Linux Lecture-2

Topics
• Interacting with Linux
• Shells
• File System
• Directories
• Commands
 Interacting with Linux
Terminal (Command
GUI Line)
• KDE • Also called a shell
• Just like Windows MS DOS Linux also
• GNOME have a command line through which
• XFCE it can be operated.
• The Linux terminal is a text-based
• LXDE interface used to control a Linux
• MATE computer. It's just one of the many
tools provided to Linux users for
accomplishing any given task, but it's
widely considered the most efficient
method available. Outside of writing
code, it's certainly the most direct
method possible.
 Shell
• The Shell is a Command Line Interpreter. It translates
commands entered by the user and converts them into the
language that is understood by the Kernel.
• A Linux shell is an interactive program that accepts
commands from user via key board, parse them from left to
right and execute them. Most of the shells available in
todays Linux provides the features of executing user
commands and programs, I/O handling, programming ability
(scripts and binaries). Example shells are Bourne shell,
Bourne Again Shell, C Shell, Korn Shell.
• Shell script is a list of commands which are listed in the
order of execution.
 Bourne Shell
• 1977
• Created by Stephen Bourne.
• Bourne shell is useful even today and in some cases as
the default root shell.
• Its grammar is similar to Algorithm Language (ALGOL)
• The Bourne shell had two primary goals: command
interpreter and scripting.
 C Shell
• 1978
• The C shell was developed by Bill Joy
• Objective was to create a scripting language similar to C
programming language.
• This was useful given that C was a primary language in
use back then which also made it easier and faster to
use.
 Korn Shell
• 1983
• Developed by David Korn.
• The Korn shell combined features of both Bourne and C
shells.
• It includes features from C shell such as job control,
command aliasing and command history.
 TENEX C Shell
• 1983
• Started out as a derivative of the C shell but with a
programmable command line completion and editing
features added to it.
 Bourne Again Shell (Bash)
• 1989
• One of the most widely used shell today.
• It was written be Brian Fox for the GNU project as a pre
software replacement for the Bourne Shell.
• Shows all features from the Bourne shell but is more
efficient and easy to use.
• It supports filename globing, piping, command
substitution and control structures for conditional
testing and iteration.
 Other Shells
• Many shells were evolved later such as Public Domain Korn
Shell, Almquist Shell and Extensible Shell bringing in new
features and dialects of their own suitable for different needs.
• 1990 zsh
• 1992 POSIX
• 1993 es
• 1994 scsh
• 1996 dash
• 1999 psh
• 2003 mksh
 File System
• At its base form a file system is just a way to organize
your drive.
• It determines the structure in which data is stored and
retrieved.
• Without this structure it would be very difficult to tell
where one file ends and the other begins.
• FAT 32, NTFS and Ext are some examples of File system.
 File System
• FAT32: is a simple file system that is supported for
reading and writes on all major operating systems. It
has no security and does not perform well with large
files.
• NTFS: makes improvements on FAT with security and in
many cases contiguous reads, but it still suffers some
similar aliments.
• Ext: is generally a good choice for working with most
files, however small files would benefit more from
contiguous allocation.
 Contiguous and Noncontiguous Memory
Allocation
• Contiguous Memory Allocation : Contiguous memory
allocation is basically a method in which a single contiguous
section/part of memory is allocated to a process or file needing it.
Because of this all the available memory space resides at the
same place together, which means that the freely/unused
available memory partitions are not distributed in a random
fashion here and there across the whole memory space.
• Non-Contiguous memory allocation: is basically a method on the
contrary to contiguous allocation method, allocates the memory
space present in different locations to the process as per it’s
requirements. As all the available memory space is in a
distributed pattern so the freely available memory space is also
scattered here and there.
 Contiguous and Noncontiguous Memory
Allocation
Contiguous Noncontiguous
• Overhead is minimum as not • More Overheads are there as
much address translations are there are more address
there while executing a translations.
process. • Slower in Execution
• Faster in Execution • It is difficult for the OS to control.
• It is easier for the OS to • No memory wastage is there
control. • In non-contiguous memory
• Wastage of memory is there. allocation, swapped-in processes
can be arranged in any place in
• In contiguous memory the memory
allocation, swapped-in
processes are arranged in the
originally allocated space.
Brief Comparison
Brief Comparison
Linux File System
Linux File System
 Linux Directory
• The Linux file system is partitioned into separate
directories, denoted by forward-slash character (/).
– Tree structure starting with base (/) root directory.
• Current directory you are in is called the current working
directory.
• Use the pwd command to print the current working
directory and the ls command to list the contents of the
directory.
Directories
These are the common top-level directories associated
with the root directory:
• /bin – binary or executable programs.
• /etc – system configuration files.
• /home – home directory. It is the default current directory.
• /opt – optional or third-party software.
• /tmp – temporary space, typically cleared on reboot.
• /usr – User related programs.
• /var – log files.
Directories
Some other directories in the Linux system:
• /boot- It contains all the boot-related information files and folders such as conf,
grub, etc.
• /dev – It is the location of the device files such as dev/sda1, dev/sda2, etc.
• /lib – It contains kernel modules and a shared library.
• /lost+found – It is used to find recovered bits of corrupted files.
• /media – It contains subdirectories where removal media devices inserted.
• /mnt – It contains temporary mount directories for mounting the file system.
• /proc – It is a virtual and pseudo-file system to contains info about the running
processes with a specific process ID or PID.
• /run – It stores volatile runtime data.
• /sbin – binary executable programs for an administrator.
• /srv – It contains server-specific and server-related files.
• /sys – It is a virtual filesystem for modern Linux distributions to store and
allows modification of the devices connected to the system.
Directories
Linux Kernel File:
• /boot/vmlinux – The Linux kernel file.

Device Files:
• /dev/hda – Device file for the first IDE HDD.
• /dev/hdc – A pseudo-device that output garbage output
is redirected to /dev/null.
Directories
System Configuration Files:
• /etc/bashrc – It is used by bash shell that contains system defaults and aliases.
• /etc/crontab – A shell script to run specified commands on a predefined time interval.
• /etc/exports – It contains information on the file system available on the network.
• /etc/fstab – Information of the Disk Drive and their mount point.
• /etc/group – It is a text file to define Information of Security Group.
• /etc/grub.conf – It is the grub bootloader configuration file.
• /etc/init.d – Service startup Script.
• /etc/lilo.conf – It contains lilo bootloader configuration file.
• /etc/hosts – Information of IP and corresponding hostnames.
• /etc/hosts.allow – It contains a list of hosts allowed accessing services on the local
machine.
• /etc/host.deny – List of hosts denied to access services on the local machine.
• /etc/inittab – INIT process and their interaction at the various run level.
• /etc/issue – Allows editing the pre-login message.
Directories
System Configuration Files:
• /etc/modules.conf – It contains the configuration files for the system modules.
• /etc/motd – It contains the message of the day.
• /etc/mtab – Currently mounted blocks information.
• /etc/passwd – It contains username, password of the system, users in a shadow file.
• /etc/printcap – It contains printer Information.
• /etc/profile – Bash shell defaults.
• /etc/profile.d – It contains other scripts like application scripts, executed after login.
• /etc/rc.d – It avoids script duplication.
• /etc/rc.d/init.d – Run Level Initialisation Script.
• /etc/resolv.conf – DNS being used by System.
• /etc/security – It contains the name of terminals where root login is possible.
• /etc/skel – Script that initiates new user home directory.
• /etc/termcap – An ASCII file that defines the behavior of different types of the terminal.
• /etc/X11 – Directory tree contains all the conf files for the X-window System.
Directories
User Related Files:
• /usr/bin – It contains most of the executable files.
• /usr/bin/X11 – Symbolic link of /usr/bin.
• /usr/include – It contains standard include files used by
C program.
• /usr/share – It contains architecture independent
shareable text files.
• /usr/lib – It contains object files and libraries.
• /usr/sbin – It contains commands for Super User, for
System Administration.
Directories
Virtual and Pseudo Process Related Files:
• /proc/cpuinfo – CPU Information
• /proc/filesystems – It keeps the useful info about the processes that
are running currently.
• /proc/interrupts – it keeps the information about the number of
interrupts per IRQ.
• /proc/ioports – Contains all the Input and Output addresses used by
devices on the server.
• /proc/meminfo – It reports the memory usage information.
• /proc/modules – Currently using kernel module.
• /proc/mount – Mounted File-system Information.
• /proc/stat – It displays the detailed statistics of the current system.
• /proc/swaps – It contains swap file information.
Directories
Version Information File:
• /version – It displays the Linux version information.

Log Files:
• /var/log/lastlog – It stores user last login info.
• /var/log/messages – It has all the global system
messages.
• /var/log/wtmp – It keeps a history of login and logout
information.
 Linux File Names
• File names on Linux are case sensitive.
– So are commands because these are just executable
files!
• Linux file names don’t have dot extensions like
Windows.
• A file name starting with a period (.) is called a hidden
file and isn’t displayed in a standard directory listing.
 Linux Shell Commands
• A shell command can be internal/built-in or
External
• The code to execute an internal command is
part of the shell process, e.g., cd, dot, echo,
pwd.
• The code to process an external command
resides in a file in the form of a binary
executable program file or a shell script, e.g.,
cat, ls, mkdir, more.
• The general syntax of a shell command is
command [option(s)] [argument(s)]
• After reading the command the shell
determines whether the command is internal
or external
• It processes all internal commands by using
the corresponding code segments that are
within its own code
• To execute an external command, it searches
the command in the search path. Directories
names stored in the PATH variable. [echo
$PATH]
 Changing Directory
• The cd command is used to change the current working directory to a
new one.
• Two options:
• Specify an absolute path name:
$ cd /home/bob/documents
• Specify a relative path name:
$ cd documents
change to documents sub-directory located in present directory
$ cd ../databases
change to databases sub-directory located in parent directory
$ cd ~
change to user’s home directory
 Managing Directory
• Use the mkdir command to create a new directory.
– $ mkdir test
• Creates a sub-directory called test in the present
directory.
– $ mkdir /home/bob/test
• Creates a sub-directory called test in the
/home/bob directory.
• Use the rmdir command to remove a directory.
– $ rmdir test
 Creating Files
• Easy way to create an empty text file is to use the touch
command.
– $ touch myfile.txt
• You can also use one of the basic text editors to create a
file.
– $ nano myfile.txt (recommended for beginners)
– $ vi myfile.txt
 Viewing Files
• Linux provides a couple different tools to view the
contents of text files.
– $ cat myfile.txt
– $ more myfile.txt (similar to cat but with pagination)
– $ less myfile.txt (less is more than more)
 Listing Files
• The ls command allows you to list the files in a directory.

– $ ls
– $ ls /home/ubuntu-user
– $ ls ~
• Add the –la option to the command to see more file
details.
– $ ls –la
– $ ls –la /home/ubuntu-user
Linux File Types
 Managing Files
• Copy the file to another file location using the copy
command.
– $ cp myfile.txt myfile.bak
• Move the file (rename) using the mv command.
– $ mv myfile.txt myfile2.txt
• Delete a file using the rm command.
– $ rm myfile2.txt
 Linux Command Help
• Linux provides a couple different methods to get helpful
information about a command:

$ man <command>

$ <command> --help

• Sometimes the best way to get help is just using a web

search engine.
 Command Pipelines
• A command pipe allows you to take the stdout (output)
of a command and send it to the stdin (input) of another
command.
• A pipe is denoted using the vertical bar character (|).

– $ ls /var/www/html | sort

• List the files /var/www/html directory and output the

listing in alphabetical order
 Shutdown and Restart
• The shutdown command is used to shutdown a system
(requires super-user privileges).
– $ sudo shutdown

• To tell the system to automatically restart after shutting

down:
– $ sudo shutdown –r now
Basic Commands
Files and Directories Commands
Files and Directories Commands
Advance Commands
Advance Commands
Network Commands
C Programming Commands
 Linux Shell Shortcuts
• The BASH shell provides a simple, yet powerful command entry
interface. Useful shortcuts include:
– Ctrl+a: move the cursor to the beginning of the command line
– Ctrl+c: terminate a running program and return to the shell
prompt
– Ctrl+d: log out of the current shell
– Ctrl+e: move cursor to the end of the command line
– Ctrl+l: clear the shell terminal screen
– Ctrl+r: search the command history
– <tab>: autocomplete file name
– <tab><tab>: show command completion possibilities
– <up-arrow>: repeat last command (or scroll through history)