall
• The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and
pectin.

• The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and other cellular components.
The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.

• It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.

• It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and injuries.

Cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.

• Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.

• The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are suspended in this
cytoplasm.

Nucleus
• The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.

• It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.

• The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest of the cell.

• The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Cell Structure and Its Functions Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
Nucleolus
• Nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. It plays an active role in cellular respiration too.

Nuclear Membrane
• The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a barrier between nucleus and other cell organelles.

Chromosomes
• Chromosome helps in determining the sex of an individual. The human body contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are non membrane bound cell organelles that help in synthesis of Proteins. They are non membrane
bound.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
• The Endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the cell. The other important
functions include synthesis of ribosomes, lipids and steroids.

Golgi Bodies
• Golgi bodies perform the role of packaging and transportation of materials within the cells.

Mitochondria
• Mitochondria is one of the most important organelles present in a cell. It is involved in generating energy present in
the cell in the form of ATP. Hence it is known as the powerhouse of the cell.

Lysosomes
• Lysosomes help in digesting the foreign bodies that enter the cell and thus help in renewal of the cell and its
contents. Hence they are called suicide bags.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Cell Structure and Its Functions Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
Chloroplast
• Chloroplasts are the primary cell organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the chlorophyll pigment having
magnesium as its central element.

Vacuoles
• Vacuoles exclusively belong to plant cells. They help in storage of water, nutrients and other waste materials in the
cell.

Centrioles
• Centrioles are found in animal cells. They help in cell division.

Cell Theory
Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden, and Rudolf Virchow.
The cell theory states that are

• All living species are composed of cells and

• All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Probable Questions
1) Which of the following are attacked by Viruses

A. Plants

B. Animals

C. Microorganisms

D. All of the above

2) Which of the following statements are true

A. Every cell has ribosomes.

B. Plant cells have centrioles.

C. Animal cells have vacuoles.

D. Animal cells have cell wall.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Cell Structure and Its Functions Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
NCERT
Shorts Reproduction in Animals
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

What is meant by Reproduction?

• Reproduction refers to the process of generation of offspring from parents. Reproduction is essential for the
continuation of a species. Reproduction is very important as it ensures the continuation of similar kinds of
individuals, generation after generation.

Modes of Reproduction
They are two types of reproduction namely asexual and sexual reproduction.

• Sexual Reproduction: The type of reproduction beginning from the fusion of male and female gametes is called
sexual reproduction. It takes place in all higher animals.

• Asexual Reproduction: The type of reproduction where there is only one parent involved and there is no
production of gametes is called asexual reproduction. Microorganisms like amoeba, paramecium and bacteria
adopt this mode of reproduction. Budding in yeast and binary fission in amoeba are the two most important forms
of asexual reproduction.

Source : NCERT

Binary Fission in Amoeba

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Reproduction in Animals Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
Fertilisation
The first step in the process of reproduction is the fusion of a sperm and an ovum called fertilisation. During
fertilisation, the nuclei of the sperm and the egg fuse to form a single nucleus. This results in the formation of a
fertilised egg or zygote. The new individual inherits characteristics from father and mother. Fertilisation which takes
place inside the female body is called internal fertilisation. Internal fertilisation occurs in many animals such as
humans, cows, dogs and hens. The type of fertilisation in which the fusion of a male and a female gamete takes place
outside the body of the female is called external fertilisation. It is very common in aquatic animals such as fish, starfish
and frogs.

Development of Embryo
The zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells. The cells then begin to form groups that develop into
different tissues and organs of the body. This developing structure is termed an embryo. The embryo gets embedded in
the wall of the uterus for further development. It gradually develops other body parts. The stage of the embryo in which
all the body parts can be identified is called a foetus.

Source : NCERT

Development of Embryo

Viviparous and Oviparous Animals

The animals which give birth to young ones are called viviparous animals while those animals which lay eggs are called
oviparous animals. The examples of viviparous animals include cow, dog and cat. Oviparous animals include hens,
snakes and crows.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Reproduction in Animals Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved
 Probable Questions
1) Which of the following animals follows an asexual mode of reproduction?

A. Earthworm

B. Starfish

C. Sea horse

D. Hydra

2) Which of the following statements are true?

A. Asexual reproduction promotes variation.

B. Sexual reproduction takes place in amoeba.

C. Zygote is a single celled stage.

D. External fertilization takes place in cows.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | Reproduction in Animals Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved