Module 4: Soil Loss- Sediment Yield Estimation

Lesson Soil Loss/Sediment Yield Estimation

For estimation of soil loss various methods were developed by different scientists over a
period of time. Some of the most useful methods are presented in this chapter.

16.1 Estimation of Soil Loss

The control of erosion is essential to maintain the productivity of soil and to improve or
maintain downstream water quality. The reduction of soil erosion to tolerable limits
necessitates the adoption of properly planned cropping practices and soil conservation
measures. Several methods exist for the measurement of soil loss from different land units.
These include the measurements from runoff plots of various sizes for each single land type
and land use, small unit source watersheds, and large watersheds of mixed land use.
However, to estimate soil erosion, empirical and process based models (equations) are used.
Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is an empirical equation. It estimates the average
annual mass of soil loss per unit area as a function of most of the major factors affecting
sheet and rill erosions. Estimating soil loss is considerably more difficult than estimating
runoff as there are many variables, both natural such as soil and rainfall and man-made such
as adopted management practices. The soil loss considerably depends on the type of
erosion. As a result, models, whether empirical or process-based, are necessarily complex if
they are to include the effect of all the variables.

For some purposes, meaningful and useful estimates of sediment yield can be obtained from
models, and the best example is the estimation of long-term average annual soil loss from a
catchment by using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE).

16.2 The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)

The filed soil loss estimation equations development began in 1940 in USA. Zing (1940)
proposed a relationship of soil loss to slope length raised to a power. Later in 1947, a
committee chaired by Musgrave proposed a soil-loss equation having some similarity to the
present day USLE. Based on nearly 10,000 plot year runoff plot data, Wischmeier and Smith
(1965) developed the universal soil loss equation, which was later refined with more recent
data from runoff plots, rainfall simulators and field experiences. It is the most widely used
tool for estimation of soil loss from agricultural watersheds for planning erosion control
practices. The USLE is an erosion prediction model for estimating long term averages of soil
erosion from sheet and rill erosions from a specified land under specified conditions
(Wischmeier and Smith, 1978).

It provides an estimate of the long-term average annual soil loss from segments of arable
land under various cropping conditions. The application of this estimate is to enable farmers
and soil conservation advisers to select combinations of land use, cropping practice, and soil
conservation practices, which will keep the soil loss down to an acceptable level. The
equation (USLE) is presented as below.
where, A = soil loss per unit area in unit time, t ha -1 yr -1, R = rainfall erosivity factor which is
the number of rainfall erosion index units for a particular location, K = soil erodibility factor
- a number which reflects the susceptibility of a soil type to erosion, i.e., it is the reciprocal of
soil resistance to erosion, L = slope length factor, a ratio which compares the soil loss with
that from a field of specified length of 22.6 meters, S = slope steepness factor, a ratio which
compares the soil loss with that from a field of specified slope of 9%, C = cover management
factor - a ratio which compares the soil loss with that from a field under a standard
treatment of cultivated bare fallow, and P = support practice factor - a ratio of soil loss with
support practice like contouring, strip cropping or terracing to that with straight row
farming up and down the slope.

The factors L, S, C and P are each dimensionless ratios which allow comparison of the site for
which soil loss is being estimated with the standard conditions of the database. Knowing the
values of rainfall erosivity, soil erodibility and slope one can calculate the effectiveness of
various erosion control measures with the purpose of introducing a cultivation system in an
area with soil loss limited to the acceptable value.

Various factors associated with the above equation are discussed below.

 Rainfall Erosivity Factor (R)

It refers to the rainfall erosion index, which expresses the ability of rainfall to erode the soil
particles from an unprotected field. It is a numerical value. From the long field experiments
it has been obtained that the extent of soil loss from a barren field is directly proportional to
the product of two rainfall characteristics: kinetic energy of the storm and its 30-minute
maximum intensity. The product of these two characteristics is termed as EI or EI 30 or rainfall
erosivity. The erosivity factor, R is the number of rainfall erosion index units (EI 30) in a given
period at the study location. The rainfall erosion index unit (EI30) of a storm is estimated as:

where, KE = kinetic energy of storm in metric tones /ha-cm, expressed as

where, I = rainfall intensity in cm/h, and Ι 30 Ι30 = maximum 30 minutes rainfall intensity of
the storm.

The study period can be a week, month, season or year and this I 30 values are different for
different areas. The storm EI30 values for that length of period is summed up. Annual EI 30
values are usually computed from the data available at various meteorological stations and
lines connecting the equal EI30 values (known as Iso-erodent lines) are drawn for the region
covered by the data stations for ready use in USLE.
 Soil Erodibility Factor (K)

The soil erodibility factor (K) in the USLE relates to the rate at which different soils erode.
Under the conditions of equal slope, rainfall, vegetative cover and soil management
practices, some soils may erode more easily than others due to inherent soil characteristics.
The direct measurement of K on unit runoff plots reflect the combined effects of all variables
that significantly influence the ease with which a soil is eroded or the particular slope other
than 9% slope. Some of the soil properties which affect the soil loss to a large extent are the
soil permeability, infiltration rate, soil texture, size and stability of soil structure, organic
content and soil depth. These are usually determined at special experimental runoff plots or
by the use of empirical erodibility equations which relate several soil properties to the factor
K. The soil erodibility factor (K) is expressed as tons of soil loss per hectare per unit rainfall
erosivity index, from a field of 9% slope and 22 m (in some cases 22.13 m) field length. The
soil erodibility factor (K) is determined by considering the soil loss from continuous
cultivated fallow land without the influence of crop cover or management.

Station Soil Type Computed Values of K

Agra Loamy sand, alluvial 0.07

Dehradun Dhulkot silt, loam 0.15

Hyderabad Red chalka sandy loam 0.08

Kharagpur Soils from laterite rock 0.04

Kota Kota clay loam 0.11

Ootakamund Laterite 0.04

Rehmankhera Loam, alluvial 0.17

Vasad Sandy loam, alluvial 0.06

The formula used for estimating K is as follows:

Topographic Factor (LS)

Slope length factor (L) is the ratio of soil loss from the field slope length under consideration
to that from the 22.13 m length plots under identical conditions. The slope length has a direct
relation with the soil loss, i.e., it is approximately equal to the square root of the slope length
(L0.5), for the soils on which runoff rate is not affected by the length of slope (Zing, 1940).

Steepness of land slope factor (S) is the ratio of soil loss from the field slope gradient to that
from the 9% slope under otherwise identical conditions. The increase in steepness of slope
results in the increase in soil erosion as the velocity of runoff increases with the increase in
field slope allowing more soil to be detached and transported along with surface flow.

The two factors L and S are usually combined into one factor LS called topographic factor.
This factor is defined as the ratio of soil loss from a field having specific steepness and length
of slope (i.e., 9% slope and 22.13 m length) to the soil loss from a continuous fallow land. The
value of LS can be calculated by using the formula given by Wischmeier and Smith (1962):

where, λ = field slope length in meters, m = exponent varying from 0.2 to 0.5, and θ = angle
of slope.

Crop Management Factor (C)

The crop management factor C may be defined as the expected ratio of soil loss from a
cropped land under specific crop to the soil loss from a continuous fallow land, provided
that the soil type, slope and rainfall conditions are identical. The soil erosion is affected in
many ways according to the crops and cropping practices, such as the kind of crop, quality
of cover, root growth, water use by plants etc. The variation in rainfall distribution within
the year also affects the crop management factor, which affects the soil loss. Considering all
these factors, the erosion control effectiveness of each crop and cropping practice is
evaluated on the basis of five recommended crop stages introduced by Wischmeier (1960).
The five stages are:

Period F (Rough Fallow): It includes the summer ploughing or seed bed preparation.

Period 1 (Seed Bed): It refers to the period from seeding to 1 one month thereafter.

Period 2 (Establishment): The duration ranges from 1 to 2 months after seeding.

Period 3 (Growing Period): It ranges from period 2 to the period of crop harvesting.

Period 4 (Residue or Stubble): The period ranges from the harvesting of crop to the summer
ploughing or new seed bed preparation.

For determining the crop management factor the soil loss data for the above stages is
collected from the runoff plot and C is computed as the ratio of soil loss from cropped plot to
the corresponding soil loss from a continuous fallow land for each of the above five crop
stages separately, for a particular crop, considering various combinations of crop sequence
and their productivity levels. Finally, weighted C is computed. This factor reflects the
combined effect of various crop management practices. Values of factor C for some selected

Support Practice Factor (P)

This factor is the ratio of soil loss with a support practice to that with straight row farming
up and down the slope. The conservation practice consists of mainly contouring, terracing
and strip cropping. The soil loss varies due to different practices followed. Factor P for
different support practices for some locations of India is presented in Table 16.3.

Table 16.3. Different Values of Support Practice Factor (P) for Some Indian Locations
(Source: K. Subramanya, 2008)
Station Practice Factor P

Dehradun Contour cultivation of maize 0.74

 Up and down cultivation 1.00

Contour farming 0.68

Terracing and bunding in agricultural watershed 0.03

Kanpur Up and down cultivation of Jowar 1.00

Contour cultivation of Jowar 0.39

Ootacamund 1.00

Potato on contour 0.51

16.3 Use of USLE

There are three important applications of the universal soil loss equation. They are as
follows:

• It predicts the soil loss;

• It helps in identification and selection of agricultural practices; and

• It provides the recommendations on crop management practices to be used.

USLE is an erosion prediction model and its successful application depends on the ability to
predict its various factors with reasonable degree of accuracy. It is based on considerably
large experimental data base relating to various factors of USLE.

Based on 21 observation points and 64 estimated erosion values of soil loss obtained by the
use of USLE at locations spread over different regions of the country, soil erosion rates have
been classified into 6 categories. Areas falling under different classes of erosion are shown in
Table 16.4.
Table 16.4. Distribution of various erosion classes in India (Source: K Subramanya, 2008)

 Prediction of Average Annual Soil Loss

This equation was developed mainly on the basis of average annual soil loss data; hence its
applicability is limited for estimation of only average annual soil loss of the given area. This
equation computes less value than the measured, especially when the rainfall occurs at high
intensity. The storage basin whose sediment area is designed on the basis of sediment yield
using USLE should be inspected after occurrence of each heavy storm to ensure that the
sedimentation volume in the storage basin is within the limit.

 Non-computation of Gully Erosion

This equation is employed for assessing the sheet and rill erosions only but can not be used
for the prediction of gully erosion. The gully erosion caused by concentrated water flow is
not accounted by the equation and yet it can cause greater amount of soil erosion.
 Non-computation of Sediment Deposition

The equation estimates only soil loss, but not the soil deposition. The deposition of sediment
at the bottom of the channel is less than the total soil loss taking place from the entire
watershed. Nevertheless, the USLE can be used for computing the sediment storage volume
required for sediment retention structures., Also the USLE equation can be used as a
conservative measure of potential sediment storage needs, particularly where sediment
basins ranges typically from 2-40 ha and runoff has not traveled farther distance and basin is
intended to serve as the settling area. Again, if the drainage on any site is improperly
controlled and gully erosion is in extensive form, then this equation underestimates the
sediment storage requirement of the retention structure.

During the estimation of contribution of hill slope erosion for basin sediment yield, care
should be taken as it does not incorporate sediment delivery ratio. This equation cannot be
applied for predicting the soil loss from an individual storm, because the equation was
derived to estimate the long term mean annual soil loss. The use of this equation should be
avoided for the locations, where the values of different factors associated with the equation,
are not yet determined.

16.5 Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE)

Over the last few decades, a co-operative effort between scientists and users to update the
USLE has resulted in the development of RUSLE. The modifications incorporated in USLE to
result the RUSLE are mentioned as under (Kenneth et.al. 1991):

• Computerizing the algorithms to assists the calculations.

• New rainfall-runoff erosivity term (R) in the Western US, based on more than 1200
gauge locations.

• Some revisions and additions for the Eastern US, including corrections for high Rfactor
areas with flat slopes to adjust splash erosion associated with raindrops falling on
ponded water.

• Development of a seasonally variable soil erodibility term (K).

• A new approach for calculating the cover management term (C) with the sub-factors
representing considerations of prior land use, crop canopy, surface cover and surface
roughness

• New slope length and steepness (LS) algorithms reflecting rill to inter-rill erosion ratio

• The capacity to calculate LS products for the slopes of varying shapes

• New conservation practices value (P) for range lands, strip crop rotations, contour factor
values and subsurface drainage.

16.6 Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE)

The USLE was modified by Williams in 1975 to MUSLE by replacing the rainfall energy
factor (R) with another factor called as „runoff factor‟. The MUSLE is expressed as
where, Y = sediment yield from an individual storm (in metric tones), Q = storm runoff
volume in m3 and qp = the peak rate of runoff in m3/s.

All other factors K, (LS), C and P have the same meaning as in USLE (equation 16.1). The
values of Q and qp can be obtained by appropriate runoff models. In this model Q is
considered to represent detachment process and q p is the sediment transport. It is a sediment
yield model and does not need separate estimation of sediment delivery ratio and is
applicable to individual storms. Also it increases sediment yield prediction accuracy. From
modeling point of view, it has the advantage that daily, monthly and annual sediment yields
of a watershed can be modeled by combining appropriate hydrological models with
MUSLE.

Lesson Erosivity and Erodibility

Soil degradation is indicated by lowering of the fertility status, by a reduction of the nutrient
level or by physical loss of topsoil. The latter condition, mostly occurs in regions prone to
soil erosion where during heavy rainfall considerable amounts of soil, rock debris and
organic matter are transported down slope to rivers and eventually to the sea. Soil erosion
control can be attained by knowing soils‟ susceptibility and the factors responsible for the
susceptibility. Generally, the quantity of erosion yield is dependent upon the ability of rain
to detach the soil particles (i.e., erosivity of rainfall) and at the same time the susceptibility of
soil to withstand against the raindrop (i.e., erodibility of soil). Thus, the soil erosion is the
function of both erosivity and erodibility. When rainfall erosivity exceeds the soil erodibility,
soil erosion occurs.

17.1 Erosivity of Rainfall

Rainfall erosivity is a term that is used to describe the potential for soil to be washed off from
disturbed, de-vegetated areas and move with into surface waters during storms. It may also
be defined as the potential ability of rain to cause the erosion. It is dependent upon the
physical characteristics of rainfall, which include raindrop size, drop size distribution,
kinetic energy, terminal velocity, etc. For a given soil condition, the potential of two storms
can be compared quantitatively, regarding soil erosion to be caused by them. The power of
overland runoff flow to erode soil material is partly a property of the rainfall, and partly of
the soil surface. Rainfall erosivity is highly related to soil loss. Increased rain erosivity
indicates greater erosive capacity of the overland water flow. Soil erosion by running water
occurs where the intensity and duration of rainstorms exceeds the capacity of the soil to
infiltrate the rainfall. The potential for erosion is based on many factors which include
including soil type, slope, and the energy or force of precipitation expected during the
period of surface disturbance.

Fig. 17.1. Tilled Farmland Very Susceptible to Erosion from Rainfall.

17.1.1 Factors Affecting Rainfall Erosivity

The various factors, which affect the erosivity of rain storm, are given as under:

1) Rainfall Intensity

Rainfall intensity refers to the rate of rainfall over the land surface. It is one of the most
important factors responsible for the erosive nature of rainfall. The rainfall intensity is
assumed as the force, by which an individual water droplets strikes over the soil surface. The
kinetic energy is related to the intensity of rainfall by the equation proposed by Wischmeier
and Smith (1958) as follows:

where, KE = kinetic energy of rainfall, tons per ha per cm of rainfall, and I = rainfall
intensity (cm/h).
2) Drop Size Distribution

The drop size distribution in a particular rainstorm influences the energy, momentum and
erosivity of the rain in cumulative way. The increases in median drop size, increases the
rainfall intensity. The relationship between the median drop size (D50) and rainfall intensity,
is given as under (Laws and Parsons, 1943):

In which, D50 is the median drop size (inch) and I is the intensity (inch/h).

3) Terminal Velocity

The effect of terminal velocity of falling raindrops is counted in terms of kinetic energy of
respective rain drops at the time of their impact over the soil surface. It is the function of
drop size. A rainstorm composed of large proportion of bigger size raindrops, has greater
terminal velocity and vice-versa. The kinetic energy of rain storm has following relationship
with terminal velocity, as:

where,

Ek = rainfall energy (watts /m2)3, I = Intensity of rainfall (mm/s), and V = Terminal velocity
of rainfall before impact (m/s).

Ellison (1947) developed an empirical relationship among the terminal velocity, drop
diameter and rainfall intensity, for computing the amount of soil detached by the rainfall as:

where, E = relative amount of soil detached, K = a constant, depends upon the soil
characteristics, V = velocity of raindrop (feet/s), d = drop diameter (mm), and I = rainfall
intensity (inch/h).

4) Wind Velocity

Wind velocity affects the power of rainfall to cause soil detachment, by influencing the
kinetic energy of rain storm. Tropical regions experience the occurrence of windy storm
most of the times. Wind driven storms are more effective than anticipated for breaking the
aggregates. The effect of wind velocity on soil detachment by rain storm is shown in Table 1.
Table 17.1. Effect of Wind Velocity on Soil Detachment at Different Intensities of Rain
Storm. (Source: Lyles et.al, 1969)

17.1.2 Estimation of Erosivity from Rainfall Data

The rainfall erosivity is related to the kinetic energy of rainfall. The following two methods
are widely used for computing the erosivity of rainfall.

1. EI30 Index method and

2. KE > 25 Index method.

1. EI30 Index Method

This method was introduced by Wischmeier (1965). It is based on the fact that the product of
kinetic energy of the storm and the 30-minute maximum rainfall intensity gives the best
estimation of soil loss. The greatest average intensity experienced in any 30 minute period
during the storm is computed from recording rain gauge charts by locating the maximum
amount of rain which falls in 30 minute period and later converting the same to intensity in
mm/hour. This measure of erosivity is referred to as the EI 30 index and can be computed for
individual storms, and the storm values can be added over periods of time to give weekly,
monthly or yearly values of erosivity.

The rainfall erosivity factor EI30 value is computed as follows:

where KE is rainfall kinetic energy and I30 is the maximum rainfall intensity for a 30-minute
period. Kinetic energy for the storm is computed from Eqn. 17.1.
Limitation

The EI30 index method was developed under American condition and is not found suitable
for tropical and sub-tropical zones for estimating the erosivity.

2. KE > 25 Index Method

This is an alternate method introduced by Hudson for computing the rainfall erosivity of
tropical storms. This method is based on the concept that erosion takes place only at
threshold value of rainfall intensity. From experiments, it was obtained that the rainfall
intensities less than 25 mm/h are not able to yield the soil erosion in significant amount.
Thus, this method takes care of only those rainfall intensities, which are greater than 25
mm/h. That is why the name is K.E. > 25 Index method. It is used in the same manner as the
EI30 index and the calculation procedure is also similar.

Calculation Procedure

The estimation procedure is same for both the methods. However, K.E. > 25 method is more
advantageous, because it sorts out many data less than 25 mm/h, hence uses less rainfall
data. For both the methods, it is important to have data on rainfall amount and its intensity.

The procedure involves the multiplication of rainfall amounts in each class of intensity to the
computed kinetic energy values and then all these values are added together to get the total
kinetic energy of the storm. The K.E. so obtained, is again multiplied by the maximum
30minute rainfall intensity to determine the rainfall erosivity value.

17.2 Soil Erodibility

Soil erodibility is an estimate of the ability of soils to resist erosion based on the physical
characteristics of each soil. Generally, soils with faster infiltration rates, higher levels of
organic matter and improved soil structure have a greater resistance to erosion. Sand, sandy
loam and loam textured soils tend to be less erodible than silt, very fine sand, and certain
clay textured soils (Fig. 17.2). On the basis of erodibility, a soil can be compared
quantitatively with the other soils for a given rainfall condition. Bouyoucos (1935) suggested
that the soil erodibility depends on mechanical composition of soil, such as sand, silt, and
clay, presented by the ratio as:

The range of particle diameter of clay, sand and silt is:

Clay = < 0.002 mm Silt

= 0.002 – 0.006 mm

Sand = 0.06 - 2.0 mm.

This indicator is reliable only in some cases.

Tillage and cropping practices which lower soil organic matter levels, cause poor soil
structure, and result in soil compactness contribute to increases in soil erodibility. Decreased
infiltration and increased runoff can be a result of compacted subsurface soil layers. A
decrease in infiltration can also be caused by a formation of a soil crust, which tends to "seal"
the surface. On some sites, a soil crust might decrease the amount of soil loss from sheet or
rain splash erosion, however, a corresponding increase in the amount of runoff water can
contribute to greater rill erosion problems.

Past erosion has an effect on soil erodibilit

y for a number of reasons. Many exposed
subsurface soils on eroded sites tend to be more erodible than the original soils were,
because of their poorer structure and lower organic matter. The lower nutrient levels often
associated with subsoils contribute
to lower crop yields and generally poorer crop cover,
which in turn provides less crop protection for the
soil.

Fig. 17.2. Conceptual Diagram Showing the Frequency Distributions of Three Soils in the
Erodibility Continuum. These could Represent the Same Soil Type under Three Levels of
Disturbance Intensity, for example Under Low (a), Moderate (b) or High (c) Stocking
Rates or the Responses of Three Different Soils, for example A Clay (a), A Loam (b) and A
Sand (c) to A Similar Level of Disturbance

17.2.1 Erodibility Determination

Erodibility is defined as the resistance of the soil to both detachment and transport. It varies
with soil texture, aggregate stability, shear strength, infiltration capacity and organic and
chemical content. Erodibility of a soil is designated by the soil erodibility factor K. There are
several approaches to determine K and the three major ones are discussed as given below.

1. Use of in situ erosion plots

2. Measuring K under a simulated rainstorm

3. Predicting K using regression equations describing the relationship between K and soil
physical and chemical properties.

 In Situ Erosion Plots

Erosion plots enable measurement of K under field conditions. They make use of a standard
condition of bare soil with no conservation practice and 7° slope of 22.13 m length of plots.
This approach is costly and time consuming.

Measuring K under a Simulated Rainstorm

This approach is less time consuming but relatively costly. The main drawback is that none
of the rainfall simulators built to date can recreate all the properties of natural rain.
Nevertheless this method is being used more extensively in erosion studies.

The rainfall simulator, generally used in this study, is made of Duction bars. It measures 1.80
m both in length and width and is 3.80 m high. Several kinds of nozzle are tested and the
one that produces water droplets close to natural rain is chosen. Water is released at a low
pressure. A wooden tray of dimension 1 m by 2 m and 15 cm deep is placed under the
simulator with the slope adjusted to 7°. A collecting structure is placed at the downslope end
to gather runoff and sediment. Soil samples collected from different erosion-sensitive
regions are placed in the wooden tray. The soil is then subjected to simulated rainstorm of
different intensities. Since, it is difficult to set predetermined rainfall intensity, the nozzle is
adjusted to low and high levels and the depth of water reaching the wooden tray is
measured using a beaker throughout the experiment. Total volume of runoff and sediment
are collected and measured.

Predicting K

K may be predicted using regression equations describing the relationships between K and
soil chemical and physical properties. The nomograph developed by Wischmeier et al. (1971)
expressing the relationship between K and soil properties is based on the following equation:

where, OM = Organic matter content (%), m = Silt plus fine sand content (%), St = Soil
structure code (very fine granular = 1; fine granular = 2; coarse granular = 3; blocky, platy or
massive = 4), Pt = Permeability class (rapid = 1, moderate to rapid = 2, moderate = 3, slow to
moderate = 4, slow = 5, very slow = 6), and K is predicted using the nomograph devised by
Wischmeir et al. (1971).
17.3 Relationship between Rainfall Energy and Soil Erosion

It is well-established that the amount of soil that is detached by a particular depth of rainfall
is related to the intensity at which this rain falls. The results of various studies further
suggest that soil splash rate is a combined function of rainfall intensity and some measure of
raindrop fall velocity (Ellison, 1944).

The relationship is given by:

where, S = quantity of soil splashed in 30 minutes duration, V = velocity of raindrop, ft./s,

D = diameter of raindrop, mm and I = intensity of rainfall, inch/h.

Raindrop diameter in storms of varying intensity can be observed for each region, resulting
in regressions such as: energy of a storm = energy of each segment of rain falling at a given
intensity multiplied by the number of millimeters fallen at this intensity (Bisal, 1960). The
expression is given by:

where, G = weight of soil splashed in gm, K = constant, depends upon the soil type, D = drop
diameter in mm, and V = impact velocity in m/s.

This impact energy is dissipated in four ways:

1. Compression of the soil under the rain's impact, following rapid moistening of the soil
surface;

2. Crushing and shearing stress: separation of aggregated particles;

3. Projection of elementary particles in a crown formation on flat soil and transport in all
directions but most effectively downhill on slopes.

4. Noise of the impact of the drops on resistant material.

Hudson (1965 and 1973) working in Zimbabwe, and Elwell and Stocking (1975) working on
well-structured ferralitic soils (oxisols), found the best relation between erosion and raindrop
energy above a certain threshold intensity (I > 25 mm/h) (E = K E, if I > 25 mm/h).

The above authors observed that only intense rain leads to erosion. However, it is likely that
any rain will have some ill effect on the soil surface, even if not all rains produce runoff. , But
they may foster the development of a fairly impermeable crust and accelerate runoff in
future storms.

On the basis of mass and velocity of raindrop, Mihara (1959) also reported that the splash
erosion is directly correlated with the kinetic energy of the raindrop. He developed the
following relationship for two different types of soil, given as:

For sandy soil,

Splash erosion K.E.0.9 and

For clay soil,

Splash erosion K.E.1.46

Solved Example

1. Find out the total kinetic energy of rainfall and also its erosivity using EI 30 and K.E.> 25
index methods for the following given rainfall amount and intensity values.

Solution:

Intensity (cm/h) Amount (cm) Energy (tons/ha cm) Total (col.2 × col. 3)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

 0.015 0.5 47.97 23.98

1.5 2.52 225.97 569.44

1.67 0.021 230.12 4.83

0.025 0.75 67.71 50.78

569.44 m tons/ha
For calculation of total kinetic energy, corresponding terms for rainfall intensity of less than
25 mm/h have not been considered. According to this method,

EI30 = 569.44 × 45 = 25624.28 t/ha cm/h Ans.

Lesson Estimation of USLE Parameters

The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) predicts the long term average annual rate of
erosion on a field slope based on rainfall pattern, soil type, topography, crop system and
management practices. This erosion model was developed for use in selected cropping and
management systems, but is also applicable to non-agricultural conditions such as
construction sites. The USLE can be used to compare soil losses from a particular field with a
specific crop and management system to "tolerable soil loss" rates. Alternative management
and crop systems may also be evaluated to determine the adequacy of conservation
measures in farm planning.

18.1 USLE Parameters

However, USLE predicts only the amount of soil loss that results from sheet or rill erosion on
a single slope and does not account for additional soil losses that might occur from gully,
wind or tillage erosion.

Five major factors are used to calculate the soil loss for a given site. Each factor is the
numerical estimate of a specific condition that affects the severity of soil erosion at a
particular location. The erosion values reflected by these factors can vary considerably due
to varying weather conditions. Therefore, the values obtained from the USLE more
accurately represent long-term averages.

USLE has been found to produce realistic estimates of surface erosion over areas of small
sizes (Wischmeier & Smith, 1978). Therefore, soil erosion within a grid cell was estimated
using the USLE. The USLE is expressed as:

A = gross amount of soil erosion (t ha-1 yr-1); it represents the potential long term average
annual soil loss in tons per hectare per year. This is the amount, which is compared to the
"tolerable soil loss" limits, R = rainfall factor related to rainfall-runoff erosion given in
MJ.mm.ha-1h-1, K = soil erodibility factor related to soil erosion (t.ha.h.MJ -1 mm-1), L = slope
length factor (dimensionless), S = slope steepness factor (dimensionless), C = factor related to
cover management (dimensionless); and P = conservation practice factor (dimensionless).
18.1.1 Description of Different Parameters of USLE

Rainfall Factor (R)

The erosivity factor to account for the erosive power of rainfall is related to the amount and
intensity of rainfall over the year (erosivity index unit). Rainfall erosivity is a term used to
describe the potential for soil to be washed off from disturbed, devegetated areas into
surface waters during storms. The potential for erosion is based on many factors which
include soil type, slope, and the energy or force of precipitation expected during the period
of surface disturbance.

Soil Erodibility Factor (K)

The soil erodibility factor to account for the soil loss rate is an erosion index unit which is
defined as the soil loss from a plot 22.1 m long on a 9% slope under a continuous bare
cultivated fallow. It ranges from less than 0.1 for the least erodible soils to close to 1.0 in the
worst possible case.

Topographic Factor (LS)

LS is the slope length-gradient factor. The topographic factor is used to account for the
length and steepness of the slope. The longer the slope, the greater is the volume of surface
runoff and the steeper the slope, the greater is its velocity. LS is 1.0 on a 9% slope and for a
22.1 meter long plot.

Crop Management Factor (C)

C is the crop/vegetation and management factor. It is used to determine the relative

effectiveness of soil and crop management systems in terms of preventing soil loss. The C
factor is a ratio of the soil loss from a land under a specific crop and management system to
the corresponding loss from a continuously fallow and tilled land. The C Factor can be
determined by selecting the crop type and tillage method.

The cover and management factor to account for the effects of vegetative cover and
management techniques for reduction of the soil loss would be equal to 1.0 in the worst case.
In an ideal case when there is no sediment loss, C would be zero.

Support Practice Factor (P)

P is the support practice factor. It reflects the effects of practices that will reduce the amount
and rate of the runoff and thus reduce the amount of erosion. The P factor represents the
ratio of soil loss by a support practice to that of straight-row farming up and down the slope.
The most commonly used supporting cropland practices are cross slope cultivation, contour
farming and strip-cropping. Ideally in an area with full support practice condition, P would
be zero meaning there is no sediment loss; whereas in an area without any support practice
P = 1.0 indicating maximum possible sediment loss in absence of any soil conservation
practice.

18.2 Assumptions and Estimation of USLE Parameters

Wischmeier (1976) reported that the USLE may be used to predict the average-annual soil
loss from a field-sized plot with specified land use conditions (Mitchell and Bubenzer 1980).
The assumptions associated with the USLE are as follows (Goldman et. al. 1986; Novotny
and Chesters 1981; Foster 1976; Onstad and Foster 1975):

• The USLE is an empirically derived algorithm and does not mathematically represent
the actual erosion process.
 • The USLE was developed to estimate long-term, average-annual, or seasonal soil loss.
Unusual rainfall seasons, especially higher than normal rainfall and typically heavy
storms may produce more sediment than estimated.

• The USLE estimates soil loss on upland areas only; it does not estimate sediment
deposition. Sediment deposition generally occurs at the bottom of a slope (i.e., change
in grade) where the slope becomes milder.

• The USLE estimates sheet, rill, and inter-rill erosion and does not estimate channel or
gully erosion. Gully erosion, caused by concentrated flows of water, is not accounted
for by the equation and yet can produce large volumes of eroded soil.

• The USLE was developed originally to address soil loss from field-sized plots,
although with proper care, watersheds can be addressed.

• Because the USLE only estimates the volume of sediment loss (i.e., the volume of soil
detached and transported some distance), it can be used to estimate sediment transport
capacity at a site.

• Because the USLE represents an empirically derived expression, consistently accurate

estimates of soil loss are fortuitous at best.

• The USLE does not estimate soil loss from single storm events unless a modified form
of the original equation is used.

18.2.1 Estimation of USLE Parameters

1. Rainfall Erosivity (R)

The following two methods are widely used for computing the erosivity of rainfall. a)

EI30 index method.

b) KE > 25 index method.

a) EI30 Index Method

This method was introduced by Wischmeier (1965). It is based on the fact that the product of
kinetic energy of the storm and the 30-minute maximum rainfall intensity gives the best
estimation of soil loss. The greatest average intensity experienced in any 30 minute period
during the storm is computed from recording raingauge charts by locating the maximum
amount of rain which falls in 30 minute period and later converting the same to intensity in
mm/hour. This measure of erosivity is referred to as the EI 30 index and can be computed for
individual storms, and the storm values can be added over periods of time to give weekly,
monthly or yearly values of erosivity.

The rainfall erosivity factor EI30 which gives R value is computed as follows:

where KE is the rainfall kinetic energy and I30 is the rainfall intensity for a 30-minute period.
Kinetic energy for the storm is computed using Eqn.17.1.
Limitation

The EI30 index method was developed under American conditions and is not found suitable
for tropical and subtropical zones for estimating the erosivity.

b) KE > 25 Index Method

This is an alternate method introduced by Hudson for computing the rainfall erosivity of
tropical storms. This method is based on the concept that, erosion takes place only at
threshold value of rainfall intensity. From experiment, it was obtained that rainfall intensity
less than 25 mm/h are not able to cause soil erosion in significant amount. Thus, this method
takes care of only those rainfall intensities, which are greater than 25 mm/h. Due to this
reason, it is named as K.E.> 25 index method.

Calculation Procedure

The estimation procedure is same for both the methods. However, K.E.> 25 method is more
advantageous, because it sorts out all the data with rainfall intensity of less than 25 mm/h
and therefore, requires less rainfall data. For application of both the methods it is essential to
have data on rainfall amount and intensity.
The procedure involves multiplication of rainfall amounts in each class of intensity to the
computed kinetic energy values and then all these values are added together to get the total
kinetic energy of storm. The btained
K.E. so ois again multiplied by the maximum
-minute 30
rainfall intensity, to determine the rainfall erosivity value.

2. Soil Erodibility
) (K

Erodibility of a soil is designated by the soil erodibility

K. Thefactor
formula used for
estimating K is as follow
s:

where,K= soil erodibility factor,

Ao = observed soil loss,
S = slope factor and
∑E = total
rainfall erosivity index. I

Although several techniques are available to determine the value of K, three important
approaches are discussed below.

1. Use of In Situ Erosion Plots

2. Measuring K under a Simulated Rainstorm

3. Predicting K using Regression Equations Describing the Relationship between K and Soil
Physical and Chemical Properties.
1. In Situ Erosion Plots

Erosion plots enable measurement of K under field conditions. They make use of a standard
condition of bare soil, no conservation practice and 7° slope of 22m with 22 m length of plot.
This approach is costly and time consuming.

2. Measuring K under a Simulated Rainstorm

This approach is less time consuming but relatively costly. The main drawback is that none
of the rainfall simulators built to date can recreate all the properties of natural rain.
Nevertheless this method is being used more extensively in erosion studies.

The rainfall simulator used in this study is made of Duction bars and measures 1.80 m by
1.80 m and 3.80 m high. Several kinds of nozzles are tested and the one that produces water
droplets close to natural rain is chosen. Water is released at a low pressure. A wooden tray of
dimension 1 m by 2 m and 15 cm deep is placed under the simulator with the slope adjusted
to 7°. The tray is properly packed with the test soil. A collecting structure is placed at the
down slope end to gather runoff and sediment. Soil samples are collected from different
erosion-sensitive regions placed in the wooden tray.

The soil is then subjected to simulated rainstorm of different intensities. Since, it is difficult
to set a predetermined rainfall intensity, the nozzle is adjusted to low and high levels and
the depth of water reaching the wooden tray is measured throughout the experiment using a
beaker. For all the experiments, runoff and sediments are collected and measured.

3. Predicting K using Regression Equations

K may be predicted using regression equations describing the relationships between K and
soil chemical and physical properties. The nomograph developed by Wischmeier et al. (1971)
expressing the relationship between K and soil properties is based on the following equation:

where OM = organic matter content (%), m = silt plus fine sand content (%), St = soil
structure code (very fine granular = 1, fine granular = 2, coarse granular = 3, blocky, platy or
massive = 4), Pt = permeability class (rapid = 1, moderate to rapid = 2, moderate = 3, slow to
moderate = 4, slow = 5, very slow = 6 ). Based on the above equation, Wischmeier et al.
(1971) developed a nomograph which is used to predict K.

3. Topographic Factor (LS)

Slope length factor (L) is the ratio of soil loss from a 22.13 m length plot under identical
conditions. The soil loss has a direct relationship with the slope length i.e., it is
approximately proportional to the square root of the slope length (L0.5).

Steepness of land slope factor (S) is the ratio of soil loss from the existing field slope gradient
to that from the 9% slope under otherwise identical conditions. The increase in steepness of
slope results in the increase in soil erosion as because the velocity of runoff increases with
the increase in field slope allowing more soil to be detached and transported along with
surface flow.
The two factors L and S are usually combined into one factor LS called topographic factor.
This factor is defined as the ratio of soil loss from a field having specific steepness and length
of slope (i.e., 9% slope and length 22 m) to the soil loss from a continuous fallow land. The
value of LS can be calculated by using the formula given by Wischmeier and Smith (1962):

where, L = Field slope length in feet and S = percent land slope.

Wischmeier and Smith (1978) based on the observations from crop land on slopes ranging
from 3 to 18% and length from 10 to 100 m, derived the following equation for LS factor in
M.K.S. system .

where, λ = field slope length in meters, m = exponent factor varying from 0.2 to 0.5 and θ =
angle of slope.

Mc Cool et al. (1987) further modified the slope steepness factor for use in USLE, described
as under.
 For Shorter Slopes not greater than 4 m

For this specific condition, the S can be predicted by the following

equation:

where, θ = the angle of slope

S = and
percent land
slope.
 For LongerSlopes

From an analysis, two relationships were derived. One is applicable to slopes less than 9%
and the other one for slopes equal to or greater than 9%. The revised equations are as
follows:

 Slope less than

9%
S = 10.8
Sin + (18.8)
θ 0.03
 Slope equal to or greater than 9%

S = 16.8 Sin θ - 0.50 (18.9)

These equations apply best to relatively smooth surfaces, where tillage is up and down the
hill and runoff does not vary with the slope for steepness above 8%.

 For the condition, where erosion is mainly caused by surface flow overthrowing the soil,
the following equations for S have also been developed.

(a) Slope less than 9%

S = 10.8 Sin θ + 0.03 (18.10)

(b) Slope equal to greater than 9%

4. Crop Management Factor, C

This is an important factor of USLE, because it accounts for the condition that can be easily
managed on soil to reduce the erosion. The value of C is determined as a weighted average
of soil loss ratios (SLRs), defined as the ratio of soil loss for a given condition of vegetative
cover at a specific time to that of the unit plot soil loss. As per this the definition, the SLRs
vary within a year duration, as the soil cover conditions are likely to change appreciably
during a year. To obtain the C value, the SLRs are weighted according to the erosivity
distribution during the entire year.

To compute SLRs, a sub- factor method is introduced, which is a function of four sub-factors

1. Prior land use-factor

sub (PLU)

2. Crop canopy-sub
factor (CC)

3. Surface cover-factor
sub (SC)

4. Surface roughness
- factor
sub (SR)

The sub
-factor relationship is given as under:

The values of-sub

factors PLU and SR for soilare
effect,
determined with the help of existing
bio-mass amount in the soil that is accumulated from the crop‟s root and incorporation of
crop residues. For computation-factor
of subvalue for SLRs, the characteristics of tillage
operation play an important
. role

The surface roughness factor

is determined
SC based on the effect of surface ground cover
as given below: on erosion as given by equation (18.13).
where, b = coefficient, assigned as 0.035. Its value increases as the tendency of rill erosion to
dominate inter rill erosion increases and M = percentage of ground cover.

5. Conservation Practices Factor, P

To determine the conservation practice factor, entire area can be divided into three
categories,

1. Straight rows

2. Straight rows with grassed waterways

3. Terraces

Then the following equation is used to estimate P:

Where, SR is the portion of area under straight rows. SRWW is the portion of area under
straight rows and grassed waterways; Pt is the erosion control practice for terracing and T is
referred as the terraced area.

Module : Sedimentation

Lesson 19 Sedimentation of Water Resources

Sediments play an important role in elemental cycling in the aquatic environment. They are
responsible for transporting a significant proportion of many nutrients and contaminants.
They also mediate their uptake, storage, release and transfer between environmental
compartments. Most sediment in surface waters derives from surface erosion and comprises
a mineral component, arising from the erosion of bedrock, and an organic component arising
during soil-forming processes (including biological and microbiological production and
decomposition). An additional organic component may be added by biological activity
within the water body.

19.1 Sedimentation

Sediment is fragmented material, which is transported or deposited by water, air or ice as

natural agents. Eventually sediment settles out and accumulates after transport; this process
is known as deposition. Among all, water is the most widespread agent of sediments
transport. Therefore, sediment yield from soil surface and its transportation by water is
commonly considered for study purposes. When land disturbance activities occur, soil
particles are transported by surface water movement. Soil particles transported by water are
often deposited in streams, lakes, and wetlands. This soil material is called sediment.
Sediment is the largest single nonpoint source pollutant and the primary factor in the
deterioration of surface water quality. Land disturbing activities such as road construction
and maintenance, timber harvesting, mining, agriculture, residential and commercial
development, all contribute to this problem. There are three basic types of sediments: rock
fragments, or clastic sediments; mineral deposits, or chemical sediments; and rock fragments
and organic matter, or organic sediments. Dissolved minerals form by weathering of rocks
exposed at the earth's surface. Organic matter is derived from the decaying remains of plants
and animals.

Sedimentation: It is the processes of letting suspended material settle by gravity. Suspended

material may be particles, such as clay or silts, originally present in the source water. More
commonly, suspended material is created from material in the water and the chemical used
in coagulation or in other treatment processes, such as lime softening. Sedimentation is
accomplished by decreasing the velocity of the water being treated to a point below which
the particles will no longer remain in suspension. When the velocity no longer supports the
transport of the particles, gravitational force will remove them from the flow. Sedimentation
is a general term for the processes of erosion, transport and deposition.

Sedimentology: It is the study of sediments and sedimentation.

19.2 Sources of Sedimentation

Sediment is delivered from two broad erosion sources. The first being sheet erosion and
second being channel type erosion. Sheet erosion is primarily an upland source of sediment
while channel type erosion; resulting from the concentrated flow of water; is comprised
mainly of gully erosion, valley trenching, streambed and stream bank erosion.

The sources of sediment can be listed as below:

1. Erosion from agricultural, forest and waste lands,

2. Movement of soil mass due to landslides, slumps and soil creeps,

3. From gully by concentrated runoff,

4. Stream bank erosion including cutting of banks and scouring from bed,

5. Erosion caused by occurrence of flood in the watershed,

6. Incident to the roads, railroads, cleaning of houses, industries etc. and

7. Mining and dumps left as waste materials over the ground surface.

In sediment analysis, the estimation of total sediment load carried away through any stream
has primary importance because based on the total sediment load, several preventive
measures can be adopted. The relative contribution of different sediment sources varies from
catchment to catchment. Therefore, consideration must be given to those sources whose
contribution is more effective and steps should be taken for controlling them.

19.3 Factors Affecting Sedimentation of Water Resources

Several factors affect the separation of settleable solids from water. Some of the common
types of factors are:
1. Land Use and Soil Type: Sediment yield is closely related to the soil type and land
use. Vegetation provides cover on the soil surface in the form of blanket to protect it from
the impact force of the rainfall. The energy of rain drop is dissipated resulting in reduction
of splashing effect over the ground surface. At the same time vegetation also creates a
hindrance in the flow of runoff; resu1ting in the reduction of flow velocity and ultimately
causing minimal scouring of soil particles from the soil surface. Furthermore, the infiltration
rate gets enhanced, which reduces the runoff and thereby sediment yield, too.

Soil type is an important variable to affect the sediment yield. For example if there are two
types of soil, one is sandy and the other is clay soil; the sandy soil has greater problem of
particles detachment due to its coarser characteristics, while the clay soil can not be detached
easily due to finer nature. In sandy soil, the soil loss (sediment yield) is more compared to
the later one. However, once detached, the clay particles can be transported more easily.

2. Catchment Size: There is an association between the rate of sediment production and
size of catchment area, because of the fact that the total runoff yield is dependent upon the
aerial extent of watershed. The peak flow per unit area decreases as the area increases while
the period of surface runoff increases with area. The reason behind this is that; a catchment
of lager area has greater time of concentration. As a result, more time is available to the
water for infiltrating into the soil. Ultimately there would be higher runoff and soil loss or
sediment yield. In a small size catchment there is a reverse trend. The relationship between
sediment yield per unit area and catchment area is shown in Fig. 19.1.

Fig. 19.1. Relationship between Sediment Yield and Area of Watershed. (Source: Suresh,
2009)

3. Climate and Rainfall: The relationship between sediment production and mean annual
rainfall of the area has been investigated by several scientists. The general relationship
between them is shown in Fig. 19.2 from which it can be seen that under dry conditions there
is no surface runoff and no sediment movement, while under high rainfall conditions, there
is a peak flow of surface runoff resulting in greater sediment yield.
Fig. 19.2 Relationship between sediment yield and mean annual Rainfall. (Source: Suresh,
2009)

4. Particle Shape: The shape of the particle affects its settling characteristics. A round
particle, for example, will settle much more readily than a particle that has rugged or
irregular edges. All particles tend to have a slight electrical charge. Particles with the same
charge tend to repel each other. This repelling action keeps the particles from congregating
into flocs and settling.

5. Water Temperature: Another factor responsible for sedimentation process is the

temperature of the water. When the temperature decreases, the rate of settling becomes
slower. With the highest temperature, the settling process becomes much faster as density of
water decreases at higher temperature.

19.4 Losses due to Sedimentation of Water Resources

Worldwide reservoir sedimentation is a serious problem and considered as a silent enemy.

The gradual reduction of capacity reduces the effective life of dams and diminishes benefits
for irrigation, hydropower generation, flood control, water supply, navigation and
recreation. On the other hand sediment deposition propagates upstream and up tributaries,
raises local groundwater table, reduces channel flood carrying capacity and bridge
navigation clearance and affects water division and withdrawals. On the other hand, the
reduction of sediment load downstream can result in channel and tributary degradation,
bank erosion and changes of the aquatic habits suited to a clear water discharge.

1. Loss of Reservoir Storage Capacity: The key impact of reservoir sedimentation is the
reduction in the useful life of the reservoir. Sediment deposition is a key factor
reducing the life of dams around the world. Reservoirs are expensive to build and
their construction usually entails high social and environmental costs. Entire
communities may be forced to relocate and ecosystems are destroyed due to their
construction. However, it is recognized that dams also bring many benefits such as
water storage, power generation and flood mitigation. Extending the life of dams
through careful management of sediment, therefore, should be a key priority.

2. Effects of Sediment on Hydropower Operations and Reservoir Operations: The

build-up of sediment in front of power intakes may result in significant costs for
hydropower operations. Dredging is often required to remove excess sediment and
allow a full flow of water through the intakes. If the sediment accumulation is high,
the reservoir outlet works (intake and bottom outlet structures) may also become
 clogged. Abrasion of hydraulic machinery may also occur, decreasing its efficiency
and increasing maintenance costs.

3. Impacts on Infrastructure: Too little sediment, especially downstream of dams, may

encourage accelerated erosion around structures on/in riverbeds or riverbanks due to
a lack of sediment recharge. In extreme cases, excessive erosion has led to incidents
such as bridge collapses. Cracks in infrastructure such as bridges and other structures
are typical results of such erosion. Aside from dams, sediment can have impacts on
other man-made infrastructure. Too much sediment can disrupt the normal
functioning of irrigation pump house intakes and can also disrupt irrigation when
excess sediment is deposited in canal systems. Deposition in canal systems can lead to
high costs for those reliant on these systems as a water supply. Dredging may be
required to remove surplus sediment. Sediment deposition may also result in
blockages or inefficiencies in irrigation infrastructure (including pumps and
distribution networks) and may even impact upon the produce. Sediment also has
negative impacts on domestic water supplies, causing problems in both water
treatment plants and distribution networks. Failure of water treatment plants,
especially in poor regions, can mean that the water is unsuitable for human
consumption. As a result populations may suffer from health problems.

4. Flooding: Flooding occurs when a watercourse is unable to convey the quantity of

runoff flowing downstream. The frequency with which this occurs is described by a
return period. Flooding is a natural process, which maintains ecosystem composition
and processes, but it can also be altered by land use changes including river
engineering. Increased sediment accumulation in river systems can raise the level of
the riverbed, subsequently increasing water levels. This deposition can have
significant implications for flooding, and may cause floods to pose a risk to human
settlements which would otherwise be contained by banks and levees.

5. Navigational Issues: The sedimentation of water courses can also make them
unsuitable for navigation without regular dredging work. This dredging is often costly
to operate.

6. Impacts on Wetlands and In-stream Ecosystems: Where dams do not exist to trap
sediment, excessive sediment inputs may have negative impacts on wetland areas.
This is especially the case where wetlands occur close to agricultural areas and where
land use change has resulted in increased rates of soil loss, increased downstream
sediment loads and increased rates of sedimentation in wetland areas. The impact of
excessive sediment deposition in wetlands may create ecological disruption.
Sedimentation results in alteration of aquatic food webs, nutrient cycling and
biogenic processes that transform and sequester pollutants. Eventually sediment
deposition may entirely smother wetlands resulting in limited biological diversity.

7. Impacts on Water Quality (Turbidity and Sediment-associated

Pollutants): Sediment is a pollutant in its own right. Even where sediment is
uncontaminated by agricultural fertilizers and pesticides and industrial or human
waste, they cause turbidity in the water which limits light penetration and prohibits
healthy plant growth on the river bed. The accumulation of sediments on the river
bed can smother or disrupt aquatic ecosystems by reducing food sources, and
degrading spawning grounds (such as gravel and rocky environments) and the
habitats of desirable fish species. Turbidity may also result in eutrophication where
nutrient rich sediments are present (particularly sediments from agricultural land
 with high fertilizer contents). Eutrophication creates a situation where the dissolved
oxygen present in the water system is reduced and the fish species may be unable to
survive in the water column. Eutrophication, where it results from toxic algal blooms,
can also be a serious risk to human health. Sediments in areas with high human
activity often contain chemical pollutants which may pose a risk to human health and
the health of surrounding ecosystems. Potable water supplies can be compromised by
the presence of excess sediment (whether contaminated by toxins or not) as
purification facilities may not be able to cope with the sediment in the water leading
to temporary breakdowns and subsequent risks to the safety of the drinking water.
Contaminated surface waters also cause a risk by altering the metabolic processes of
the aquatic species that they host. These alterations can lead to fish kills or alter the
balance of populations present. Other specific impacts are on animal reproduction,
spawning, egg and larvae viability, juvenile survival and plant productivity.

Lesson 20 Sediment Transport and Measurements

Transport of particles in flowing water takes place through sliding, rolling, saltation and
suspension. Different mechanisms of transport are discussed below.

20.1 Mechanics of Sediment Transportation

The four modes of particle transport in water are sliding, rolling, saltation and suspension.
Sliding particles remain in continuous contact with the bed, merely tilting to and fro as they
move. Rolling grains also remain in continuous contact with the bed, whereas saltation
grains „jump‟ along the bed in a series of low trajectories. Sediment particles in these three
categories collectively form the bed load. The suspended load consists of particles in
suspension. These particles follow long and irregular paths within the water and seldom
come in contact with the bed until they are deposited when the flow slackens. Sliding and
rolling are prevalent in low velocity flows, whereas; saltation and suspension take place in
high velocity flows. The region of flow influenced by proximity to the surface is called the
boundary layer. A boundary layer develops wherever a fluid moves over a surface.

The friction between flowing water and the bed generates a boundary layer in which
turbulent flow is dominant, except very close to the bed. Movement of sediment (erosion)
occurs when the shear stress generated by the frictional force of water flowing over the
sediment overcomes the force of gravity acting on the sediment grains and the friction
between the grains and the underlying bed. Shear stress is proportional to the square of the
mean current speed (and to the density of the water. Movement of grains of a given size
begins when the shear stress at the bed reaches a critical value (critical shear stress).

Cohesive sediments contain a high proportion of fine-grained clay minerals and are more
difficult to erode than non-cohesive sediments, which often consist mostly of quartz grains.
For cohesive sediments, the smaller the particle size, the greater the water velocity required
to erode them. Once in suspension, clay particles are transported for long distances by the
currents that would be much too weak to erode them. Shear stress is proportional also to the
velocity gradient in the boundary layer and to the viscosity of the water.

20.2 Types of Sediments Transported Along with Streams

Sediment transport is the movement of solid particles (sediment), typically due to a

combination of the force of gravity acting on the sediment, and/or the movement of the fluid
in which the sediment is entrained. An understanding of sediment transport is typically
used in natural systems, where the particles are clastic rocks (sand, gravel, boulders, etc.),
mud, or clay; the fluid is air, water, or ice; and the force of gravity acts to move the particles
due to the sloping surface on which they are resting.

Sediment movement in streams and rivers takes two forms. Suspended sediment is the finer
particles which are held in suspension by the eddy currents in the flowing stream, and settle
out only when the stream velocity decreases, such as when the streambed becomes flatter, or
the stream discharges into a pond or a lake. Larger solid particles are rolled along the
streambed and are called the bed load. There is an intermediate type of movement where
particles move downstream in a series of bounces or jumps, sometimes touching the bed and
sometimes carried along in suspension until they fall back to the bed. This is called
movement in saltation, and is a very important part of the process of transport by wind, but
in liquid flow the height of the bounces is so low that they are not readily distinguished from
rolling bed load.

Sediment transport is a direct function of water movement. During transport in a water

body, sediment particles become separated into three categories: suspended material which
includes silt + clay + sand; the coarser, relatively inactive bed load and the saltation load.

20.2.1 Bed Load

Bed load is the clastic (particulate) material that moves through the channel fully supported
by the channel bed itself. These materials, mainly sand and gravel, are kept in motion
(rolling and sliding) by the shear stress acting at the boundary. Unlike the suspended load,
the bed-load component is almost always capacity limited (i. e. a function of hydraulics
rather than supply). A distinction is often made between the bed-material load and the bed
load.

Bed-material load is that part of the sediment load found in appreciable quantities in the bed
(generally > 0.062 mm in diameter) and is collected in a bed-load sampler. The bed material
is the source of this load component and it includes particles that slide and roll along the bed
(in bed-load transport) but also those near the bed transported in saltation or suspension
phase. Bed load, strictly defined, is just that component of the moving sediment that is
supported by the bed (and not by the flow). The term “bed load” refers to a mode of
transport and not to a source. Since bed load consists of stony material (gravel and cobbles),
it moves by rolling along the bed of a river because it is too heavy to be lifted into
suspension by the current of the river. Bed load is especially important during periods of
extremely high discharge and in landscapes of large topographical relief, where the river
gradient is steep (such as in mountains). It is rarely important in low-lying areas. The portion
of the sediment load that is transported along the bed by sliding, rolling or hopping can be
termed as the bed load. Bed load moves at velocities slower than the flow and spends most
of its time on or near the stream bed. In many streams, grains smaller than 1/8 mm are
always suspended while grains great than 8 mm travel as bed load. The strength of flow
determines the transport mechanism of grains in between these two sizes. Sediment
transport can also be categorized based on the source of the grains: 1) bed material load,
which is grains found in the stream bed; and 2) wash load, which is finer grains found as less
than a percent or two of the total amount in the bed.

20.2.2 Suspended Load

Suspended load consists of sediment particles that are mechanically transported by
suspension within a stream or river. This is in contrast to bed or traction load, which consists
of particles that are moved along the bed of a stream and dissolved load which consists of
material that has been dissolved in the stream water. In most streams, the suspended load is
composed primarily of silt and clay size particles. Sand-size particles can also be part of the
suspended load if the stream flow velocity and turbulence are great enough to hold them in
suspension.

The suspended load can consists of particles that are intermittently lifted into suspension
from the stream bed and of wash load and also those which remains continuously
suspended unless there is a significant decrease in stream flow velocity. Wash load particles
are finer than those along the stream bed, and therefore must be supplied by bank erosion,
mass wasting, and mass transport of sediment from adjacent watersheds into the stream
during rainstorms. Water density is proportional to the amount of suspended load being
carried. Muddy water high in suspended sediment will therefore increase the particle
buoyancy and reduce the critical shear stress required to move the bed load of the stream.

Suspended load comprises sand + silt + clay sized particles that are held in suspension
because of the turbulence of the water. The suspended load is further divided into the wash
load which is generally considered to be the silt + clay sized material (< 62 μm in particle
diameter) and is often referred to as “fine-grained sediment”. The wash load is mainly
controlled by the supply of this material (usually by means of erosion) to the river. The
amount of sand (> 62 μm in particle size) in the suspended load is directly proportional to
the turbulence and mainly originates from erosion of the bed and banks of the river. In many
rivers, suspended sediment (i.e. the mineral fraction) forms most of the transported load.
Particulate sediment that is carried in the body of the flow is of the following types.

1. Suspended load moves at the same velocity as the flow.

2. The Hjulstrom curve shows that a much higher velocity is required to entrain clay and
fine silt than coarse sand. However, once the fine sediment is in suspension, a much
lower velocity is required to maintain it in suspension.

3. The quantity and quality of the load is defined in terms of competence and capacity.
Competence is the large size clast that a stream can carry, whereas capacity is the
volume of sediment carried. Competence (caliber) is a function of velocity and slope
whereas capacity is a function of velocity and discharge.
 4. A small particle (e.g. clay and fine silt), with a large relative surface area, is held in
suspension more easily because of the electrostatic attraction between the unsatisfied
charges on the grain's surface and the water molecules. This force, tending to keep the
particle in the flow, is large compared to the weight of the particle.

20.2.3 Wash/Dissolved Load

Although wash load is part of the suspended-sediment load it is useful to make a distinction.
Unlike most suspended-sediment load, wash load does not rely on the force of mechanical
turbulence generated by the flowing water to keep it in suspension. It is so fine (in the clay
range) that it is kept in suspension by thermal molecular agitation. Because these clays are
always in suspension, wash load is that component of the particulate or clastic load that is
“washed” through the river system. Unlike coarser suspended-sediment, wash load tends to
be uniformly distributed throughout the water column and therefore moves with the mean
velocity of main stream. That is, unlike the coarser load, it does not vary with height above
the bed.

Wash load concentrations are approximately uniform in the water column. This is described
by the end member case in which the Rouse number is equal to 0 (i.e. the settling velocity is
far less than the turbulent mixing velocity), which leads to a prediction of a perfectly
uniform vertical concentration profile of material. The Rouse number is a ratio of sediment
fall velocity to upward velocity.

Dissolved load is the term for material; especially ions from chemical weathering that are
carried in solution form by a stream. The dissolved load contributes to the total amount of
material removed from a catchment. The amount of material carried as dissolved load is
typically much smaller than the suspended load, though this is not always the case.
Dissolved load comprises a significant portion of the total material flux out of a landscape,
and its composition is important in regulating the chemistry and biology of the stream.
Factors that govern the percentage of dissolved and suspended loads in the flowing streams
include:

1. Climate: Temperature, Precipitation, Vegetation.

2. Vegetation: Type and Amount.

3. Activity by Man: Mining, Construction, Clear Cutting, etc.

4. Rock Solubility: e.g. Hard Water in Carbonate Terranes.

5. Erodibility of Materials in the Drainage Basin.

6. Relief and Slope.

20.3 Methods of in Stream Sediment Measurements

There are different methods for stream sediment measurements: such as bed load,
suspended load, wash load, dissolved load and saltation load measurements.

20.3.1 Bed Load-Measurements

Bed load gauging (also called bed load transport measurement) is often mixed up with bed
material sampling. Bed load gauging is the measurement of the amount of sediment that is
moving as “bed load”, i.e. rolling, sliding and bouncing (in “saltation”) on or over the stream
bottom, while bed material sampling is the collection of the material comprising the stream
bottom. Bed load is extremely difficult to measure directly because the measuring
instrument (bed load sampler) invariably interferes with the flow. Most bed load movement
occurs during periods of high discharge on steep gradients when the water level is high and
the flow is extremely turbulent. Such conditions also cause problems for field measurements.

A commonly used type of bed-load sampler is shown in Fig. 20.1. In small streams where
the sampler can often be placed on the bed so that it is appropriately oriented towards the
flow, the sample collected may be meaningful although there is always some bed scour at
the inlet that distorts the actual bed-load transport in the vicinity of the instrument. In large
rivers where the sampler must be lowered from a boat by cable to an unseen bed,
measurements can be highly inaccurate and must be repeated many times before reliable
results can be obtained. The problems relate largely to the fact that the operator is unable to
see the position of the sampler on the bed. If the sampler settles on a boulder or dune face,
for example, it may push the sampler inlet into the bed and as a result the sampler may
drastically over sample the rate of bed-load transport. At other times the sampler position
and the bed morphology may be such that scouring of the bed at the sampler inlet could be
severe leading to over sampling.

Fig. 20.1. A Commonly Used Type of Bed-load Sampler.

When the bed-load sampler is appropriately oriented towards the flow direction, bed-load
material enters the sampler through the inlet and the divergent flow within the sampler
reduces the flow velocity, allowing the sediment to accumulate. A fine mesh provided at the
rear of the sampler allows the incoming water but not the bed-load sediment to pass
through. After an appropriate measured time-interval the sampler is taken out and the
trapped sediment is removed for weighing.

A different problem during sampling occurs if the bed-load sampler settles on the back of a
dune or perhaps the front of the sampler settles on an object that keeps the inlet from
contacting the bed. For these reasons river scientists often prefer to rely on other methods to
estimate bed-load transport rates in rivers. Methods other than direct measurement by
bedload sampler include:
1. Bed-load Pits or Traps

These are the installations that divert sediment from a channel and convey it to a
measurement facility where it is weighed and then returned once again to the channel so
that the sediment-transport system is not unduly disrupted. Obviously such a facility is
expensive to build and operate and there are few of them. The main purpose of such a
facility is to calibrate bed-load transport equations for se on other river channels. 2.
Morphological Methods

a) Bed Form Surveys

Where bed-material is moving as bedforms such as dunes, bedform surveys can be used to
track the downstream movement of sediment. This technique relies on high-resolution sonar
imaging of the river bed to construct profiles that can be differenced to determine the
volumetric bed-load sediment transport rate.

b) Channel Surveys

Channel surveys can be used to produce sequential morphologic maps of a reach of river
that can be differenced (using GIS) to yield amounts of erosion and deposition over time.
The principle here is the same as that for bedform surveys but in this case involves the entire
three-dimensional channel morphology. Like the bedform-based calculation, differencing
channel morphology as a basis for calculating bed-load sediment transport relies on the
assumption that there is no sediment throughput. That is, all transported bed-load is
involved in local deposition and erosion and not simply transported through the reach
without contributing to the changing channel morphology

c) Sedimentation-zone Surveys

Sedimentation-zone surveys are one of the most reliable methods of determining

representative long-term bed-load transport rates in rivers. This morphologic method relies
on measuring the accumulating sediment in a feature such as a delta that a river is gradually
building into a lake or embayment

20.3.2 Suspended Load-measurements

The simplest way of taking a sample of suspended sediment is to dip a bucket or other
container into the stream, preferably at a point where the sediment is well mixed, such as
downstream from a weir or rock bar. The sediment contained in a measured volume of
water is filtered, dried and weighed. This gives a measure of the concentration of sediment
and when combined with the rate of flow gives the rate of sediment discharge. For
determining suspended sediment load, it is necessary to consider all particle sizes (sand +
silt + clay). Therefore, a depth-integrating sampler must be used to ensure that the
depthdependent sand-sized fraction is correctly sampled. There are two generally accepted
methods for measuring suspended sediment concentration for load determination as
described below:

1. Equal-discharge-increment Method: This method requires that at first a complete

flow measurement be carried out across the cross section of the river. Using the results, the
crosssection should be divided into five (more on large or complex rivers) intervals (i.e.
vertical sections) having almost equal discharge in each interval. The number n of the
intervals is selected based on experience. Depth integrated suspended sediment sampling is
carried out at one vertical within each of the equal-discharge-intervals, usually at a location
most closely representing the centroid of flow for that interval. The sediment concentration
for each equal-discharge- interval should be measured. The mean discharge-weighted
suspended sediment concentration (SSc) should be obtained by taking the average of the
concentration values C obtained for each interval i.

The discharge-weighted suspended sediment load (SSL), in tonnes per day, for the river
cross-section have to be obtained by multiplying the concentration, C in ppm (mg/l) by the
discharge, Q, in m3/s of each equal-discharge-interval, i and summing for all the intervals.
This method is very time-consuming, but is the most used by the sediment recording
agencies.

2. Equal-width-increment Method: This method is used without making flow

measurements and is usually used in small to medium rivers and especially rivers that are
shallow enough for wading. The operator marks off 10-20 equal intervals across the river
cross-section. At the deepest point, the operator takes a depth-integrated sample, noting the
transit rate of the sampler (i.e. the uniform speed at which the sampler is lowered, then
raised to the surface). Using that same transit rate, a suspended sediment sample is taken at
each of the intervals. Because each vertical will have a different depth and velocity, the
sample volume will vary with each vertical sampled. Care should be taken to see that the
bottle is never over-filled. All samples are collected in a single container which is then
agitated and sub-sampled, usually two or three times and analysed for suspended sediment
concentration. The average of these values is the mean cross sectional suspended sediment
concentration. In this method, the results are corrected for differences in discharge at each
section caused due to the same transit rate (and the same nozzle diameter) used at all
sections although a shallow section with less discharge produces a proportionally smaller
suspended sediment sample than a deep section having a higher discharge.

For suspended sediment quality, where the primary interest is the chemistry associated with
the silt + clay (< 0.63 μm) fraction, sampling can be greatly simplified because this fraction is
not normally depth dependent. While there are no universally accepted rules for sampling,
many scientists collect a grab sample from a depth of 0.5 m at the point of maximum flow in
the cross-section. For larger rivers, or rivers where there is concern over cross-sectional
variation, grab samples can be taken from several locations across the section. For more
precise work where accurate loads are required, especially for micro-pollutants, sampling
should be carried out using either of the methods mentioned above. It is particularly
important to avoid sampling near river banks (or lake shores) where elevated concentrations
of suspended matter occur and which are often contaminated by garbage and other
anthropogenic materials.
In-stream Sediment Measurements

In-stream sediment measurement is very important as most precise information on sediment

flow can be obtained from this measurement. Different techniques followed for this
measurement are discussed in this chapter.

21.1 Location of Measurement

When the question „where to measure‟ comes to our mind the most obvious answer in a
broader sense is where the data can be collected, however the answer is not so simple. It
becomes quiet complex when sediment concentrations or loads of an entire large area need
to be characterized which largely depends on the information wanted and the particular
situation being studied. Generally, measurements should be made downstream as close as
possible to the area of disturbance. The effect of a sediment-producing condition is
attenuated and its effect is confounded with the effects of dilution and other sediment
sources farther downstream. If the downstream effects of a disturbance are being studied, it
is better to measure at the affected site.

The location of measuring station also depends on the hydraulic conditions in the stream. In
some streams, control can be affected by geology or large organic debris. Bedrock cropping
out at the crest of major riffles or falls can provide excellent control in natural channels. In
some situations, well emplaced logs stabilize the channels and provide suitable locations to
measure both the suspended sediment concentration and discharge. Along with location,
depth is the other factor which affects the concentration of sediment in the streams i.e. near
the stream bed it is more, in the middle relatively less, while on the top of the surface it is too
less. Thus it is very difficult to select the sampling point, which can accurately define the
sediment concentration in vertical cross-section of stream.

21.2 Frequency of Measurement

Frequency of sampling depends upon the sediment concentration in the stream flow. It is
well known that the sediment concentration increases rapidly on the rising phase of the
hydrograph than the falling phase. Therefore, sediment samples should be collected more
frequently at the beginning of runoff and it should be continued up to the peak stage of
runoff. The sample should be taken at every 15 minutes interval.

21.3 Number of Monitoring Stations

In most of the cases the entire runoff of the watershed is drained from a single point known
as the outlet, the collection of the sediment sample should be carried out from the outlet
point. The outlet is an ideal location of monitoring station for the entire watershed.
Similarly, in case of drainage system, where flow is drained from more than one points,
gauging station should be provided at each outlet point for sampling.

21.4 Observation and Collection of Sediment Samples

There are several methods which are used today for evaluation of sediment transport in
rivers. The total number of sampling points (Table 21.1) to be considered for collecting the
sediment samples depends on the width of the stream flow.

Table 21.1. Number of Sampling Points in the Stream.

 Width of No. of Sampling Location of Point from Site
Stream (m) Points

25, 50 and 75% of the stream width

< 30 3

25, 35, 50, 65 and 80% of the stream width

30 – 300 5

15, 30, 40, 50, 60,70 and 85% of the stream width
> 300 7

Apart from width-wise sediment sampling, the depth-wise sampling is also carried out
using the following points:

1. In case of single point sampling, the sample should be collected from the depth of 0.6 d,
measured from the surface (d = the depth of the stream).

2. In case of double point sampling, one sample should be collected from the point near
the top of water surface i.e. at a depth of about 0.2 d and other near the stream bed at
about 0.8 d. The concentration of sediment is weighted equally.

3. For three point sampling: one sample should be taken near the top of water surface,
second from mid depth of stream and the third near the stream bed, and weighted
equally.

4. Similarly, in case of multiple sampling, there should be several samples from several
points of vertical section of the stream flow. This helps to elaborate the sediment
distribution in the stream.

5. The sediment sampler should be kept in vertical position from the stream bed.

6. The mouth of the sampler should be opened after reaching the desired depth of stream
flow.

7. Whenever it is expected that the distribution of sediment is uniform in the stream flow,
sampling should be done only at 0.6d of the stream flow.

21.5 Estimation of Different Loads from Samples

Bed load is not amenable to theoretical treatment. The following two methods are generally
used for estimation of bed load.
 1. Analytical Method

2. Stream Sampling

1. Analytical Method: Computation of bed-load movement using analytical method

involves several relations; these relations can be empirical or analytical. The derivation of the
relation is done based on the following two basic concepts:

1) A minimum fluid force is exerted on the soil particles before initiating their movement.

2) The force exerted by the soil particles on the channel bed is not constant, but varies about
some mean value. This concept is based on the theory of turbulent flow.

The different forces acting on the soil particles of non-cohesive material are basically the
gravity and fluid forces. The analytical method for computing the bed load transport
involves several empirical relations. Few of them are described as under:

Du Boys Formula: This formula is based on the theory of tractive force, which was derived
on the assumptions that the coarser particles are moved in the form of layers and subject to
uniform tractive force and vertical velocity gradient of the moving coarser particles is linear.
The formula for bed load estimation is written as under:

where, qs = rate of bed load transport (volume per second per unit stream width); cs =

coefficient, depends upon the shape and size of the sediment particle = , where d is
the grain diameter (mm); T0 = average shear stress exerted on the channel boundary and Tc =
critical shear stress.

An estimate of the average boundary shear stress (T0) exerted by the fluid on the bed is:

where, γ = the specific weight of water, D = the flow depth (~ hydraulic radius), and Sf = the
friction slope.

And the estimate of Critical shear stress () can be defined by equating the applied forces to
the resisting forces. For soil grains of diameter d and angle of repose on a flat bed, the
following relations can approximate the critical shear for various sizes of sediment:

For clays,

For silts and sands,

For gravels and cobbles,

where,

And = the unit weight of the sediment; = the unit weight of the water/sediment mixture; G =
the specific gravity of the sediment; g = gravitational acceleration; v = the kinematic viscosity
of the water/sediment mixture

Shield’s Formula: Shield's formula is applied for estimating the bed load movement
consisting of uniform size of sediments. The equation was derived by considering the effect
of specific gravity of the sediment. The Shield's formula is written as:

where, Ss = specific gravity of sediments, such as stone grains; S = stream bed slope (mm); qs
= discharge rate (m3/s per unit width of stream); q = discharge per unit channel width; =
specific gravity of the fluid; d = diameter of sediment (mm).

Mayer Peter’s Formula: This was developed based on the effect of grain diameter, slope of
channel bed and discharge characteristics of flow on bed load movement. It is written as:

where, Gs = rate of bed load transport per unit width of channel (kg/h.m); = Mannning‟s
roughness coefficient for plain bed = , in which d is the effective grain diameter; N = actual
value of Manning's roughness coefficient for rippled bed. Generally, the value of N is taken
as 0.020 for discharge of more than 11 m 3/s and 0.0225 for a lower discharge value; = unit
tractive force exerted by flowing water = 0.97·. RS; = critical shear stress required to displace
the sediments = 0.07 d, kg/m2; R = hydraulic mean depth and S = stream bed slope.

Chang Formula: Chang proposed the following formula for estimating the bed load:

where, Gi = rate of bed-load transport in pounds/second/unit width; k = constant; n =

Manning's roughness coefficient; = unit tractive force due to stream water flow, = critical
shear stress required to displace the sediment = 0.0175 (1.65 d)x when specific gravity of the
sediment is 2.65; in which, d is sediment diameter (mm); x = exponent which is either equal
to unit or half, depending upon whether the value of 1.65 d is greater or less than unity
respectively.

Schoklitsch Formula: This formula was developed based on experimental data, obtained by
installation of flume in the stream. The Schoklitsch formula assumes that the bed-load contains
the materials of uniform size.

The formula may be written as:

where, Gi = rate of bed-load transport (F.P.s) (kg/s); d = particle diameter (m); S = slope of
stream bed; q = observed discharge (m3/s); qc = critical discharge (m3/s); it is given

by

2. Stream Sampling [Bed Load Sampling]

The estimation of rate of bed load movement through the stream flow is carried out by
placing the sampler over the bed and measuring the amount of materials collected for a
given time. The samplers used for collecting the bed load sample are known as bed load
samplers. The sampler is kept in position by a rod, when the depth of stream flow is low or
by a cable from the boat, from a trolley or pulley running on a cable spanned across the river
or from a bridge. The lowering and raising of the sampler is done with the help of a winch.
Based on the construction and principles of operation, bed-load samplers are of different
types. They are:

1. Basket Type

2. Tray or Pan Type

3. Pressure Difference Type

For estimating the bed load, the samples collected through the samplers are dried and
weighted. The dry weight is then divided by the time taken for measurement and width of
the stream bed to get the bed load movement per unit stream width per unit time. A curve
between the rate of movement and stream flow can also be drawn. From this rating curve,
the rate of bed load movement for different discharges of the stream can be determined. This
is usually practiced as continuous discharge measurement using stage level recorder is much
easier compared to continuous monitoring of bed load.

Bed load is the sum of saltation load and surface creep. It is obtained either by using bed
load samplers or can be computed by using several formulae. In case, the measurement of
bed load is not possible due to some unforeseen reasons, then depending upon bed load
materials, an amount ranging from 2.5% to 15% of suspended load is added to the
suspended load as bed load to get the amount of sediment load transported by stream flow.
Reservoir Sedimentation

Reservoirs are constructed by incurring a huge sum of capital expenditure. Therefore, they
should provide service with a long useful life. Sedimentation is a big problem as it reduces
the life of the reservoir considerably. Therefore, it is essential to know the sedimentation
process in the reservoirs to evolve some strategy to tackle the problem.

22.1 Distribution of Sediments in Reservoirs

The integrated development of river basin also involves the construction of storage body i.e.
reservoir for solving the problems of irrigation, power generation, flood control etc. The
sedimentation is one of the main problems in reservoir operation. The problem should be
essentially considered in the design and maintenance of reservoirs, because deposition of
sediments in the reservoirs reduces their net storage capacity. The sedimentation process
starts in the reservoir due to the fact that as river water enters the storage area, the velocity
of flow is reduced due to increased cross-sectional area of the channel. In course of
sedimentation, if water already stored in the reservoir is clear and the inflow is muddy, then
these two fluids of different densities involve different velocities. The turbid water tends to
flow along the channel bed towards the dam due to gravity force. This type of flow is
referred as stratified flow and the under flow is called as density current. Basically, the
density currents are the gravity flow. All these processes of sediment deposition in the
reservoir refer to the reservoir sedimentation.

In reservoir design, allowance for deposition of sediment must be provided. The volume of
reservoir which is to be used for irrigation, power generation etc., is called as live storage; it
should be fixed after providing allowance for sediment deposition. On the basis of
observations taken from several existing reservoirs, it has been found that the major portion
of sediments get deposited in the live storage part, which greatly affects the functioning of
the reservoir. The knowledge on the distribution pattern of sediments in the reservoir plays
an important role in its planning and design.
 1. It provides an idea about how sediments tend to deposit near the dam during a given
time period, on the basis of which the levels of outlet for water flow and penstock gates
etc. can be decided.

2. The allocation of the various storages of reservoir is carried out, on the basis of
distributed silts throughout the reservoir depth.

3. It helps to determine the region of delta formation in the reservoir and thereby increase
in back water level.

4. The sediment distribution pattern also helps to decide the sites for locating the
recreational facilities such as swimming, boating areas etc.

All reservoirs formed by dams on natural water courses are subject to some degree of
sediment inflow and deposition. The problem confronting the project planner is to estimate
the rate of deposition and the period of time before the sediment will interfere with the
useful function of the reservoir. Provisions should be made for sufficient sediment storage in
the reservoir at the time of design so as not to impair the reservoir functions during the
useful life of the project or during the period considered as the minimum economic life.
There are a series of basic steps to be followed in studying the sedimentation processes in
reservoirs. First, sediment transported by the upstream river system into a reservoir is
deposited and/or transported at a reduced rate further into the reservoir, the distance being
dependent on the decreased water velocities. As sediment accumulates in the reservoir,
storage capacity is reduced. The continued deposition develops distribution patterns within
the reservoir which are greatly influenced by both operations of the reservoir and timing of
large flood inflows. Deposition of the coarser sediments occurs in the upper or delta reaches
while finer sediments may reach the dam and influences the design of the outlet works. A
major secondary effect is the downstream degradation of the river channel caused by the
releases of clear water.

Sedimentation processes in a reservoir are quite complex because of the wide variation in the
many influencing factors. The most important being (1) hydrological fluctuations in water
and sediment inflow, (2) sediment particle size variation, (3) reservoir operation fluctuations
and (4) physical controls or size and shape of the reservoir. Other factors that may be quite
important for some reservoirs are: vegetative growth in upper reaches, turbulence and/or
density currents, erosion of deposited sediments and/or shoreline deposits, and operation
for sluicing of sediment through the dam.

22.2 Distribution and Estimation of Reservoir Sedimentation

Sediment is the end product of erosion or wearing away of the land surface by the action of
water, wind, ice and gravity. Water resource development projects are most affected by
sediment transported by water. The total amount of onsite sheet and gully erosion in a
watershed is known as the gross erosion. However, all the eroded material does not enter the
stream system; some of the material is deposited at natural or manmade barriers within the
watershed and some may be deposited within the channels and their flood plains. The
portion of the eroded material which travels through the drainage network to a downstream
measuring or control point is referred to as the sediment yield. The sediment yield per unit of
drainage area is the sediment yield rate. Most methods for predicting sediment yields are
either directly or indirectly based on the results of measurements. Direct measurements of
sediment yields are considered the most reliable method for determination of sediment
yields. This is accomplished by either surveying of reservoirs or sampling the sediment load
of a river. Both the methods are described in the subsequent sections. Other methods for
predicting sediment yields depend on measurements to derive empirical relationships or
utilize empirically checked procedures such as the sediment yield rate weighting factors or
the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). Sediment yield rate factors are the factors which
determine the sediment yield of a watershed and they can be summarized as follows: 1.
Rainfall amount and intensity, Soil type and geologic formation,

2. Ground cover,

3. Land use,

4. Topography,

5. Upland erosion (nature of drainage size, and alignment of channels),

6. Runoff,

7. Network-density, slope, shape, sediment characteristics such as grain size, mineralogy,

etc. and

8. Channel hydraulic characteristics.

Gross erosion includes sheet, rill and gully erosion. In the small drainage basins, sheet and
rill erosions are the major source of reservoir sediments. The USLE and the Musgrave
equation are commonly used to compute the sheet and rill erosion. These equations were
derived by empirical methods from small experimental plot data. The universal soil loss
equation is:

A = RKLSCP (22.1)

where, A = the average annual soil loss (tons per ha) predicted by the equation; R = the
rainfall factor; K = the soil erodibility factor (tons per ha per year); LS = the length and
steepness of slope factor; C = the cropping and management factor; and P = the supporting
conservation practice factor (terracing, strip cropping, and contouring).

The Musgrave equation is as follows:

where, E = the sheet and rill erosion (inches per year); I = the erosion from continuous
row crop from the given soil (adjusted to 1.25 inches rainfall) in inches per year; R' = the
cover factor (fallow or continuous row crop equals 100); S = the degree of land slope in
percent (with 10% as standard); L = the length of land slope in feet (with 72.6 feet as
standard); P30 = the maximum 30-minute rainfall amount, 2-year frequency, in inches
(with 1.25 inches as standard). The factor, I, was not available for the soils used in this study.
The equation was modified by substituting the product „0.59 KR‟ for I and by adding the
practice factor P, both from the universal soil loss equation. The product KR is the soil loss
from continuous fallow. Thus, multiplying the product KR by 0.59, the soil loss from
continuous row crop is obtained which is comparable to the soil loss given by I. The
term [P30/1.25]1.75 was dropped because rainfall is included in the R factor. Assuming the
average volume-weight of the upland soils as 150 tons per acre-inch, the modified equation
becomes:

where E' is the sheet and rill erosion in inches per year.

22.3 Factors Affecting the Sedimentation of Reservoirs

Sedimentation is the process of letting suspended material settled by gravity. Suspended

material may be particles, such as clay or silts, originally present in the source water.
Sedimentation occurs due to the decrease in velocity of the water to a point below which the
particles will no longer remain in suspension. When the velocity no longer supports the
transport of the particles, gravity will remove them from the flow. Several factors affect the
sedimentation of reservoirs. Some of the more common types of factors to be considered are:

1. Slope of Stream: The deposition of the sediment takes place in the bottom portion, of
the reservoir which are constructed on a stream having steep slope and longer reach
whereas, deposition of the sediment takes place in higher elevation of the reservoir
which are constructed on the stream with flat slope.

2. Reservoir Length: The distribution of sediment in the reservoir is affected greatly by

its length. It has been observed that the large size sediment is deposited in the lower
portion of the reservoir for a shorter length and the smaller size sediment is deposited
at the higher elevation of the reservoir for longer length.

3. Reservoir Constriction: If there is constriction in the reservoir, the deposition of the

sediment takes place in the upper portion comparatively in large proportion. The
sediment deposition pattern is flatter in the constricted portion but it does not follow
the natural slope of the stream.

4. Size of Sediment: The size and type of particles have a significant effect on the
sedimentation. Because of their density, sand or silt can be removed very easily. The
velocity of the water-flow in stream is slowed down as soon as they enter into the
reservoir, and most of the gravel and grit settle down by simple gravitational forces.

5. Capacity Inflow: The capacity inflow is one of the most important factors which play
a great role in the distribution pattern of sediment in the reservoir. A small reservoir
in a large size river passes most of the finer particles along the inflow very quickly
into the storage area, they do not get the time to settle down in the reservoir but they
are disposed off downstream. In case of large reservoirs, the water for a long time
resulting into complete deposition of suspended sediments.

6. Vegetal Growth: vegetal growth on the upstream part of the reservoir and in nearby
areas helps in trapping the sediments and thus affecting the entry of silts in large
amount into the reservoir.
 7. Reservoir Operation: The reservoir operation technique greatly affects the pattern of
sediment deposition. The reservoir may be operated for single purpose and for
multipurpose both. Single purpose reservoir operations are generally performed
relatively at constant level and as such the primary patterns of sediment deposition is
not much affected. But in case of multipurpose reservoirs, the operation is conducted
within a wide range of elevations to fulfill the various demands, throughout the year.
It causes significant variations in the primary sediment distribution pattern, because it
flushes down some deposited sediments from live storage of the reservoir at higher
elevation due to seasonal reduction in the reservoir water level.

8. Inflow Patterns of the Stream: A stream, in which flood occurs during the early part
of the monsoon, the amount of sediment reaching the reservoir being more tends to
settle down in the reservoir. But when major flood occurs during the later part of the
monsoon period, a reverse trend is obtained.

9. Sediment Load in River Flow: The amount of sediment load carried by the river flow
varies greatly both in quantity and quality, depending on the watershed
characteristics with regard to the land use as well as the climatic conditions. In
addition, trapping of sediment is a function of retention period, which is reduced
with the age of reservoir. The sedimentation pattern in the reservoir is greatly affected
by these variations.

10. Shape of Reservoirs: The shape of a reservoir also plays a key role in sediment
distribution pattern. For example in a reservoir of regular shape, the suspended
sediment tends to deposit uniformly over the bed along the direction of flow, with
decreasing depth away from the dam. But there would be a large variation in the
depth of sediment deposition at the bottom, if the shape of reservoir is irregular.

11. Outlets: If the outlet of the reservoir has adequate capacity and is located at lower
elevation then the density current tends to pass out very rapidly. As a result the
deposited sediment mixed in the density current near the dam of the reservoir is
removed.

12. Sediment-reservoir Volume Ratio: If the inflow volume of water and sediment is
large compared to the reservoir volume, water cannot be retained in the reservoir for
a longer period. In that case deposition of the percentage of inflow sediment will be
much less as the retention period is low.

22.4 Rate of Reservoir Sedimentation- Sediment Delivery Ratio, Trap Efficiency

Rate of reservoir sedimentation depends not only on the volume of reservoir inflow into the
reservoir but also on the trap efficiency.

22.4.1 Trap Efficiency

There are a large number of reservoirs in the world which have been built for different
purposes like water supply, irrigation, and flood control or for controlling downstream
water quality. The reduced flow velocity in these water storage structures causes
sedimentation of the transported particles. For most of the storage structures this is a
drawback as their retention capacity decreases due to sedimentation processes. Sediment
volumes in small ponds can be used to reconstruct sediment yield values and to study the
spatial variation in sediment yield over large areas. Especially, in developing countries, this
technique can be very helpful in establishing large data sets on sediment delivery as often no
resources are available for expensive monitoring programmes. However, when such studies
are undertaken, one has to take into account the efficiency of the pond in trapping sediments
which is known as the trap efficiency. This trap efficiency is dependent on the characteristics
of the inflowing sediment and the retention time of the water in the pond, which in turn are
controlled by pond geometry and runoff characteristics. Trap efficiency (TE) is the portion of
the incoming sediment that is deposited, or trapped, in a reservoir or pond.

where, = the sediment mass entering a reservoir (= the sediment yield or delivery); = the
sediment mass leaving the reservoir with the out flowing water; = the sediment mass
deposited within the reservoir. To obtain data on TE for selected reservoirs or ponds, one
can use the following methods:

1. Reservoir survey with suspended-load measurements downstream,

2. Reservoir survey with suspended-load measurements upstream, and

3. Suspended-load measurements up and downstream.

22.4.2 Sediment Delivery Ratio

It is the ratio between the yield of sediment at the measuring site and the gross erosion in the
catchment.

where, SDR = the sediment delivery ratio; SD = the sediment amount delivered to downstream
at a particular gauging site; and SG = the total sediment generated over the land surface
catchment to the gauging point.

22.5 Reservoir Sedimentation Control

In order to increase the life of reservoirs, it is very essential to control the problem of
sedimentation i.e. deposition of sediment in the reservoir. Various control measures which
are adopted to control the reservoir sedimentation can be classified into the following two
types:

1. Pre Constructive Measures

2. Post Constructive Measures

1. Pre Constructive Measure: It refers to those measures which are adopted before and
during the execution work of the reservoir construction. These measures can be enumerated
as follows:
a) Selection of Dam Site: The amount of sediment reaching the reservoir from a
catchment area depends upon the soil erosion caused by water. If the catchment area is less
susceptible to erosion, then less silts are charged into the stream flow. As a result reservoir
silting will be less.

b) Design Capacity of Reservoir: The design capacity of reservoir plays a significant

role in the reservoir sedimentation. When the storage capacity is less than the volume of
stream flow coming into the reservoir, then a large volume of water will be out from the
reservoir quickly. This result in deposition of much less sediment in the reservoir compared
to when the reservoir capacity-inflow ratio is high.

c) Construction of Check Dam: Check dams play a key role in controlling the inflow of
sediment into the reservoir. The check dams are constructed across the stream/river to trap
the major portion of sediment load. These dams trap large amount of coarser sediments.

d) Installation of Vegetative Screen: Vegetative screen is a vegetative cover through

which flood water passes, before entering into the reservoir. The control of sediment entry
into a reservoir by use of vegetative screen is based on the principle that vegetations trap
large amount of sediments by reducing the flow velocity and filtering the soil particles from
the flood water. It is one of the best and cheapest methods of silt control.

e) Construction of Sluice Gate under the Dam: There must a provision for installation
of sluice gate at the base of the reservoir dam to remove the silted water from the reservoir.
The sediment concentration is more at the bottom of the reservoir. Therefore, sluice gates
(silt excluder) should be located at the lower portion of the dam. This method is not much
suitable as the flow of water tends to develop a channel behind the sluice from where water
flow takes place and as a result most of the silts do not get flushed as they remain
undisturbed. It is very essential that the release of sediment from the reservoir through the
sluice gate must be simultaneously supported by mechanical loosening and scouring of the
neighbouring sediments to increase its effectiveness. However, since this method has
structural problem it is not widely used.

f) Reservoir Operation: The sediment delivery rate increases with the rate of volume of
discharge, which depends on the demand of water of the command area. The amount of
sediment trapped by the reservoir for a given drainage area, increases with the increase in its
capacity. The sedimentation rate decreases with more rigorous use of the reservoir. The ratio
of the reservoir capacity and the size of the drainage basin is one of the most important
factors which govern the annual rate of sediment accumulation in the reservoir.

g) Erosion Control: The erosion is a main source of sediment yield. To control

sedimentation problem of reservoirs, the control of erosion is most essential. The erosion
control measures include all those measures which are effective in preventing or delaying
the movement of sediment laden flow from the origin.

2. Post Constructive Measure: Post constructive measures are undertaken during the
operation of the reservoir. It includes the following methods.

a) Removal of Flood Water: It is well known that the sediment content is more in the
stream water during initial stage of the flood. Therefore, this phase of flood water is not
advised to be collected into the reservoir.
b) Stirring of Sediment: It is generally performed by using a mechanical stirrer. Due to
this, the deposited sediment is scoured and disturbed in the water, which is flushed outside
through the sluice gates.

c) Removal of Silt Deposits: The deposited sediments in the reservoir are also removed
by excavation, dredging and sluicing with hydraulic or mechanical agitators. Dredging
method is the most expensive method among all and is not economically feasible for all
water storage works.