CHAPTER 7

Foundry

7.1 INTRODUCTION
A foundry is a place where castings are produced. Art of metal casting was practiced in
ancient India and China, as early as 5000 years ago. Earlier castings probably were made
in gold, brass, copper, silver and bronze. Various types of tools and equipments are used in
foundry, some of them are:
1. Hand tools
2. Moulding boxes (Flasks)
3. Moulding machines
4. Melting equipment
5. Pouring equipment
Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing processes. In this process, the raw material
is melted by heating. The moulds are prepared to have the shape of finished product. The
molten material which is free flowing fluid is poured in the mould and allowed to solidify.
Generally the mould is broken to obtain the solid product which is called casting.
Production of metal castings is one of basic process of metal working industries. Several
methods have been developed in order to meet requirements of properties, finish,
dimensions, etc. but, the oldest method is that of making sand castings in foundry. This
work consists of making a mould in sand in which molten metal is poured.
Casting is an important manufacturing process because of the distinct advantage of
making it possible to produce intricate shapes of wide range of sizes and having virtually
no directional properties. There have been many developments in this field through ages
and particularly in the last century. However, the basic requirements encountered in each
remain the same.

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7.2 BASIC STEPS IN CASTING PROCESS

In making a casting, the following steps are involved:
1. Moulding
Mould cavity is produced. This cavity must be of desired shape and size which means
due allowances for shrinkage of the solidifying metal must be given. The surface of
the cavity is prepared to reproduce the desired details of finished products. The
material of the mould must be of refractory character to withstand the high
temperature of molten metal. It must not react with molten metal. In the case of sand
moulds, patterns are used for creating mould cavity.
2. Melting of Metal
A suitable means of melting the metal must be available. The melting equipment
must provide an adequate temperature and also produce the molten metal of
satisfactory fluidity and at low cost. Various types of furnaces are used for this purpose.
3. Pouring and Feeding
Means must be provided for pouring the molten metal into the cavity. Any gas or air
present in the mould cavity must escape during pouring. Any gases resulting from
the action of hot metal upon the mould must also find easy escape. This is achieved
by controlling permeability of the mould. The feeding of molten metal into the mould
is achieved by proper design of gating.
4. Solidification
While solidifying most metals shrink therefore the mould cavity should have a
provision for the shrinkage in order to get the right dimensions in the finished product.
The molten metal must be fed even while the solidification and shrinkage takes place.
At the same time the mould cavity must not restrain the shrinkage accompanying
cooling after solidification. This is achieved by designing the mould and the pattern
in a proper way and providing risers to feed during solidification.
5. Removal of Casting
The casting should be removed from the mould with ease. In the case of collapsible
sand moulds this is not a problem but it is a bit tricky in the case of permanent
moulds which have to be designed properly for removal of solidified product.
6. Fettling
After the casting is removed from the mould, certain finishing operations are
performed to remove unwanted portions which are attached to the castings such as
the risers, runners (gating system) or metals picked up from mould. This is done by
means of either hammering, machining or flame cutting and grinding.
Sometimes the casting with some defects have to be remedied. This is so particularly
with heavy castings. This is called salvaging. Heat treatment of the castings may be
necessary for desired properties.
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7. Dust Problem
The majority of casting work takes place in sand moulds and a huge amount of sand
with high refractory qualities has to be handled in the foundry. Silica sand is most
widely used material. Unfortunately the silica dust is a health hazard and leads to
silicosis. So dust control is necessary in foundry. For dust control, the following should
be remembered:
1. Avoid dust forming materials and processes.
2. Provide good ventilation at the work place.
3. Provide facility of extraction of dust locally.
4. Provide facility for collection of dust.
Since in the foundry silica and clays cannot be avoided the plant must be provided
with facilities for extraction. These include a suction through ducts, and dust collectors.
These dust collectors are of different types namely gravitational seperator, inertial
separators, cyclones, filters, scrubbers, precipitators (electrostatic or sonic). The flue
gases coming out of the furnaces may have suspended particles which should be
collected.
8. Environment
The environment of foundry may be fouled by the gases coming out from furnaces.
Their composition largely depends upon the type and quality of fuel. Efficient methods
for removing gases and circulation of air need to be provided. The work area must be
clean and clear of obstruction.

7.2.1 Steps in Producing a Casting

Although, the final product of foundry practice is a well defined product meant for serving
some purpose, the whole process itself is completed by combining several individual processes
which call for expertise in different areas. It has become clear that a casting is first designed
to satisfy certain requirements and various properties of material which will be used as raw
material are considered. The drawing is then made incorporating various allowances. A
pattern is prepared with the help of the drawing. Pattern making requires special skill and
will depend upon which material is used for pattern. The pattern is used to make a mould,
often in sand. The metal is melted in a furnace and molten metal poured in the mould.
After the casting is cooled, it is taken out of mould and cleaned of sand and attachments. If
any machining is specified in drawing, it is performed. The casting is then ready for next
step to be fitted in a machine or used directly. The castings are widely used in manufacturing
of equipment and machines. Examples like cylinder block, machine tool beds, turbine blades,
piston rings, mill rolls, piston, sanitary fittings, liners, wheels, pump housing, valves, water
supply pipes, agricultural machine parts and aircraft engine blades, etc.
The raw material mostly used in casting processes are cast iron, aluminium, brass,
bronze, magnesium, zinc alloys and nickel based super alloys. The other important raw
materials used in casting processes are fuels in furnaces, fluxes for melting, refractories in
furnaces and sand and binding materials for making moulds.
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7.3 CASTING TERMS

In this section, we familiarize with variety of casting terms. Fig. 7.1 shows the cross-section
of a two-part sand mould.

Fig. 7.1 (a) Schematic illustration of a sand mould showing various features
(i) Pattern
It is a duplicate shape of the final casting. The moulding material is packed around
the pattern and the pattern is removed to produce a mould cavity. A pattern may
consist of one or many impressions and would normally be mounted on a board or
plate complete with a runner system. A typical pattern for hollow cylinder is shown
in Fig. 7.1(b).

Fig. 7.1(b) Pattern

(ii) Flask
The flask is the box that contains the moulding aggregate. In other words, it is a
rigid metal or wood frame used to hold the sand of which a mould is formed and
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usually consists of two parts, cope and drag. It is made up of wood for temporary
applications and more generally of metal for long-term use.
(iii) Pattern Layout
It is scaled drawing of a pattern showing its arrangement and structure features.
(iv) Parting Line
The parting line or parting surface is the interface that separates the two halves of
the mould (the cope and the drag).
(v) Cope and Drag
The upper half of flask above the parting line is called cope. The drag refers to the
bottom half of a horizontally parted mould.
(vi) Core
It is used for making hollow cavities in casting.
(vii) Riser
It is a reservior of molten metal provided in the mould so that hot metal can flow back
into the mould cavity, to compensate for any shrinkage that occurs during
solidification.
(viii) Gating System
The portion of the passage through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity.
(ix) Pouring Cup
Pouring cup or pouring basin is the portion of the gating system that initially receives
the molten metal from the pouring vessel and controls its delivery to the rest of the
mould.
(x) Sprue
The channel, usually vertical, that connects the pouring basin with gating system.
(xi) Vent
An opening or passage in a mould or core to facilitate escape of gases when the
mould is being filled.
(xii) Draft
Taper on the vertical sides of a pattern or corebox that permits the withdrawal without
damaging the walls of mould.
(xiii) Laddle
A container used to transfer molten metal from the furnace to the mould.
(xiv) Binder
The bonding agent used as an additive to mould or core sand to impart strength and
plasticity in a “green” or dry state.
(xv) Dowel
A pin of various types used in the parting surface of parted patterns or dies to assist
correct registry.
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7.4 PATTERN
Casting is process in which the molten metal gets solidified into a desired shape in cavity
generally made up of sand (some times these cavities are made of metals and are called
permanent moulds). Sand moulds (cavities) are made each time if a casting is to be produced.
These sand moulds are made with the help of patterns. Thus patterns are tools to produce
a cavity of desired shape. They are a replica of the casting. They are similar in shape but
not identical in size of the product. Sometimes the patterns may be only a part of the whole
casting particularly if the casting is symmetrical around an axis. On occasions a pattern
may be made up for many castings. It may have gating system as its part or it could be
without it. Thus patterns are essentially the means to achieve the castings.
For the best results a pattern must be designed and produced keeping in view the
requirements of not only the casting but also the pattern itself and the overall economy of
the process. This requirement calls for selection of proper material, type of pattern design,
production and its maintenance. [See Fig. 7.1(b)]

7.5 TYPES OF PATTERNS

Basically a pattern is a tool and means to create the collapsible cavity in a mixture of sand
and clay, etc. It has to be removed before metal pouring takes place. Economy demands
that gating be made the part of the pattern. Therefore, ingenuity is needed in achieving
the objective of drawing the pattern out of the cavity without damaging the same and also
to achieve the economy of fast production. Based on these two criteria patterns are classified
as follows:

7.5.1 Single Piece Pattern

These are simplest type of pattern and consist of a single piece. The withdrawal problem is
solved by choosing the right parting line. Obviously only very simple castings can be
produced by this type as shown in Fig. 7.2.

Fig. 7.2
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7.5.2 Split Pattern

When the shape of the casting makes it difficult to withdraw the pattern out of the mould,
or when the depth of the casting is more, the pattern may be made in two parts. Pattern for
a hollow cylinder made in two half cylingers is shown in Fig. 7.3(a). A dovel pin is used for
alignment. One of the parts is in the drag and other in cope. For creating hollow in the
cylinder a core is placed in cavity produced by the pattern. Core is made to have the same
shape as the pattern but of smaller diameter. The half difference of diameters of pattern
and core is the thickness of hollow cylinder. Core is prepared in core sand in a split core box
as shown in Fig. 7.3(b). It is supported in impressions created by core prints which are
pants of the split pattern. A pattern that can be used for making mould for hollow cylinder
is shown in Fig. 7.1(b).

Two halves of split pattern Split pattern placed in mould

Fig. 7.3 (a) Split pettern

Fig. 7.3 (b) Split core Box

7.5.3 Loose Piece Pattern

Sometimes the projections in the casting may be such that making a split pattern becomes
difficult, then certain pieces which form the part of the pattern are made such that they
may be removed in pieces after withdrawing the main body of the pattern as shown in
Fig. 7.4. These patterns cannot be used for mass production and there is a greater chance
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of losing some parts of the pattern if not stored properly. The required cavity shape is
shown in Fig. 7.4(a) which is obtained by a pattern as shown in Fig. 7.4(b) and lose pieces
A and B. The Figs. 7.4(c) and (d) further explain the use of loose prices.

Fig. 7.4 Loose piece pother

7.5.4 Match Plate Pattern

Match plate pattern are used where large quantities of castings are produced. In these
patterns cope and drag sections are fastened to the opposite sides of a wood or metal plate
which is called a match plate as shown in Fig. 7.5(a). The match plate has the holes and
bushings for alignment with the mould box. This serves to eliminate the cutting of the
gates and runner by hand The mould in the box is seen in Fig. 7.5(b). Thus skilled worker
may not be needed. Coreprints are also provided whenever needed.

Fig. 7.5 Match plate pattern

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7.5.5 Cope and Drag Pattern

It is an extension of match plate pattern. It is convenient to have cope and drag halves of
split pattern attached to two separate match plate instead of being attached to the opposite
sides of the single plate. Thus by this procedure two separate workman may work
simultaneously. Such patterns are called cope and drag pattern. They are useful when the
castings are large and too bulky to handle easily with a single plate as shown in Fig. 7.6.

Fig. 7.6 Cope and Drag Pattern

7.5.6 Follow Board Pattern

This type of patterns are used for the castings where some portions are structurally weak
and are likely to break while ramming if not supported. Hence bottom board is modified on a
follow board to closely fit the contour of the weak patterns as a support as shown in Fig. 7.7.
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Fig. 7.7 Follow Board Pattern

7.5.7 Sweep Patterns

For larger castings which are symmetrical around the axis a plane sweep may be used to
generate the shape as shown in Fig. 7.8. This greatly reduces the cost of a full three-
dimensional pattern. Well shapes, etc. are the examples of this type of pattern.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 7.8 Sweep Patterns
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7.5.8 Skeleton Pattern

When there is no axis of symmetry in a large casting the skeleton of the pattern may be
made in strips of wood as shown in Fig. 7.9. Then the mould may be made by packing sand
around this skeleton. This type of pattern is generally used for very large castings required
in very small numbers.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 7.9 Skeleton Pattern

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7.6 DESIGN OF PATTERN

A pattern must be able to produce required dimensions of cast product. The good surface
finish of pattern does not allow the sand to stick on its surface and thus damage to mould
surface, can be avoided when pattern is withdrawn. The commonly used material for pattern
is wood. However, any other material may be used for good reasons. The choice of parting
surface should be made carefully after considering moulding and metal flow. The larger
portion of pattern in drag is found to produce better casting. Simple, small casting may
have symmetry about parting surface. The pattern should have smooth and gradual changes
in sections. The core prints should be located properly. It is preferable to have gating built
in pattern.
Since the pattern prepares the cavity, in which molten metal is fed through gates and
runners, gets solidified there and any fault in gates and runners may lead to defects in
casting. In order to get the good casting the design of pattern should be proper and for this
the following must be kept in mind:

1. It is the accuracy of the dimension of the cast product which is important. Therefore,
pattern must be such that the cast product obtained from the mould meets this
requirement. The contraction of the metal and any machining allowance must be
accounted for. The pattern must not only have accurate dimension but must also
carry necessary allowances.
2. Patterns must possess good surface finish. This is to avoid the sticking of sand to its
surface while moulding and pulling it out of the cavity. Bad surface finish may damage
the mould surfaces.
3. Proper material selection must be made as per the need. This requires the consideration
of volume of production, type of moulds, etc.
4. Choice of parting surface must be correct. It is observed that the greater portion of
the pattern must remain in the drag for good castings. However, the parting surface
should be such that it facilities in moulding.
5. Besides the above the following other consideration are important for proper moulding
and other strength:
(i) Sharp edges and corners should not be allowed on the pattern.
(ii) Changes in section should be smooth, gradual and uniform.
(iii) Jointed cores for uniform holes must be avoided in order to avoid mismatch of
axis in the casting.
(iv) Core prints which have to be provided with the pattern should be located properly
and should be strong enough.
(v) Preferably the runners and gates should form part of the pattern.
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7.7 PATTERN ALLOWANCES

Various allowance given on pattern while designing the pattern are as follows:
1. The pattern used to make mould cavity, into which metal is to be cast, must be
somewhat different in shape and size from the part to be produced. These intentional
differences which are incorporated in the pattern are called pattern allowances.
2. Shrinkage allowance is provided to compensate for the natural decrease in size that
occurs in all metals as they solidify and cool. The patterns are made slightly larger
than the desired dimensions of the castings so that the mould cavity will also be
larger but the castings after shrinkage during cooling will be of the correct size.
3. Draft is taper that must be provided on pattern so as to make it possible to remove it
from the sand after it has been packed firmly around the pattern. Every mould must
be made in at least two parts so that it may be opened to allow the pattern to be
removed. The surface of the sand in each mould section where it fits against the sand
of the other section is called the parting line. Draft must be unidirectional with respect
to the parting line. Some shapes provide their own draft, a hemisphere requires no
draft. Draft should always be held to the minimum that will permit satisfactory pattern
removal from the mould since the excess metal which results must often be removed
by machining.
4. Finish allowance must also be included on pattern on those surfaces which are to be
machined. The surface of sand castings are somewhat rough and may contain small
indentations where small bits of sand may have been washed loose from the mould
surface or where small amounts of air or gas have been entrapped. Thus to obtain
the desired smooth surface the rough exterior metal must be machined away. This
necessitates providing an excess amount of metal that can be removed to obtain the
finished surface.
5. Another allowance which sometimes must be considered is called shape or rap
allowance. In order to facilitate removal of the pattern, it sometimes is rapped or
struck lightly, usually perpendicular to the direction of withdrawal, in order to free it
from the sand. This enlarges the mould cavity slightly. When allowance is provided
for rapping it is subtracted from the pattern dimensions.

7.8 SAND CASTING

There are six steps in this process:
1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mould.
2. Incorporate a gating system.
3. Remove the pattern.
4. Fill the mould cavity with molten metal.
5. Allow the metal to cool.
6. Break away the sand mould and remove the casting.
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The accuracy of the casting is limited by the type of sand and the moulding process.
Sand castings made from coarse green sand impart a rough texture on the surface of the
casting, and this makes them easy to identify. Air-set moulds can produce castings with
much smoother surfaces. Surfaces can also be ground and polished. The casting is covered
in a residue of oxides, silicates and other compounds. This residue can be removed by
various means, such as grinding, or shot blasting.
During casting, some of the components of the sand mixture are lost. Green sand can
be reused after adjusting its composition to replenish the lost moisture and additives. The
pattern itself can be reused several times to produce new sand moulds. The sand moulding
process has been used for many centuries to produce castings manually. Since 1950, partially
automated casting processes have been developed for production lines.

7.9 TYPE OF SANDS

The moulding materials (sand) used in the foundry industry for the preparation of moulds
and cores can be broadly classified in the following groups:

7.9.1 Natural Moulding Sands

These sands as they occur in nature, contain appreciable amounts of clay which act as a
bond between the sand grains. Natural moulding sand possess strength, plasticity and
refractoriness to varying extent depending upon the clay and minerals present. These
sands are usually processed by crushing and milling soft yellow sandstones, etc. It is
necessary to blend the natural moulding sands with river sand or dune sand which are
relatively clay free to get the optimum properties desired in the sand mixture.

7.9.2 Bank Sand including Dune Sands

These sands contain low percentages of clay grade matter and are obtained from river
beds, sea coasts and dunes. These are chiefly used for blending natural moulding sands,
for increasing the permeability and reducing the strength of the sand mixtures and also for
core making with necessary binders.

7.9.3 High Silica Sands

Sands of this group are usually high in silica and contain very little clay usually less than
2%. Alkalies, calcium and magnesium oxides, iron oxides and alumina are considered as
impurities. These are usually processed from loosely consolidated deposits of sedimentary
origin from dunes blown inland from the coast, from accumulated deposits in estuaries and
rivers and those of recent geological origin.
High silica sand may also be produced artificially crushing quartzitic sandstones with
subsequent washing and grading to yield a sand with grade of requisite grain distribution.
High silica sands by virtue of their being free from impurities are highly refractory and
therefore find wide application in silica foundry practices.
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7.9.4 Special Sands

Although silica sand which has been traditional mould material serves its purpose, well in
the foundry, similar properties can be provided to a greater or lesser extent by other materials
in sand forms.
(i) Zircon Sand: Zircon sand is chemical compound, zirconium silicate (ZrSiO4). It
is creamy coloured sand. A characteristic feature of zircon sand is the chemical
inertness as it does not wet easily or react with molten metal, thus does not burn
on the castings. The heat conductivity of zircon sand is also high which is almost
twice that of silica sand.
(ii) Olivine Sand: It is chemically an orthosilicate of magnesium and iron, occurring
in nature as forsterite and fayalite. The sand possesses the desirable attribute of
being free of any silicoses hazard. It does not allow casting defects such as scabs
and rat tails due to its low expansion characteristics.
(iii) Carbon Sands: Some early experimental work was done with a high grade
foundry coke ground and screened to produce a carbon sand. It possesses good
physical properties and prevents break down due to thermal factors. Both
expansion and contraction are low.
(iv) Mullite Sand: These sands are essentially aluminium silicate. These are excellent
refractory materials and exhibit low expansion characteristics. The cost of mullite
as a moulding sand aggregate is very high and hence not popular.

7.9.5 Bonding Clays

Since resources of good quality natural moulding sands are anywhere limited there is an
increasing emphasis on the development of synthetic moulding sands for which binding
clays like bentonite and fullers earth are required.

7.10 SAND PREPARATION

The important step in the preparation of sand is mixing of its various ingredients, ensuring
uniform distribution of the various components in the entire bulk of sand. During the
mixing process any lump present in sand is broken up and clay is uniformly enveloped
around the sand grains and moisture is uniformly distributed. Besides manual mixing,
equipments called mullers are normally used in foundry to mix the sands.
Basically sand preparation consists of mixing of sand, tempering of sand and conditioning
of sand. Following are steps in sand preparation.
1. To develop optimal properties in moulding sand.
2. To obtain even distribution of sand grains through out the mass for adequate coating
of colloidal clay on each sand particle.
3. To add adequate amount of water to activate the clay and other material, to act as
binders.
4. To remove foreign matter from moulding sand.
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7.11 CORE AND CORE MAKING

Remember that core was mentioned many times as shown in Fig. 7.1, 7.3 and 7.6. Many
castings contain hollow or re-entrant sections. In order to produce such castings it is
necessary to use cores. The belt pulley requires a shaft hole through it. This may be produced
in several ways. The pulley could be cast solid and the hole produced by machining. If it
were made in this manner a considerable amount of expensive machining would be required
and quite a bit of metal would be wasted. Therefore, it is more economical to cast the pulley
with a hole in it of the approximate size desired. It can be achieved by placing a cylinder at
the centre of the mould. It will have to be properly supported. So the cylinder of sand which
passes into the hole in the pattern is called core. Though core making is similar to moulding,
the core must be strong enough to stand on its own, as it is supported only at ends.
Cores are made in dry sand. Dry sand cores are prepared by mixing sand with a binder,
such as linseed oil, resins, or silicate of soda and packing it into a core box. The core box is
made of wood or metal with a cavity of desired shape, being analogous to the mould in
which a casting is made. See Fig. 7.3(b)
If linseed oil is used as the binder, the core is baked in an oven at 125°C to 230°C. The
baking time is primarily a function of size of the core. Either batch type or continuous
ovens may be used. When plastic resins are used as binders the curing may be done in a
regular oven or by dielectric heating. The later method is used for small cores to be dried in
less than a minute. An additional advantage is that these cores breakdown at low
temperatures, thus making them particularly suitable for use with lower melting non-
ferrous metals and alloys.

7.11.1 Core Boxes

In designing the core boxes, the strength of the core must be considered. Before the baking
process, core is generally weak and should be well supported. If the core is simple and
strong in itself, no special precaution is required. But for slender and complicated cores it
may be necessary to place the core in the core box during the baking process as shown in
Fig. 7.10. Only small cores can be baked in core box.

Fig. 7.10 Core Box

 FOUNDRY 109
If a core is symmetrical, then it can be made into two equal parts and then assembled
together by adhesives or fastened by wires. When very large cores are to be joined it may
be necessary to use nuts and bolts. The bolt holes are generally covered with a core plug.

7.11.2 Core Prints

The core prints are provided so that the cores are secure and correctly positioned in the
mould cavity. The design of core prints is such as to take care of the weight of the core
before pouring and the upward metallostatic pressure of the molten metal after pouring.
The core prints should also ensure that the core is not shifted during the entry of the metal
into the mould cavity as shown in Fig. 7.11.

Fig. 7.11 Core with core prints and mould

7.11.3 Core Venting

Small cores ordinarily have sufficient strength after baking to withstand the lifting force
caused by molten metal. For iron castings this lifting force will be about four times the
weight of a core. Certain cores and slender portions of cores may be strengthened by
imbedding wires, rods or arbors within the core sections. An arbor is a skeleton frame like
structure made of cast iron or steel. Arbors will provide the greatest support. Arbors and
core rods are also helpful in the lifting, moving and setting of cores.
Cores must be adequately vented, especially if they are largely surrounded by molten
metal. Heat from the metal will create steam and other gasses from core binders. These
gases must be vented out through core prints in order to prevent casting defects called
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“blows”. Before pasting two core halves together, adequate channels may be scratched into
a surface which will be at the interior of core. Large cores may be made hollow to help
proper venting.

7.11.4 Core Baking

After cores are made and placed on core plates or in core dryers, they are conveyed to the
oven for baking. The baking drives off moisture and hardens core binders. Core sands are
relatively poor conductors of heat, with the result that heat penetrates slowly from the
surfaces into the interior of cores. In cores having both thick and thin sections, there is a
danger of overbaking thin sections while thoroughly baking thicker sections. When a core
is overbaked heat burns out or destroys the binder and the core may become a mere heap
of loose sand. A large core may overbake on its surface before its interior is baked, especially
if the oven temperature is too high. Cores which are not thoroughly baked will create an
excess of gas and there can be blows in castings.

7.12 MOULD ASSEMBLY

Assembly of mould is an important process which requires assemblers to apply much care
and skill. Mould assembly involves a cycle of operations which include preparing half mould
and cores for assembly setting in cores, checking the position of cores, closing the mould
and fastening the core to the drag. The half moulds and cores delivered to the assembly are
thoroughly examined for the damage, if any. Before assembly the mould cavity is blown off
by an air jet to eject loose sand particles. Cores are set into moulds in the sequence specified
in the assembly drawing. In performing this operation, one must take care that the core
prints of cores are seated correctly in the impressions. Cores are usually set in the drag and
secured in position with core prints, but sometimes they are fastened to the cope.

7.13 CORE ASSEMBLY

Core assembly means joining of two or more core pieces together before they can be used by
the help of pasting, bolting or leading.
(i) Core Paste: The pasting is commonly used for small work, which can be applied
over the core with the help of finger or by brushing. A core paste may be formed out
of talc, dextrain, molasses, flour, water, etc.
(ii) Bolting: The bolting is useful in large core work. The recessed holes are left in the
cores so that they may be bolted together. Nuts and bolts are covered with mud after
joining the core parts.
(iii) Leading: Leading is used where a strong joint is desired in small cores. Leading is
the process of joining core parts with molten lead. Lead on freezing forms a strong
joint.

7.14 MOULDING METHODS

The various methods are used for making the mould are as follows:
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7.14.1 Bench Moulding

This type of moulding is used for small casting. Bench moulding is done on a bench of
convenient height to the moulder. Both green and dry sand moulding are done on a bench.
In this hand ramming with loose pattern is employeed which is slow and laborious method.

7.14.2 Floor Moulding

The moulding carried out on the foundry floor is known as floor moulding. It can be used
when, the mould is large and moulding can not be carried out on a bench. Both green and
dry sand moulding operations are carried out on the floor by this processes.

7.14.3 Pit Moulding

In pit moulding, done in a pit, the floor serves as drag. The mould in the pit is often not as
tightly rammed as in cope and drag where an odd side is available to resist the blows. The
moulds are often made without the help of pattern or only part patterns are used. To
increase the plasticity of sand in pit moulds it is mixed with additional ingradients like
clayey sand or loam. Bricks and iron plates are used to build the structure of the mould on
which the wet loam is daubed to obtain desired shape. The mould is thoroughly dried
before pouring. Very heavy castings for which cost of pattern may be prohibitive are made
in such pit moulds.

7.14.4 Machine Moulding

The moulding done by a machine is known as machine moulding. These machines provide
various mechanism for preparation of sand mould, which are performed by the moulder by
hand. The various functions performed by moulding machines are:
(i) Ramming of sand.
(ii) Rolling the mould over.
(iii) Forming the gate and drawing out of pattern can be done by these machines in
much better way.

7.15 GATING SYSTEM

The gating system (also called runner system) refers to all those elements which are
connected with the flow of molten metal from the ladle to the mould cavity. The objective is
to introduce metal smoothly and without turbulence into mould cavity. The various elements
that are connected with a gating system are:
1. Pouring Basin: Molten metal is poured into a pouring basin which is at the top of
cope and acts as a reservoir from which metal moves smoothly into sprue.
2. Sprue: A vertical passage that takes molten metal to runner. It is also called down
gate and is tapered downward to allow the effect of gravity and keep volume flow
rate constant. It is cut on the face of cope and drag. Its cross-section is larger than
that of sprue and all in gates.
112 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

Fig. 7.12 Gating System

3. Sprue Base Well: Holds some molten metal, at the bottom end of sprue.
4. Runner: Horizontal passage that takes molten metal to ingates. It is normally at the
level of parting line.
5. Runner Extension: It is the extension of runner beyond last gate.
6. Ingate: In gates are the passages that connect runner to cavity.
7. Riser: A vertical hollow tube in which molten metal rises after cavity has been filled.
Any gating system designed should aim at providing a defect free casting. Gating system
is shown in Fig. 7.12. You may also see Fig. 7.6. The metal flow can also be manipulated by
placing a filter at the junction of runner and in gates or at the junction of sprue and
runner.
The desirable objectives of gating system are summarized below.
(i) Allow the metal to flow rapidly and fill the mould quickly.
(ii) Allow the metal to flow with a minimum of turbulence, particularly into the cavity.
(iii) Not to allow the aspiration of gases.
(iv) Induce solidification at the centre with progressive solidification towards the risers.
(v) Not to cause damage to the surface of the cavity. Too rapid flow of metal may cause
loose sand particles to be entrapped in the metal.
Sprue holes adequate in size, decreasing in size towards the bottom prevent aspiration.
To have all these requirement together is a tall order still mould designer should try to
achieve as many of the above objectives as possible.
 FOUNDRY 113

7.16 GATES
These are the openings through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity. These are
also called ingates. The shape and cross-section of the ingate should be such that it can
readily be broken off after casting solidifies and also that it allows the metal enter quietly
into the mould cavity. Following are the different types of gates used in casting design.
1. Top Gate: This is the type of gating through which the molten metal enters the
mould cavity from the top. Since the first metal entering the gate reaches the bottom
and hotter metal is at the top, a favourable temperature gradient towards the gate is
achieved. Also the mould is filled very quickly. But as the metal falls directly into the
mould cavity through a height, it is likely to cause mould erosion and turbulence in
the mould cavity. It may form dross and as such top gate is not advisable for those
materials which are likely to form excessive dross. It is suitable only for simple castings
shapes which are essentially shallow in nature as shown in Fig. 7.13.

Fig. 7.13 Top Gating

2. Bottom Gate: When molten metal enters the mould cavity slowly it would not cause
any mould erosion. Bottom gate is generally used for very deep moulds as shown in
Fig. 7.14. It takes some what longer time for filling of the mould and also generates
a very unfavourable temperature gradient.

Fig. 7.14 Bottom Gating

 114 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

3. Porting Gate: This is the most widely used gate in sand castings as shown in
Fig. 7.15. The metal enters the mould at the parting plane when part of the casting
is in the cope and part in the drag. This type of gating tries to derive the best of both
types of gates, viz. top and bottom gates. Of all the gates, this is also easiest and most
economical to make.

Fig. 7.15 Porting Gating

4. Step Gate: Such gates are used for large and heavy castings. The molten metal
enters mould cavity through a number of ingates which are arranged in vertical
steps. The size of ingates are normally increased from top to bottom such that metal
enters the mould cavity from the bottom most gate and then progressively moves to
higher gates. This ensures a gradual filling of the mould without any mould erosion
and produce a sound casting. Step gating is shown in Fig. 7.16.

Fig. 7.16 Step Gating

7.17 RISER
The function of a riser is to feed the casting during solidification so that no shrinkage cavities
are formed. Risers also provide access to any sand particles and oxidation products (slag)
from mould cavity. The requirement of risers depends to a great extent upon the type of
metal poured and the complexity of the castings. The risers are usually vertical holes to the
 FOUNDRY 115
top surface of the mould in which the molten metal may rise and are of sufficient size so that
the molten metal contained in them will remain molten until that in the casting has solidified
and gone through its period of most severe shrinkage. A riser is shown in Fig. 7.17.

Fig. 7.17

7.18 TYPES OF RISER

The following are the different types of risers used in casting design.

7.18.1 Open Riser

An open riser has its upper surface open to the atmosphere and it should preferably be
cylindrical in order to have a minimum of surface area in contact with the mould as shown
in Fig. 7.18. The height of an open riser should be equal to its diameter. The top of a riser
should not be allowed to freeze prematurely thereby preventing atmospheric pressure from
exerting a force on the molten feed metal. Exothermic materials may also be mixed with
moulding sand, which is placed around the sides of risers.

Fig. 7.18 Open Riser

116 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

7.18.2 Blind Riser

Blind risers are rounded cavities in the mould, completely surrounded by moulding sand. It
is possible to place blind risers near the bottom of mould, where they cannot extend up
through the cope as shown in Fig. 7.19. Alternatively a blind riser be placed on the top or
on the side of casting, depending upon the section to be fed and this has to be removed from
the castings.

Fig. 7.19 Blind Riser

7.19 RUNNERS
Runner connects the sprue to ingates, thus letting the metal enter the mould cavity. The
runner is generally horizontal passage.
The runner is generally used in large casting. It receives the molten metal from the
sprue base and distributes the same to casting through gates as shown in Fig. 7.20.

Fig. 7.20
 FOUNDRY 117
The runners are normally made trapezoidal in cross-section and may be located either
in the cope or drag part of the mould. It is advantageous to keep the runner in the cope part
where it also works as the riser. In aluminium and magnesium castings a runner is used in
the drag, because in such metals the sand sinks and it helps in catching loose sand particles.
Runners are often extended beyond gates. In such cases first impurities and sand particles
moving ahead of liquid metal are trapped there and do not enter the casting.

7.20 MELTING FURNACES

The melting is yet another factor which controls the quality of the casting. There are a
number of methods available for melting foundry alloys such as pit furnace, open hearth
furnace, rotary furnace, cupola furnace, etc. The choice of the furnace depends on the
amount and type of alloys being melted. All furnaces should have a refractory wall structure
or boundary which contains the high temperature region. Different type of furnaces are
described below.

7.20.1 Crucible Furnaces

These furnaces are used principally for the melting of non-ferrous metals. Earlier they
have been used for the melting and making of steels. The metal is placed in a refractory
cup shaped container known as a crucible. Crucibles are made of silicon carbide, graphite
or other refractory materials. These furnaces may be either tilting or stationary. Crucible
furnaces ordinarily burn gas or oil. A blower provides primary air for the combustion and
by adjusting the fuel air ratio, the flame may become either oxidizing or reducing. Secondary
air for the flame comes from the surrounding atmosphere at the flame. Crucible furnaces
rarely reach thermal efficiencies above 10%. The molten metal is poured in a heated ladle
(otherwise temperature of molten metal will drop) and taken to mould for pouring.

7.20.2 Open Hearth Furnaces

The principal use for open hearth furnaces is in making large quantities of steel. An open
hearth furnace has a long, shallow basin called the ‘hearth’. The hearth is lined with silica
firebrick or with dolomite. Heat is supplied by burning a fuel, usually gaseous, above the
hearth. The hot gases pass over the hearth. As they pass out to the stack, these hot gases
give up much of their remaining heat to checkerwork of firebrick. Incoming air and gaseous
fuel are preheated as they pass through the checker work of firebrick at the opposite end.
After every 20 minutes the flow of these gases is reversed. This enables the high temperature
necessary for melting steel to be obtained and also saves fuel. This type of furnace is also
known as ‘reverberatory type furnace’.

7.20.3 Air Furnaces

The air furnace is similar to an open hearth furnace but it differs in many aspects. It is
much smaller in capacity. It has no regenerative equipment and receives its charge through
openings in the top. These furnaces usually are fired either with pulverized coal or liquid
118 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

fuel. Since the molten metal is covered with a slag, it is not in direct contact with the
combustion flames and gases so the chemical composition can be controlled and a high
quality product obtained. In this furnace it is easy to control the rate of heating and the
temperature of the metal. The initial and operating costs of the air furnace are higher than
those of the Cupola.

7.20.4 Electric Arc Furnaces

There are two types of electric arc furnaces:
1. Electric Direct Arc Furnaces: The electric direct arc furnaces have acid linings.
For charging, the roof lifts off and swings clear of the furnace, while the charge is
placed on the hearth. Usually three phase electric circuit is used. Heat is created by
electric arcs obtained between the electrodes and the metal charge. The electric current
from any one of the electrodes arcs to the metal charge, flows through the charge
and arcs back to one of the other electrodes. The temperature at the three arcs produced
are about 6000°C.
Electric direct arc furnaces have several important advantages. The electric arc is a
source of pure heat without any contamination from elements in fuels, and the rate
of heat application can be closely controlled. Thermal efficiency is about 70%.
2. Electric Indirect Arc Furnaces: The indirect arc furnaces differ from the direct
arc type in that the arc is formed between two graphite electrodes, and no electric
current passes through the metal charge. The furnace is shaped like a barrel and
mounted on rollers. The rollers allow the furnace to rock during the melting, so the
metal will obtain additional heat from the side walls. The two electrodes are introduced
through the two opposite ends of the furnace and project to near the centre where
the arc is formed. Heat from the arc is radiated to the charge and walls of the furnace.
The temperatures obtained may not be as high as those obtained with direct arc
furnaces but cast iron and non-ferrous metals can be readily melted.
(Note that these furnaces were described in Chapter 5 and shown in Fig. 5.2 and 5.3)

7.20.5 Induction Furances

The induction furnaces are of two types:
1. High Frequency Type: The high frequency type consists of a crucible surrounded
by a coil of copper tubing. When a high frequency electrical current is passed through
the copper coil a rapidly alternating magnetic field is established which induces
secondary currents in the metal contained in the crucible. These secondary currents
heat the metal very rapidly. Cooling water is passed through the copper tubing.
Since there is no contamination from the heat source, very pure molten metal can be
melted at one time. Also because of very short melting time, fairly high productivity
can be obtained (See Fig. 5.4).
2. Low Frequency Type: Low frequency induction furnaces are also used particularly
in connection with die castings. This type of furnaces consists of a primary coil with
 FOUNDRY 119
a loop of molten metal acting as the secondary coil. The high amperage current
provides the desired heating. Furnaces of this type require molten metal in order to
slant them operating but the temperature can be controlled readily so that they are
useful as holding furnaces where it is desired to maintain molten metal at a constant
temperature for an extended period of time as in die casting machines.

7.21 CUPOLA
Cupola is a blast furnace. A type of cupola in its simple form is shown in Fig. 7.21. It is
made in boiler plate shell, erected on another steel plate which is supported on brick structure
(platform). The shell is built with firebricks. The iron base is covered with fireclay sloping
in the direction of tap hole. The tap hole ends in a channel which allows the metal to flow

Fig. 7.21 Cupola Furnace

 120 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

into the ladle. The cupola is often built outside the foundry and the channel passes through
the wall. An opening opposite to the tap hole is made through which the furnace is fired. It
can be covered with a steel plate after fire is made. This hole is also used for cleaning the
furnace before each fire. The tuyeres carry the air blast from bottom where blowers are
placed. The materials are fed in the furnace through a charging hole which is slightly
above the charging platform at about half the height of cupola structure. After the small
fire is created coke is added and the furnace is fired. The charge of iron is made together
with fluxing material. It is followed by layers of coke and iron. The coke weight may vary
from 1/15 to 2/10 of metal weight. The tap hole is lined with fireclay 2 to 3 hours before
starting fire. The blast is allowed in the furnace after closing the charging door. At this
stage the tap hole is blocked by clay stopper. It takes about 15 to 20 minutes for molten
material to begin to run down and can be seen through a mica window. When metal has
collected, the clay plug at the tap hole is broken and the metal allowed to flow. As the flow
continues additional charge of coke, metal and flux is made. The metal from cupola is often
collected in ladles which are lined with fireclay. Ladles are taken to moulding and metal
poured. The ladles are kept heated before receiving metal and molten metal is covered with
coal dust or charcoal for protection from oxidation.
Fig. 7.21 shows the cupola commonly used for melting cast iron. A sheet A stands on a
base plate B which is supported by a brick platform C. The shell is lined with fire bricks D.
Fire is started through opening E and tuyeres F blast the furnace. The pipes G supply air to
tuyeres. Main air supply pipe H is at the bottom. The furnace is charged through door I
from platform K. L is the mica window from which flowing material is observed.

7.22 METAL POURING

For pouring metal into moulds ladles may be used. For very heavy casting the molten
metal (iron in particular) may be taken through a channel from the furnace to the mould
avoiding use of ladles before pouring, however, the surface of the molten metal must be
skimmed to remove any protecting material or impurities thrown out by metal. Pouring of
metal should be continuous and sprue or runner cup at the top of the feed gate must be
kept filled with liquid metal so that it never reaches the mould in driblets. Such driblets
may easily be chilled. Feed gate like runner may also supply the molten metal to the mould
in which the metal may contract on solidification. Thick sections of casting are often connected
to gates from sprues or to the risers.

7.23 FETTLING
It is the process of cleaning of casting obtained after solidification in the mould. The mould
is knocked off. The exterior of casting is brushed with wire brush or shot blasted to remove
sand from skin. Castings which are not delicate may be tumbled in a rattler. Projections
from runners, risers and gates and fins are to be cut away.
They are removed using cold chisel in case of iron, by flame in case of steel or by sawing
in case of non-ferrous casting. Cores are cleaned out by drifts.
 FOUNDRY 121

7.24 CHILLS
Chills are metallic pieces, mainly iron of high melting point placed in moulds to come in
contact of poured metal in the region which is required to be harder than the rest of the
casting. The metal pieces in the mould quickly cool the molten metal and prohibit the
precipitation of free carbon developing high surface hardness. Larger the thickness of the
chill deeper will be the hardened layer.

7.25 CASTING DEFECTS

Like any other manufacturing process the casting can also result in several defects in the
product. Irregularity in moulding process causes defects in casting which can sometimes be
tolerated or sometime eliminated with proper moulding practice or repaired using methods
such as welding and metallization. Following major defects are generally found in casting.
These defects are classified on the basic of origins of the defects:
1. Gas defects.
2. Shrinkage cavities.
3. Moulding material defects.
4. Pouring metal defects.
5. Metallurgical defects.
Before taking up description in order it is imperative to describe the classification of
defects as given by International Committee of Foundry Technical Association.
This classification identifies seven basic defects in casting and also designate a letter for
them.
A. Metallic Projection: Fins, flash, swells and rough surfaces.
B. Cavities: Rounded or rough internal or exposed cavities such as blow holes, pinholes
and shrinkage cavities.
C. Discontinuities: Cracks, cold or hot tearing, cold shuts.
D. Defective Surface: Surface folds, laps, scars, adhering sand layers and oxide scale.
E. Incomplete Casting: Misruns due to premature solidification, insufficient volume
of metal poured and runout due to loss of metal from mould.
F. Incorrect Dimensions or Shapes: May be due to improper shrinkage allowance,
error in pattern mounting, irregular contraction, deformed pattern or warped casting.
Any of these defects may be due to one or more sources as described above. What
follows is a brief but comprehensive description of sources of defects.

7.25.1 Gas Defects

Blow holes, openblows, air inclusions and pinhole porosity are the defects included
in this category. These defects are covered by ICFTA category B of casting defects. If gas is
not allowed to pass through the mould because of poor casting design, lower permeability
of moulding sand, insufficient venting provision in the mould, these defects are created.
 122 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

Finer grain moulding sand is often responsible for lower permeability. Excessive ramming,
higher clayey content and higher moisture in the mould are other reasons for poor
permeability and hence for B-type defects.
Blow holes and openblows are spherical, flattened or elongated cavities present on
the surface or inside the casting. On the surface they are called openblows and inside they
are called blowholes. Moisture of the mould on evaporation enters the casting and if entrapped
leaves blow holes and openblows.
Such porosity as caused by above defects may leave a damaged surface and may also
cause loss of ductility. Some of the surface defects are shown in Fig. 7.22.

Fig. 7.22 Several types of gas defects

Pinhole porosity is caused by hydrogen in molten metal. At higher temperature

particularly in liquid state the metal can dissolve hydrogen but as it solidifies its capacity to
dissolve hydrogen and other gases reduces drastically. Hydrogen while leaving the solidifying
metal leaves very fine and long holes called pinholes. The hydrogen is picked up by molten
metal in the furnace when temperature is very high. Such hydrogen may come from
dissociation of moisture. The molten temperature should not be too high if pinhole porosity
is to be avoided.
The high pouring temperature may be responsible for increased solubility of gases from
the atmosphere in general. The poor gating design having bends and straight sprues may
promote aspiration and thus increase gas absorption.

7.25.2 Shrinkage Cavities

Pourous regions can develop in a casting because of shrinkage of the solidified metal. Thin
sections solidify sooner than the thicker regions. Thicker region develop porosity near their
centres as the surface begins to solidify when inside is still molten. Porosity of micro size
develop due to shrinkage of the dendritic structure. Contraction of metal during solidification
which may be in liquid and solid state as well as due to phase change is the basic reason for
shrinkage.
 FOUNDRY 123

Fig. 7.23 Chills in the casting for avoiding shrinkage porosity

Shrinkage may be reduced or eliminated by various means. Adequate liquid metal

must be provided to avoid cavities due to shrinkage. Internal and external chills used in
sand casting are effective in reducing shrinkage porosity. The chills increase the rate of
solidification in critical region. Internal chills are made of the same material as the casting
and are left in the casting. There may be problems with proper fusion of the internal chills
with the casting. Internal chills are therefore, less preferred. External chills may be made
of the same material or may be iron, copper or graphite. Fig. 7.23 shows the placement and
various type of internal and external chills.
It is worthwhile to mention that some large and odd shaped cores are difficult to support
in core prints. Metal spacers of the same material as casting are used to support such cores.
These metal spacers, called chaplets, finally fuse in the casting.

7.25.3 Moulding Material Defects

Under this category are those defects which are caused because of the characteristics of the
moulding materials. The defects that can be put in this category are cuts and washes,
metal penetration, fusion, run out, rat tails and buckles, swell, and drop. These defects
occur essentially because of improper ramming.
Cuts and Washes: These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are
caused by the erosion of moulding sand by the flowing molten metal. This may be caused
by the moulding sand not having enough strength or the molten metal flowing at high
velocity. The former can be remedied by the proper choice of moulding sand and using
 124 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

appropriate moulding method. The latter can be taken care of by altering the gating design
to reduce the turbulence. Fig. 7.24 shows wash.
Metal Penetration: When the molten metal enters the gaps between the sand grains,
the result would be a rough casting surface. The main reason for this is that, either the
grain size of the sand is too coarse, or no mould wash has been applied to the mould cavity.
This can also be caused by higher pouring temperatures. This belongs to category A of
ICFTA classification.

Fig. 7.24

Fusion: This is caused by the fusion of sand grains with the molten metal, giving a brittle,
glassy appearance on the casting surface. The main reason for this defect is that the clay in the
moulding sand is of lower refractoriness or that the pouring temperature is too high.
Runout: A run is caused when the molten metal leaks out of the mould. This may be
caused either due to faulty mould making or because of the faulty moulding flask.
Rat Tails and Buckles: Rat tail is caused by the compression failure of the skin of the
mould cavity because of the excessive heat in the molten metal. Under the influence of the
heat, the sand expands, thereby moving the mould wall backwards and in the process
when the wall gives way, the casting surface may have a marked small line whose number
may increase. Poor expansion and hot strength properties are the reason. High pouring
temperature may also cause these defects. Buckles are the rat tails which are severe.
Swell: Under the influence of the forces of metal pressure the mould wall may move
back causing a swell in the dimensions of the casting. As a result of the swell, the feeding
requirements of castings increase which should be taken care of by the proper choice of
risering. The main cause of this is the faulty mould making procedure adopted. A proper
ramming of the mould would not permit this defect.
Drop: The dropping of loose moulding and or lumps, normally from the cope surface
into the mould cavity, is responsible for this defect. This is essentially, due to improper
ramming of the cope flask.

7.25.4 Pouring Metal Defects

Cold shut and misrun are (ICFTA category C and E respectively). The defects are due to
pouring metal. A cold shut is caused when two metal stream from opposite directions meet
in the mould cavity but fail to fuse together properly. This may result into discontinuity or
weak spot as shown in Fig. 7.25 (a).
 FOUNDRY 125

Fig. 7.25 Cold shut and misrun

A misrun is caused when the metal does not fill the mould cavity completely as shown
in Fig. 7.25 (b).
For the removal of undesirable oxides and other impurities from the molten metal flux
is added during melting. This forms slag which floats on the surface and must be carefully
removed when the liquid metal is in the ladle before it is poured into mould. If slag is
carried in the mould it will cause slag inclusion resulting in the weakness of casting.

7.25.5 Metallurgical Defects

Hot tears and hot spots are the defects of this type. Due to lower strength of metal at
elevated temperature, any unwanted cooling stress, may cause the cracks in casting as can
be seen in Fig. 7.26. Hot spots are caused by the chilling of the casting. For example with
grey iron casting having small amount of silicon very hard white cast iron may develop at
the chilled surface. Such hot spots are difficult to machine. Hot spots are avoidable through
proper metallurgical control and adequate chilling practice.

Fig. 7.26 Hot tear in casting

126 MANUFACTURING SCIENCE

7. QUESTIONS
1. Describe basic steps in casting processes.
2. Look at the figure below and identify the parts marked.

3. Describe a pattern and its use. What different types of patterns are used?
4. Sand is most important component in casting process. How many types of sand are
used in foundry? How does the sand bind? Describe bonding clays.
5. What is a core? In figure below for casting a bent pipe with two flanges identify items
1, 2, 3 and 4.
FOUNDRY 127
6. Describe different moulding methods. Identify the components of gating system in
figure below.

7. What are different types of gate? Mention if any specific advantage is associated
with any type. What should be the relationship in area of section of gate with that of
runner.
8. How is the metal melted in foundry practice? Describe cupola with the help of a
diagram.
9. Differentiate between the chills and chiplets.
10. Identify the sources of defects in casting. Mention defects under each source.