Imagery

and ALLAN PAIVIO

University of Western Ontario
London, Ontario

Verbal Processes

V p Psychology Press
X Taylor & Francis Croup
New York London
To my wife Kathleen
and my children Sandra, Anna Lee, Heather, Eric, and Karina

First Published by
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers
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Hillsdale, New Jersey 07642

Transferred to Digital Printing 2009 by Psychology Press

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CopyrightCl 1979 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in
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 Preface

In this book I have attempted to present a systematic theoretical and

factual account of the role of higher mental processes in human learning and
memory, and certain aspects of the psychology of perception and language.
The major orienting theme of the book is its dual emphasis on nonverbal
imagery and verbal processes (inner speech) as memory codes and mediators
of behavior. Based on recent experimental evidence, the conceptual approach
in a sense represents an integration of prebehavioristic and behavioristic views
concerning the nature of thought.
The book is intended both as a textbook and as a theoretical monograph.
Beginning with a theoretical orientation, I soon became convinced that I could
not adequately convey the scope of the approach without an extensive review
of the research literature in the various areas it encompasses. Moreover, the
skepticism which behaviorism justifiably fostered in regard to the mentalistic
concept of imagery still persists to some extent among experimental psychologists,
and it is unlikely to be completely dispelled without overwhelming empirical
evidence demonstrating that the construct can have real scientific value. I have
done my best to present such evidence, with the result that the book is somewhat
longer than I had originally intended, but at the same time perhaps more useful
than it might otherwise have been as a textbook and reference book for psychol-
ogy students. It is most relevant as a textbook for graduate and upper-division
undergraduate courses in human learning, memory, psycholinguistics, and
cognitive processes. It could also serve as supplementary reading in courses on
perception. I have assumed throughout that the reader has some familiarity with
the basic facts in the various areas-of the level provided, for example, by
introductory courses in learning and perception, or a course in general experi-
mental psychology.
ALLAN P AIVIO
London, Ontario
July 1971
iii
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 Acknowledgements

It is a pleasure for me to express my gratitude to the many people who

in one way or another have contributed to the book or to the enterprise on
which it is based. These include the graduate students and former graduate
students whose names appear throughout the book as collaborators in the
studies that grew out of the ideas we shared and who, individually or in
seminars, have commented on drafts of various chapters-Professors Frank D.
Colman, Stephan A. Madigan, Herb M. Simpson, A. Dan Yarmey, John C.
Yuille, and Dr. Padric C. Smythe; more recently, Carole Ernest, Ian Begg,
Kalman Csapo, Brian O'Neill, Ronald Philipchalk, and Ted Rowe. I am grateful
also to Professor Doreen Kimura, Professor Zenon Pylyshyn, Dr. Colin Berry,
Andrew Feldmar, and Peter Skehan, who read and commented on sections of
the book. It was my good fortune, too, that Professor Ralph Haber read the
entire preliminary manuscript on behalf of Holt, Rinehart and Winston, and
I was able to take advantage of his counsel in preparing the final draft.
Many of the key studies reported in this book grew out of a research program
that has been supported financially by the National Research Council of Canada
(Grant APA 87), the University of Western Ontario Research Fund and the
University's Summer Supplements program. The scope of the research program
would have been severely restricted without their support.
A number of people have provided clerical and other assistance. Mrs. Helen
Smith expertly typed an early mimeographed draft of the book and most of
the final manuscript. Mrs. Patricia Butler and Mrs. Ann Anas proofread the
various drafts and helped compile the references. Typing and general clerical
assistance were ably provided by Mrs. Elizabeth Wilkins.
Above all I am grateful to my wife, who has been patient and encouraging
over the years when I devoted much of my "spare" time during evenings and
weekends to writing. Moreover, despite her own busy life, she found time to
v
vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

contribute specifically to the book by typing early drafts of several chapters

and part of the final manuscript. This book is affectionately dedicated to her
and to my children.
In addition to the individuals mentioned above and the sources noted in the
figure legends, credit is due the following for permission to reproduce or adapt
material:

Figure 4.1. Reprinted with permISSIOn of authors and publisher: From Robinson. J. S.,
Brown, L. T., & Hayes, W. H. Test of effects of past experience on perception. Perceptual
and Motor Skills, 1964, 18, 953-956.
Figure 4.2. Adapted from Pritchard, R. M., Heron, W., & Hebb, D. O. Visual perception
approached by the method of stabilized images. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 1960, 14,
67-77.
Figure 4.3. From Tees, R. C., & More, L. K. Effect of amount of perceptual learning
upon disappearances observed under reduced stimulation conditions. Perception and
Psychophysics, 1967, 2, 565-568.
Figure 4.4. From Wapner, S., & Werner, H. Perceptual development. Worcester, Mass.:
Clark University Press, 1957.
Figure 4.5. From Dick, A. 0., & Mewhort, J. K. Order of report and processing in
tachistoscopic recognition. Perception and Psychophysics, 1967, 2, 573-576.
Figure 4.6. From Kimura, D. Functional asymmetry of the brain in dichotic listening.
Cortex, 1967, 3, 163-178. Reproduced by permission of the author.
Figure 5.1. From Hershenson, M., & Haber, R. N. The role of meaning in the perception
of briefly presented words. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 1965, 19, 42-46.
Figure 5.2. From Standing, L., Sell, c., Boss, J., & Haber, R. N. Effect of visualization
and subvocalization on perceptual clarity. Psychonomic Science, 1970, 18, 89-90.
Figure 5.3. From Posner, M. L, & Mitchell, R. F. Chronometric analysis of classification.
Psychological Review, 1967, 74, 392-409. Copyright 1967 by the American Psychological
Association, and reproduced by permission.
Figure 5.4. From Posner, M. I., & Keele, S. W. Decay of visual information from a
single letter. Science, 1967, 158, 137-139. Copyright 1967 by the American Association
for the Advancement of Science.
Figure 5.5. From Posner, M. I., Boies, S. J., Eichelman, W. H., & Taylor, R. L. Retention
of visual and name codes of single letters. Journal of Experimental Psychology Mono-
graph, 1969, 79 (1, Pt. 2). Copyright 1969 by the American Psychological Association,
and reproduced by permission.
Figure 5.6. From Haber, R. N., & Nathanson, L. S. Processing of sequentially presented
letters. Perception and Psychophysics, 1969, 5, 359-361.
Figure 5.7. From Brooks, L. R. The suppression of visualization in reading. Quarterly
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1967, 19, 289-299.
Figure 5.S. From Brooks, L. R. Spatial and verbal components of the act of recall.
Canadian Journal of Psychology, 1968, 22, 349-368.
Figure 7.2. From Vanderplas, J. M., & Garvin, E. A. The association value of random
shapes. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1959, 57, 147-154. Copyright 1959 by the
American Psychological Association, and reproduced by permission.
Figure 7.3. From Feuge, R. L., & Ellis, H. C. Generalization gradients in recognition
memory of visual form: The role of stimulus meaning. Journal of Experimental Psychol-
ogy, 1969, 79, 288-294. Copyright 1969 by the American Psychological Association, and
reproduced by permission.
Figure 7.5. From Noble, C. E. Meaningfulness and familiarity. In C. N. Cofer and B. S.
Musgrave (Eds.), Verbal behavior and learning. Copyright 1963 by McGraw-Hill. Used
with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Figure 7.S. From Paivio, A., & Madigan, S. A. Noun imagery and frequency in paired-
associate and free recall learning. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 1970, 24, 353-361.
Figure 7.10. From Koeppel, J. C., & Beecroft, R. S. The conceptual similarity effect in
free recall. Psychonomic Science, 1967, 9, 213-214.
Figure 7.11. From Paivio, A., Yuille, J. c., & Rogers, T. B. Noun imagery and meaning-
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii

fulness in free and serial recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 1969, 79, 509-514.
Copyright 1969 by the American Psychological Association, and reproduced by permission.
Figure 7.12. From Paivio, A., Rogers, T. B., & Smythe, P. C. Why are pictures easier
to recall than words? Psychonomic Science, 1968, II, 137-138.
Figure 7.14. From Paivio, A., & Smythe, P. C. Word imagery, frequency, and meaning-
fulness in short-term memory. Psychonomic Science, 1971, 22, 333-335.
Figure 7.15. From Wickens, D. D., & Clark, S. Osgood dimensions as an encoding class
in short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968, 78, 580-584. Copyright
1968 by the American Psychological Association, and reproduced by permission.
Figures 7.16 and 7.17. From Paivio, A., & Csapo, K. Concrete-image and verbal memory
codes. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1969, 80, 279-285. Copyright 1969 by the
American Psychological Association, and reproduced by permission.
Figures 8.3 and 11.1. From Paivio, A., Smythe, P. C., & Yuille, J. C. Imagery versus
meaningfulness of nouns in paired-associate learning. Canadian Journal of Psychology,
1968, 22, 427-441.
Figure 8.6. From Paivio, A., and Madigan, S. A. Imagery and association value in
paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968, 76, 35-39. Copyright
1968 by the American Psychological Association, and reproduced by permission.
Figure 8.7. From Yuille, J. c., Paivio, A., & Lambert, W. E. Noun and adjective imagery
and order in paired-associate learning by French and English subjects. Canadian Journal
of Psychology, 1969, 23, 459-466.
Figure 8.9. From Asch, S. E., & Ebenholtz, S. M. The principle of associative symmetry.
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 1962, 106, 135-163.
Figure 9.1. From Kiess, H. O. Effects of natural language mediators on short-term
memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968, 77, 7-13. Copyright 1968 by the
American Psychological Association, and reproduced by permission.
Figure 9.2. From Bower, G. H., & Clark, M. C. Narrative stories as mediators for serial
learning. Psychonomic Science, 1969, 14, 181-182.
Figure 10.1. Reprinted with permission of author and publisher: From Smith, R. K., &
Noble, C. E. Effects of a mnemonic technique applied to verbal learning and memory.
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1965, 21, 123-134.
Figure 10.2. From Senter, R. J., & Hauser, G. K. An experimental study of a mnemonic
system. Psychonomic Science, 1968, 10, 289-290.
Figure 10.4. From Bugelski, B. R. Images as mediators in one-trial paired-associate
learning. II: Self-timing in successive lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968,
77, 328-334. Copyright 1968 by the American Psychological Association, and reproduced
by permission.
Figure 10.6. From Paivio, A. Effects of imagery instructions and concreteness of
memory pegs in a mnemonic system. Proceedings of the 76th Annual Convention of the
American Psychological Association, 1968, 77-78. Copyright 1968 by the American
Psychological Association, and reproduced by permission.
Figure 11.2. From Yuille, J. c., & Paivio, A. Latency of imaginal and verbal mediators
as a function of stimulus and response concreteness-imagery. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 1967, 75, 540-544. Copyright 1967 by the American Psychological Associa-
tion, and reproduced by permission.
Figure 11.4. From Yuille, J. C., & Paivio, A. Imagery and verbal mediation instructions
in paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1968, 78, 436-441. Copy-
right 1968 by the American Psychological Association, and reproduced by permission.
Figures 11.5 and 11.6. From Paivio, A., and Yuille, J. C. Changes in associative strategies
and paired-associate learning over trials as a function of word imagery and type of
learning set. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1969, 79, 458-463. Copyright 1969 by
the American Psychological Association, and reproduced by permission.
Figure 11.7. From Paivio, A., & Foth, D. Imaginal and verbal mediators and noun
concreteness in paired-associate learning: The elusive interaction. Journal of Verbal
Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1970, 9, 384-390.
Figure 11.12. Epstein, W., Rock, I., & Zuckerman, C. B. Meaning and familiarity in
associative learning. Psychological Monographs, 1960, 74 (4, Whole No. 491). Copyright
1960 by the American Psychological Association, and reproduced by permission.
Figure 12.2. From Katz, J. J., & Fodor, J. A. The structure of a semantic theory.
Language, 1963, 39, 170-210. Copyright 1963 by the Linguistic Society of America.
viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Figure 12.3. From Miller, G. A., & Isard, S. Some perceptual consequences of linguistic
rules. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1963, 2, 217-228.
Figure 13.3. From Reynolds, J. H. Cognitive transfer in verbal learning: II. Transfer
effects after prefamiliarization with integrated versus partially integrated verbal· perceptual
structures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1968, 59, 133-138. Copyright 1968 by the
American Psychological Association, and reproduced by permission.
Figure 13.4. From Sachs, J. S. Recognition memory for syntactic and semantic aspects
of connected discourse. Perception and Psychophysics, 1967, 2, 437-442.
Figure 13.5. From Begg, I., & Paivio, A. Concreteness and imagery in sentence meaning.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1969, 8, 821-827.
Figure 13.6. From Paivio, A. Imagery and deep structure in the recall of English nominali·
zations. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1971, 10, 1-12.
Figure 14.4. From Pettifor, J. L. The role of language in the development of abstract
thinking: A comparison of hard·of·hearing and normal·hearing children on levels of
conceptual thinking. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 1968, 22, 139-156.
Excerpts from Frances A. Yates, The art of memory (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press; London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966), pp. 2, 4, 6-8, 9-10, 22, 24-25, 35-36.
Copyright 1966 by the University of Chicago Press. Reprinted by permission of the
publishers.
Contents

1
INTRODUCTION, I

2
DEVELOPMENT AND FUNCTIONS OF THE
SYMBOLIC SYSTEMS, II

3
MEANING AND THE SYMBOLIC PROCESSES, 39

4
PERCEPTION AND THE SYMBOLIC
PROCESSES: Effects of Meaning, 87

5
PERCEPTION AND THE EXPERIMENTAL
AROUSAL OF THE SYMBOLIC PROCESSES, 119
ix
x CONTENTS

6
LEARNING AND MEMORY: Classical
Mnemonic Systems, 153

7
STIMULUS ATTRIBUTES AND MEMORY, 177

8
MEANING AND ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING, 245

9
VERBAL MEDIATION IN LEARNING AND
MEMORY, 299

10
IMAGERY MEDIATION IN LEARNING AND
MEMORY, 327

11
DISTINGUISHING IMAGINAL AND VERBAL
MEDIATORS, 353

12
LANGUAGE AND THE SYMBOLIC
PROCESSES: Linguistic Models and
Associationism, 393

13
IMAGERY AND LANGUAGE, 433
 CONTENTS xi

14
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SYMBOLIC
HABITS AND SKILLS, 477

15
EXTENSIONS AND SPECULATIONS, 525

REFERENCES, 535
NAME INDEX, 581
SUBJECT INDEX, 590
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 1
Introduction

A remarkable trend is emerging in major areas of psychological inquiry.

The trend involves a renewed interest in mentalistic concepts, among which
imagery and meaning are central. It is remarkable because such concepts, once
prominent in psychology, became anathema in American psychology shortly
after the turn of the century. The negative attitude is generally attributed to the
behavioristic revolution, and the main issues and developments will be consid-
ered primarily in that context. However, in view of the attention given to human
learning and memory in this book, it is important to note that the negative influ-
ence was not restricted to behaviorism proper, but stemmed also from the rote
learning tradition established by Ebbinghaus in 1885. This approach was no less
objective than Watson's behaviorism. Ebbinghaus abandoned the introspective
method and sought to minimize effects attributable to pre-experimental associa-
tive habits and meaning (both mentalistic concepts in that prebehavioristic era)
in order to reveal the factors responsible for the formation of new memory
associations. The latter goal was to be achieved especially by the introduction
of the nonsense syllable as the unit for the experimental study of memory. The
main features of the Ebbinghaus approach persisted in rote learning experiments
with little change for more than seventy years (see Irion, 1959).
The approach has unquestionably yielded important information concerning
effective variables in a variety of tasks, but most of the problems originally
investigated by Ebbinghaus remain essentially unsolved today. The slow devel-
opment of theoretical understanding can be attributed partly to the complexity
of human learning and memory. In addition, however, it is possible that the
attempts (largely unsuccessful, as it turned out) to control rather than sys-
tematically investigate the contributions of meaning and the correlated associative
habits from the outset had a retarding effect on theoretical developments in the
field. Be that as it may, the situation is changing rapidly. The change is mani-
1
2 IMAGERY AND VERBAL PROCESSES

fested in an accumulating research literature on such variables as meaningful-

ness, mediation processes, and organizational factors in learning and memory.
But these departures from the Ebbinghaus tradition have also shown a bias in
the theoretical approach to the mental mechanisms presumed to be the basis
of such phenomena: Verbal processes were emphasized while nonverbal imagery
was almost totally ignored. The verbal emphasis arose directly from behaviorism
and extended beyond memory to the related problems of meaning, association,
perception, and thought in general. The emphasis contrasts sharply with the
yeoman's role played by mental imagery over a period of 2500 years in the
interpretation of such phenomena. It contrasts also with the consideration given
to imagery in the present volume. Does this conceptual revival reflect real theo-
retical and empirical progress in psychology or is it merely a passing, reactionary
trend? That question is the orienting theme of the book. It may not be answered
entirely to the reader's satisfaction, but he will at least find considerable evidence
and argument to weigh. To indicate why the question arises at all, it is neces-
sary to review the relevant historical developments and controversial issues lead-
ing up to the present state of affairs.

Mental Images versus Mental Words

Statements concerning the functions of mental imagery in such phenom-
ena as meaning and memory appeared in early Greek writings, and the funda-
mental ideas then expressed persisted in associationism and structuralism up to
the time of Watson's persuasive attack on mentalistic concepts. Around 500 B.C.,
the poet Simonides aptly summarized the essence of the imagery hypothesis of
linguistic-- meaning in the phrase "Words are the images of things" (Bowra,
1961, p. 363). Some 2500 years later, William James similarly described the
static meaning of concrete words as consisting of "sensory images awakened"
(1890, p. 265), and Titchener (1909) extended this view to encompass abstract
terms as well.
The image appeared in theories of memory in two forms. First, as manifested
in Plato's "wax tablet" model, imagery was the prototype of stimulus-trace the-
ories of memory (see Gomulicki, 1953), according to which perceptions and
thoughts are impressed on the mind as on a block of wax, to be remembered
and known as long as the image lasts. Second, as associative imagery it was
assumed to playa mediational role in various memory techniques, which appar-
ently originated with Simonides and were thereafter elaborated by philosophers
and teachers of rhetoric as a practical art (see Yates, 1966, and Chapter 6 in
this book). This associative view holds that memory images could be evoked
by stimuli with which the imaged objects or events have been associated in the
past, and that these images could themselves combine associatively, as in the
"association of ideas." The image theory of meaning can be regarded as a logical
extension of such associationistic views to the domain of language, with words
presumably serving as the cues for the arousal of the memory image. Common-
 Introduction 3

sense experience continues to make the acceptance of such views compelling.

Occasionally, when I have been required to list the names of my colleagues
from memory, I have found myself visualizing the hallways in which their offices
are located, systematically moving past these offices, then picturing and naming
the occupants. Shepard described a similar personal observation as follows:
" ... if I am now asked about the number of windows in my house, I find that
I must picture the house, as viewed from different sides or from within different
rooms, and then count the windows presented in these various mental images.
No amount of purely verbal machinations would seem to suffice" (1966, p. 203).
The crucial point about such experiences is that the eliciting question and the
behavioral expression of recall may be entirely verbal, but the mediating mecha-
nism apparently consists of nonverbal imagery associatively evoked by the words.
It is necessary only to add that such views were extended by the structural-
ists to the interpretation of perception as a combination of sensations and
memory images, and to thought in general as the manipulation of mental images,
and the story is complete. Memory, meaning, association, perception, thought-
all of these in one way or another implicated mental imagery as a crucial mech-
anism.
It is precisely such views that were rejected by Watson (1913). Partly on
philosophical grounds and partly on the basis of experimental evidence then
available on the issue, he concluded that mental images are mere ghosts, with-
out functional significance. The image theory of memory was shaken by find-
ings that revealed that images are not faithful reproductions of reality, even
for those individuals who claim "photographic" memories (e.g., Fernald, 1912).
Furthermore, the Wiirzburg experiments yielded abundant evidence that think-
ing may go on without reportable conscious content in the form of concrete-
object or verbal images (see Humphrey, 1951; Mandler & Mandler, 1964).
Experimental data thus raised serious questions concerning both the repre-
sentational (memory) and associative or mediational (thought) functions that
traditionally had been attributed to images, and such findings apparently
prompted Watson to conclude that imagery had no functional significance.
Moreover, the concept was unacceptably subjective and was to be banished
along with the rest of the mentalistic baggage that introspectionism produced.
In Watson's approach, the functions that had been attributed to images in
thought and memory became the burden of words-verbal responses-or their
gestural substitutes (e.g., Watson, 1930, pp. 265-268). Verbal recollections
of remembered objects and events are simply habits, learned responses that
occurred originally in the particular setting being described and are re-evoked
later by cues that originally accompanied their occurrence. To the extent that
thought is involved in such behavior, as when one thinks about the original
events before responding, the mediating process is also verbal, that is, it con-
sists of talking to oneself. Meaning, too, was to be viewed in terms of the
organized verbal and nonverbal responses that a given object evokes in an
individual.
4 IMAGERY AND VERBAL PROCESSES

Contemporary Status of the Controversy

Watson's stand on imagery and the factors leading up to it effectively
suppressed interest in the concept, particularly in America. This was reflected
in a marked reduction in the number of empirical studies involving the con-
cept in comparison with the volume of research that followed Galton's pioneer-
ing studies on individual differences in imagery in 1880 and continued until a
few years after Watson's attempted coup de grace. As the interest in imagery
declined, an emphasis on verbal processes quite in accord with Watson's views
increasingly dominated empirical and theoretical approaches to problems of
meaning and mediation processes in verbal learning, memory, association, and
language (see Goss, 1961). The meaningfulness of verbal units came to be
defined most often in terms of such measures as association value (Glaze, 1928)
or meaningfulness (m; Noble, 1952a), which assume that verbal associations
are the basis of meaning. Consistent with this definition, effects of meaningful-
ness on associative learning and memory were interpreted in terms of the avail-
ability of implicit verbal associates as potential mediators of stimulus-response
connections, as in the associative probability or "grapnel" theory (Glanzer,
1962; Underwood & Schulz, 1960, p. 296)-the greater the number of verbal
associations that item A evokes, the greater the probability that one of these
associations will provide a common link between A and B. A similar verbal
emphasis has been generally apparent in research on mediated transfer and
generalization, organizational factors in memory and language, and so-called
"natural language" mediators (e.g., Adams, 1967; W. A. Bousfield, 1961;
Cofer, 1965; Deese, 1965; J. J. Jenkins, 1963). Even in perception, higher-
order coding processes have been interpreted as primarily verbal in nature
(e.g., Glanzer & Clark, 1963a; Haber, 1966). Explicitly or implicitly, the domi-
nant view in America has been that effective meaning and mediational phe-
nomena generally are founded on verbal associative mechanisms. The possibility
that nonverbal imagery may be functionally involved was generally ignored and
occasionally rejected for reasons that echo Watson's original objections to the
concept.

The logical argument The current attitude toward imagery and the rea-
sons for it have been summarized recently by Deese (1965) in reference to
association and language. The arguments apply generally to the phenomena
being considered here and, because they express a rather general viewpoint,
they merit careful consideration. Thus:

The modern experimental psychologist works almost exclusively with linguistic

associations for the good reason that these provide controllable material for
his laboratory studies; he ignores the extra existence of perceptual imagery.
Without necessarily denying either their reality or their importance, the con-
temporary psychologist finds images difficult to manage in empirical study.
Partly for this reason and partly for others, association theory in modern
 Introduction 5

psychology has become a theory of the succession of elements in verbal be-

havior (p. 4).

This is one of the classical behavioristic arguments-imagery is subjective

and inferential, words are objective and manageable. It constitutes a valid case
against imagery if the interests of contemporary psychologists remained at the
empirical level, but they obviously do not. As Deese goes on to say:

We study associations in order to make inferences about the nature of human

thought .... The whole ot the current concern is with the associative prop-
erties ot explicit verbal behavior as a model tor the implicit verbal process ot
thought (1965, p. 4, italics added).

With that the empirical superiority of words over images ends, for implicit
verbal processes are no less inferential than perceptual images. One might argue
that it is more direct and, therefore, more parsimonious to infer a verbal medi-
ating process when the response is verbal, but this follows only if one assumes
a one-to-one relation between the overt associative reaction and the mental
process that caused it. Such an assumption would be unsound, for one can
respond verbally to pictures as well as to words and so, by analogy, one's verbal
response could just as logically be mediated by a "mental picture" as by "men-
tal words" (that is, implicit verbal representations). Both are pure inferences
and which one it is more logical to infer in research concerned with such prob-
lems depends on the total set of conditions in a given study, not merely on the
mode of the overt response. The problem is empirical as well as logical, and
it is the experimenter's burden to devise conditions that will permit him to make
reasonable inferences about the nature of the effective underlying processes
independent of their particular behavioral expression.

The factual argument Watson's second major objection to the concept

of imagery, which also persists in contemporary discussions (e.g., R. W. Brown,
1958), was based on the lack of factual evidence that images have any func-
tional significance, even in memory tasks where vivid images should be most
useful. The conclusion that images have no relation to memory because they
do not accurately reflect reality is unjustified, however, simply because all mem-
ory is imperfect. Bartlett (1932) clearly recognized the inaccuracy but did not
find it necessary therefore to conclude that the concept of memory is unnec-
essary, nor that images have no function in .relation to it. Instead, his conclu-
sion was that remembered events are partly constructions rather than faithful
reproductions of reality. The imageless thought experiments likewise did not
indicate that images had no mediational function, only that complex mental
operations could occur without conscious content. Images were, in fact, reported
frequently in those experiments, and Humphrey (1951) concluded from this
that the Wiirzburg psychologists underplayed the significance of imagery as
inferred from the reports of their subjects. Moreover, inferences concerning the
6 IMAGERY AND VERBAL PROCESSES

function of imagery were based almost exclusively on individual differences in

the reported vividness of images, a defining operation that still fails to reveal
the functional significance of imagery as clearly as other objective procedures,
as will be seen later.
Finally, just as verbal mediation processes are no less inferential than images,
so too are they open to the same factual criticisms: Verbal associative memory
is imperfect, and conscious verbal processes were absent in imageless thought
(Humphrey, 1951). Should we conclude from such observations that the con-
cept of verbal mediation is without scientific value? I presume that few would
want to do so and we must accordingly reject such a conclusion in regard to
imagery as well. The problem in the case of both of these postulated processes
is to clarify their functions, that is, to determine the conditions under which
mental images and mental words are aroused and to identify the nature of their
effects on overt behavior. Both are theoretical constructs and whether or- not
it is useful to postulate either, or both, depends on the adequacy of the defining
operations and the research procedures used to test the properties that have
been theoretically attributed to them.

Revival of the image Perhaps partly for the reasons just discussed and
partly because the concept is somehow a valid reflection of mental processes,
Watson's attack did not succeed in burying "the image." Research concerned
explicitly with mental imagery continued to appear sporadically in psychological
literature even during the most arid period in the 1920s and thirties, and the
classical problems associated with imagery continued to be discussed in influ-
ential textbooks of the day (e.g., Woodworth, 1938). In addition, concepts with
essentially the same functional properties as imagery turned up in behavioristic
writings. Perhaps the most obvious example is Tolman's (e.g., 1932, 1948)
cognitive approach to behavior theory, in which such terms as expectancy,
sign learning, and cognitive maps substituted for the various functions that had
been attributed earlier to mental images. Hull's (1931) fractional anticipatory
goal response (rg-sg) mechanism and Osgood's (1953) elaboration of it under
the label of representational mediation process are functionally parallel to Tol-
man's sign-Gestalt-expectation and, on close inspection, all of the concepts can
be seen to retain some of the cognitive flavor of the imagery concept. Perhaps
this was only to be expected. As pointed out by Morgan (1943) and Hebb
( 1949), mental variables have been repeatedly thrown out because there was
no place for them in stimulus-response psychology, but they repeatedly find their
way in again in one form or another because they are necessary to a full account
of behavior.
Thus it is not surprising that we find the concept of imagery reappearing
essentially in its pristine form but with its respectability enhanced by a behavior-
istic cloak. On the basis of results from experimental investigation involving
a classical conditioning paradigm, Leuba (1940) felt justified in referring to
images as conditioned sensations. Skinner (1953) similarly discussed visual
imagery as "conditioned seeing." The possibility has even been suggested that
 Introduction 7

conditioned images may play a mediational role in classical conditioning in-

volving lower animals (Mowrer, 1960; Sheffield, 1965). The most elaborate
treatment of this kind can be found in Beritoff's (1965) analysis of aspects of
higher vertebrate behavior in terms of images, although in it he distinguished
"image-driven" behavior from conditioned reflexes. Other theorists with diverse
interests (e.g., Arnheim, 1969; Bruner, Olver, & Greenfield, 1966; Greenwald,
1970; Hebb, 1966, 1968; Holt, 1964; M. J. Horowitz, 1967; G. A. Miller,
Galanter, & Pribram, 1960; Singer, 1966; Tomkins, 1962) have also devoted
considerable attention to the concept without necessarily placing it into the
framework of classical conditioning, which is itself but poorly understood theo-
retically.
At the empirical level, the experimental study of dreaming as introduced by
Aserinsky and Kleitman (1953) has drawn attention to imagery in a manner
that is relevant not only to dream phenomena but also to the problem of non-
verbal mediation of verbal behavior. The reality of imagery and the validity
of the dream report as evidence of imagery are assumed in such research, with
the implication that descriptive verbal behavior (the dream report) is caused
by nonverbal central events (the dream image). Behavioral effects are also
attributed to verbally aroused imagery in Wolpe's (1958) approach to psy-
chotherapy.
The view that images may have functional significance in behavior after all
extends to the phenomena that are most relevant here, namely, meaning and
mediation processes in perception, verbal learning, memory, and language.
Osgood (1953, 1961) has consistently argued in favor of nonverbal mediating
processes in his theory of meaning, where meaning is identified with the con-
ditioned capacity of a sign (e.g., a word) to arouse a fractional component of
the reaction pattern originally evoked by a stimulus object. Staats (1961) has
shown that imagery could be incorporated into the model by interpreting an
image as the fractional component of the original sensory response to an object,
which can become conditioned to a word and represent its denotative meaning.
Essentially the same idea has been proposed independently by Mowrer (1960)
and by Sheffield (1961). Except in their adoption of conditioning as the ex-
planatory mechanism, such a view appears to differ little from the ancient view
that "words are the images of things." That we may indeed have come around
full circle in our theorizing is evidenced further by an increasing recent interest
in research on the possible role of mediating imagery specifically in verbal learn-
ing and memory (see Paivio, 1969). While the trend is unlikely to result in a
return to the "wax tablet" model of memory or the naive view of associative
imagery that was characteristic of the earlier period, it reflects the vitality of
the concept and the compelling nature of the phenomena that led to its revival.
But old fads also have a habit of returning, and if imagery proves to be no
more than that after a hard look, we must be prepared to reject it once more.
The ultimate question to be faced concerns the scientific usefulness of postulating
such a process. This question can be answered only within a framework based
on an empirical foundation and constructed according to a theoretical blue-
8 IMAGERY AND VERBAL PROCESSES

print. Imagery, like all inferential concepts, can have functional significance
only to the extent that it can be differentiated from other concepts theoretically,
and to the extent that these distinctive theoretical properties are open to em-
pirical test. It is essential, therefore, to compare and contrast the concept of
imagery with other concepts that have distinct theoretical properties and at
the same time can be distinguished operationally from imagery. Within the
limitations of present knowledge, this is the approach followed in the present
volume, the aim of which is to compare and contrast the roles of imagery and
of verbal symbolic processes in relation to a variety of psychological phenomena.

AN OVERVIEW OF THE PRESENT APPROACH

The emphasis throughout is on the functional significance of the two

postulated processes, with interest centered on imagery because verbal processes
have received the lion's share of the attention in recent psychological research
and theory. Restricting our conceptual treatment to images and verbal proc-
esses does not imply that these are the only modes of representation and media-
tion. Reference has already been made to Osgood's theory, which assumes that
the mediation process may involve anything from implicit muscular responses
to cortical reactions, and multiple modes of representation have been explicitly
postulated by a number of other theorists whose views are reviewed in Chap-
ter 2. Although relevant problems are considered from time to time, no attempt
will be made to include a systematic treatment of the possible contributions of
emotional and motivational processes to the various phenomena. This omission
may seem regrettable in view of the emphasis given to affective meaning in
Osgood's approach to psycholinguistics, and the importance ascribed to motiva-
tional factors in directed thinking by Berlyne (1965). However, the main con-
cern here is with cognitive processes that directly serve a symbolic, representa-
tional function and other processes or functions will be considered only in
passing.

The theoretical approach Images and verbal processes are viewed as

alternative coding systems, or modes of symbolic representation, which are
developmentally linked to experiences with concrete objects and events as well
as with language. In a given situation, they may be relatively directly aroused
in the sense that an object or an event is represented in memory as a perceptual
image and a word as a perceptual-motor trace, or they may be associatively
aroused in the sense that an object elicits its verbal label (or images of other
objects) and a word arouses implicit verbal associates or images of objects.
In addition, it is assumed that chains of symbolic transformations can occur
involving either words or images, or both, and that these can serve a mediational
function in perception, verbal learning, memory, and language.
The arousal and mediation functions of both processes, but of images par-
 Introduction 9

ticularly, are theoretically coordinated to an abstract-concrete dimension of

stimulus meaning or task characteristics. The more concrete or "thing-like" the
stimulus or the task situation, the more likely is it to evoke memory images
that can be functionally useful in mediating appropriate responses in that situa-
tion. Verbal processes presumably are less dependent on concreteness for their
arousal and functioning, hence their relative usefulness accordingly increases
as the task becomes more abstract. Stated differently, both symbolic modes are
readily aroused and can be functionally useful when the situation is relatively
concrete, whereas verbal processes will be differentially favored when the situa-
tion is relatively abstract. Many situations likely involve an interaction of imaginal
and verbal processes, however, and the latter would necessarily be involved at
some stage whenever the stimuli or responses, or both, are verbal, as is the case
with most of the phenomena that are relevant here.
A second postulated distinction is made in terms of the relative efficiency
of the symbolic modes as parallel and sequential processing systems. To over-
simplify for the moment, visual imagery is regarded primarily as a parallel
processing system, specialized for the storage and symbolic manipulation of
information concerning spatially organized objects and events. The verbal sys-
tem, on the other hand, is specialized for sequential processing, as in serial
memory tasks, by virtue of its auditory-motor nature. Finally, the systems are
distinguished in terms of a static-dynamic dimension, with imagery viewed as
the more dynamic process, capable of flexible and swift symbolic transforma-
tions. (These statements are appropriately qualified in Chapter 2.)

The empirical approach The theoretical approach is tied to an em-

pirical one involving three converging operations on the independent variable
side, all conceptually linked by the postulated imaginal and verbal symbolic
processes. These include (1) stimulus characteristics, with particular emphasis
on their abstractness-concreteness and verbal associative meaning; (2) experi-
mental manipulations such as differential task instructions, presentation rates,
and task demands; and (3) individual differences in imaginal and verbal asso-
ciative abilities. All of these are designed to affect the availability or accessibility
of one or other of the symbolic systems in a given task. On the dependent
variable side, physiological reactions as well as overt behavioral effects are
predicted from the independent variables, the predictions frequently including
complex interactions of two or more variables.
Our goal of differentiating the two symbolic processes is an extraordinarily
difficult empirical problem at best, but is especially so when the theoretical goal
is the explanation of verbal behavior, for here it is difficult to rule out verbal
mediation as the most parsimonious interpretation and at the same time isolate
whatever contribution may have been made by imagery. Thus the key issue is
whether or not it is necessary, or at least useful, to postulate both kinds of sym-
bolic processes, nonverbal as well as verbal, to account for effects that have
been observed in a variety of situations.
10 IMAGERY AND VERBAL PROCESSES

Plan of the Book

The book expands on the above approach by defining and elaborating on
the theoretical properties of the postulated symbolic processes and then review-
ing empirical evidence relevant to those properties, their behavioral implications,
and the general usefulness of the model as a theoretical approach to the analysis
of the psychological phenomena in question.
The basic concepts are defined in Chapter 2, which is concerned with the
nature and development of imagery and verbal symbolic processes. Chapter 3
deals with the relation between meaning and the symbolic processes, in antici-
pation of the subsequent chapters in which meaning is one of the predictors of
experimental results. The remaining chapters deal in turn with perception,
memory, associative learning, mediated learning, language, individual differ-
ences in symbolic habits and skills, and, finally, theoretical implications of the
basic approach for such problems as creativity and education.
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