Linux - 1991, Linus trovald.

Unix in early 1960's and widely available in 1975.

To change root password - passwd

date --set="YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS"

first linux executes init program.

Red hat Linux installer - anaconda.

Disk druid allow us to partition disk.

MBR is executed by BiOS.

w provides current user details.

finger provides user info - full name, terminal name, ideal time for each user in system.

Who provides only the user name, the terminal name, and the login time.

write : sends a message

*FILE SYSTEM IN LINUX*

Ext2, Ext3, and Ext4: These are the most commonly used file systems in Linux. They are
reliable and efficient, and they are well suited for use on hard drives and solid-state drives.

XFS: This is a high-performance file system that is optimized for use on large storage devices.
XFS is often used on large servers and high-performance computing systems.

NTFS: This is a file system developed by Microsoft that is commonly used in Windows. NTFS
can be read and written to by Linux, but it is not as well supported as the other file systems
listed here.

Fat32: This is a file system that was originally developed for use on floppy disks. It is still
commonly used for removable storage devices such as USB drives.

Btrfs: This is a relatively new file system that is designed to be scalable and easy to manage.
Btrfs is still under development, but it is gaining popularity as a choice for use on Linux systems.

The file system that is used on a Linux system will depend on the specific requirements of the
system and the storage device being used
*PATHNAMES*-->
An ABSOLUTE pathname begins with the root directory (/) and includes the complete path to a
file or directory. For example, the absolute pathname for the file /home/user/document.txt is
/home/user/document.txt.

A RELATIVE pathname, on the other hand, is relative to the current working directory. For
example, if the current working directory is /home/user, then the relative pathname for the file
/home/user/document.txt would simply be document.txt.

PWD : used to check the current pathname.

"Rescue mode" in Linux refers to a boot option that is used to recover a system that has
become unbootable or to diagnose and repair various system problems. When a Linux system
is booted into rescue mode, it provides a minimal environment with basic utilities that can be
used to diagnose and repair problems with the system.

ls -l : used to display permissions.

chmod: Changes Access Permissions

ACL stands for Access Control List, and it is a mechanism used in Linux to control access to
files and directories. ACLs provide a way to specify fine-grained permissions for files and
directories, beyond the standard user, group, and others permissions.

'setfacl' command to set the ACLs for a file or directory.

'getfacl' command to view the ACLs for a file or directory.

A shell in Linux is a command-line interface (CLI) that allows users to interact with the operating
system by typing commands and executing scripts. The shell provides a way for users to control
the system, launch applications, manage files and directories, and perform other tasks.

There are several different shells available for Linux, including the Bourne shell (sh), the C shell
(csh), the Korn shell (ksh), the Bourne-Again shell (bash), and others. Each shell provides its
own set of commands and features, but they all perform the basic function of allowing users to
interact with the system.

Bash (Bourne-Again shell) is the default shell in most Linux distributions and is widely used for
both system administration and as a user shell. Bash is a powerful and flexible shell that
provides a rich set of features, including command history, job control, alias and function
definitions, and support for scripting and programming.

Pipes : The shell uses a pipe to connect standard output of one command to standard input of
another command.

Filters : A filter is a command that processes an input stream of data to produce an output
stream of data
Amparsand - used to run command in background.

fg or % - Used for moving JOB to foreground

kill - used to abort a job

builtins : are commands that are built into the shell itself, rather than being separate executable
programs.
E.g:
cd: changes the current working directory
alias: creates an alias for a command or sequence of commands
export: sets an environment variable
source: executes a script in the current shell environment
type: displays information about a command, including whether it is a builtin, an alias, a
function, or an external command
history: displays the history of previously executed commands

Shell script: is a file that holds commands that the shell can execute.

The dirs. Built in displays the contents of the directory stack.

pushd: Pushes a Directory on the Stack When you supply the pushd (push directory) builtin with
one argument, it pushes the directory specified by the argument on the stack, changes
directories to the specified directory, and displays the stack.

popd: Pops a Directory Off the Stack To remove a directory from the stack, use the popd (pop
directory) builtin.

Processes : A process is the execution of a command by the Linux kernel.

Shell variables: shell variables are used to store values that can be used later in the shell
session. They are similar to variables in programming languages and are used to store data that
can be accessed and manipulated later on.
Syntax: variable_name=value

The noclobber option in Linux is a shell feature that prevents redirection from overwriting
existing files.

ps: to check shell name

*, ?, and [ ] in a pathname just as bash does. * matches any string of zero or more characters, ?
matches any single character, [ ] defines a character class, which is used to match single
characters appearing within a pair of brackets.

DHCP Server : The DHCP server maintains a list of IP addresses and other configuration
parameters
fstab: Keeps Track of Filesystems.

fsck: Checks Filesystem Integrity The fsck (filesystem check) utility verifies the integrity of
filesystem .

tune2fs: Changes Filesystem Parameters .

system-config-users: Manages User Accounts.

useradd: Adds a User Account.

groupadd: Adds a Group.

tar: Archives Files .

dump, restore: Back Up and Restore Filesystems

crond and crontab: Schedule Routine Tasks

at: Runs Occasional Tasks Like the cron utility, at allows you to run a job sometime in the
future.

top: Lists Processes Using the Most Resources

Ctrl alt del : reboots system.

displays the kernel ring buffer - dmesg

mkfs : creates a new filesystem on device

ip addr show : show ip address.

vsftpd : ftp service

NFS (Network File System) is a protocol for sharing files between computers over a network in
Linux. An NFS server provides shared files to NFS clients on the network

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a standard network protocol used for transferring files between
computers over a network in Linux. FTP is a client-server protocol, with an FTP client
connecting to an FTP server to transfer files.

Samba: It is is a collection of programs that make it possible to share files and printers between
computers equipped to use the SMB protocol − Windows by default and Linux/Unix with Samba.

• Windows File Server: This package group allows you to share files between Linux and MS
windows system.

• smb.conf: This is the main configuration file for Samba.

• SWAT: It is a web−based interface, which means that you can use it to configure and manage
your Samba server through a web browser − if you want, you can even do it remotely across a
network or even across the Internet.

Web server: web server performs is to display the content of the website, which it does by
storing, then processing, and eventually delivering the webpages to the user who has requested
it.

Apache is an open-source web server that is widely used in Linux. It's known for its stability,
security, and flexibility, and supports a wide range of technologies, including PHP, Perl, and
Python, making it suitable for a variety of web applications.

a daemon is a type of system process that runs in the background and provides services to
other applications. Daemons are typically started at boot time and continue to run until the
system is shut down. They are used to perform a variety of tasks, such as managing network
services, logging system events, managing printers, and many other functions.

Hard link:

Creates a new directory entry that points to the same inode as the original file.
Both the hard link and the original file share the same data blocks on disk.
If the original file is deleted, the data blocks and the hard link remain and can still be accessed
as a separate file.

Soft link (symbolic link):

Creates a special file that contains a reference (or symbolic link) to the original file.
When accessing a symbolic link, the operating system follows the reference and accesses the
original file.
If the original file is deleted or renamed, the symbolic link becomes invalid, because it no longer
points to the correct file.

Sanyam Soni
demons in linux

In Linux, a daemon is a type of system process that runs in the background and provides
services to other applications. Daemons are typically started at boot time and continue to run
until the system is shut down. They are used to perform a variety of tasks, such as managing
network services, logging system events, managing printers, and many other functions.

Some well-known examples of daemons in Linux include the Apache web server daemon
(httpd), the Network File System (NFS) daemon (nfsd), and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP) daemon (sendmail).

Daemons are different from normal processes in that they do not have a controlling terminal and
typically run in the background, without any direct interaction with the user. They are also
designed to be long-lived and to automatically restart if they crash. This makes them well-suited
for tasks that need to run continuously, even when no one is logged into the system.

Sanyam Soni
Process state in linux

In Linux, every process is in a specific state that reflects its current status. The following are the
most common process states in Linux:

Running: The process is currently executing.

Sleeping: The process is blocked and waiting for an event, such as I/O completion or a signal.

Stopped: The process has been stopped, typically by receiving a stop signal. It can be resumed
later by sending a continue signal.

Zombie: The process has terminated, but its parent process has not yet collected its exit status.
A zombie process takes up very little system resources and will eventually be removed by its
parent process.

Paging: The process is in the process of being swapped out to disk to free up memory for other
processes.

Dead: The process has terminated and its parent process has collected its exit status. The
process no longer exists and its resources have been freed.

The state of a process can be viewed using the ps or top command, which display information
about the running processes on the system. The state of a process can also be modified using
signals, such as sending a kill signal to terminate a process, or a stop signal to stop a running
process.

Volume management in Linux is the process of managing disk space, creating and managing
disk partitions, and managing file systems. This is an important aspect of system administration,
as it allows the administrator to allocate disk space effectively, create and manage file systems,
and ensure data integrity and reliability.

The following are the main components of volume management in Linux:

Disk Partitioning: Disk partitioning is the process of dividing a disk into multiple, isolated areas
called partitions. Each partition can be treated as a separate storage device and can contain a
file system. Common partitioning tools in Linux include fdisk, parted, and gparted.

File Systems: A file system is a way of organizing data on a storage device. Common file
systems in Linux include Ext2, Ext3, Ext4, XFS, NTFS, and others.

Logical Volume Manager (LVM): LVM is a system for managing disk space that provides an
abstract layer over physical storage devices. It allows administrators to resize file systems,
create snapshots, and manage disk space dynamically.

Mounting: Mounting is the process of attaching a file system to the file system hierarchy so that
it can be accessed. When a file system is mounted, it becomes available for use and its
contents can be accessed like any other file or directory.

Disk Management: Disk management includes tasks such as creating and deleting partitions,
formatting file systems, and checking for errors on a disk. Tools such as df and du can be used
to view disk usage, while fsck can be used to check and repair file systems

LILO (LInux LOader) was a popular boot loader for Linux systems. It was used to load the Linux
operating system into memory and to provide a menu of operating systems or kernels for the
user to choose from at boot time.

The "ping" command in Linux is used to test the connectivity between two networked devices. It
works by sending a small data packet.

3 streams in linux:

Standard input - 0 - stdin

parted and fdisk is used to increase partition disk size.

The Linux kernel is primarily written in the C programming language. Some parts of the kernel
are also written in Assembly language, but the majority of the code is written in C.

lsb_release -a : used to check linux version and distribution