3.8 3.

Review

Bamboo as Sustainable Building

Materials: A Systematic Review of
Properties, Treatment Methods,
and Standards

Maria Fe V. Adier, Maria Emilia P. Sevilla, Daniel Nichol R. Valerio and Jason Maximino C. Ongpeng

Special Issue
Data Analysis and Modelling of Buildings, Environments, Building Materials, and Sustainability
Edited by
Prof. Dr. William Wei Song, Dr. Xiaohuan Wang and Dr. Meiling Chen

https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13102449
 buildings
Review
Bamboo as Sustainable Building Materials: A Systematic
Review of Properties, Treatment Methods, and Standards
Maria Fe V. Adier 1,2, * , Maria Emilia P. Sevilla 3 , Daniel Nichol R. Valerio 4 and Jason Maximino C. Ongpeng 4

1 Graduate School, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines

2 College of Engineering and Technology, Western Philippines University, San Juan 5300, Philippines
3 School of Innovation and Sustainability, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines;
maria.emilia.sevilla@dlsu.edu.ph
4 Department of Civil Engineering, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines;
daniel.valerio@dlsu.edu.ph (D.N.R.V.); jason.ongpeng@dlsu.edu.ph (J.M.C.O.)
* Correspondence: maria_fe_adier@dlsu.edu.ph

Abstract: Bamboo is the building material of the past and future. It offers numerous properties
that make it versatile for various applications, including construction. Its impressive strength-to-
weight ratio enables it to bear substantial loads and stresses, while its good elasticity allows efficient
energy absorption. However, its mechanical properties can vary based on factors such as species,
age, locations, methods, and treatment. Treating bamboo is essential to enhance its properties and
durability. The literature provides various natural and chemical treatments that enhance some of the
properties but also reported drawbacks regarding higher temperature, content, and duration. This
paper reviewed 57 articles from the Scopus database, specifically focusing on article–document-type
publications from the years 2003 to 2023. Additional references were also incorporated to address
concerns in properties, treatment, and standards to provide systematic understanding. With extensive
assessment of the articles, the following gaps and concerns were observed, and recommendations for
further study and assessment were made: the bamboo’s properties, the development of centralized
guidelines and procedures for the preparation and processing; the exploration of alternative materials
to reinforce bamboo without compromising its ductility; and the development of joint connections,
and testing of mechanical properties considering seismic, wind and vibration. For treatment methods,
Citation: Adier, M.F.V.; Sevilla,
the standardization of procedures using natural, chemical, or a combination. Lastly, for bamboo codes
M.E.P.; Valerio, D.N.R.; Ongpeng,
and standards, the assessment of existing codes and standards for testing the mechanical properties of
J.M.C. Bamboo as Sustainable
Building Materials: A Systematic bamboo, highlighting the potential limitations and areas, uniformity, and differences with all existing
Review of Properties, Treatment similar standards. By filling these gaps, it can support the reliability and robustness of bamboo as a
Methods, and Standards. Buildings sustainable material, fostering its promotion and adoption in the construction industry.
2023, 13, 2449. https://doi.org/
10.3390/buildings13102449 Keywords: bamboo; bamboo culms; building materials; construction

Academic Editor: Tomasz Sadowski

Received: 31 July 2023

Revised: 24 August 2023 1. Introduction
Accepted: 31 August 2023
The use of bamboo culms in the construction industry presents an environmental
Published: 26 September 2023
advantage because of the reduction in carbon dioxide generation compared to conventional
structural materials [1]. Bamboo exhibits numerous notable physical properties that play a
vital role in its diverse applications. These properties include size, color, dimension, texture,
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
grain, density, moisture content, thermal conductivity, and absorption. The dimensions
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. and length of bamboo can differ based on the species and the maturity of the plant [2];
This article is an open access article in comparison to timber, bamboo achieves maturity at a faster rate, typically taking only
distributed under the terms and three to four years to reach maturity [3], while the former ages more slowly over 6 years
conditions of the Creative Commons and lacks its strength-up to 12 years old [4]. Physical properties can vary considerably
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// among different species due to their distinct cellular structures and varying fiber pro-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ portions, which can influence their density. Some bamboo species may have a higher
4.0/). density, while others may have a lower density [5–8]. Remarkable mechanical properties

Buildings 2023, 13, 2449. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13102449 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 2 of 38

characterize bamboo, rendering it a versatile and sustainable material. With an impressive

strength-to-weight ratio, bamboo possesses excellent flexural ductility compared to wood
by 3.06 times [5]. Singh et al. [9] tested the mechanical properties of different bamboo
species such as Dendrocalamus hamitonii, Bambusa tulda, Bambusa nutans, and Bambusa bal-
coa, and found that Bambusa nutans has the highest compressive and bending strength of
98.24 MPa and 7.669 MPa, respectively. Bambusa tulda has the strongest tensile strength of
226.28 MPa, and the highest shear strength of 19.56 MPa was obtained by Dendrocalamus
hamiltonii. Krause et al. [10] mentioned that the tensile behavior of Dendrocalamus gigantus
is dictated by the fiber volume fractions and independent of the position of the culm
wall. Cui et al. [11] observed that the tensile strength of bamboo fiber bundles gradually
decreases with increasing temperature, which is mainly influenced by the decrease in the
relative content of cellulose and hemicellulose. Wu et al. [12] confirmed that the tensile
strength of an outer bamboo sliver treated with alkali at 60 ◦ C and an inner bamboo sliver
treated with alkali at 40 ◦ C will increase up to a maximum of 86.6% and 132%, respectively,
compared to untreated bamboo. Lorenzo et al. [13] performed both an experimental test
and finite element simulation on Moso bamboo and found that the nonlinear behavior
is mainly caused by the incremental development of cracks to the locations where the
circumferential tensile capacity of bamboo is exceeded, leading to the eventual failure of the
pole. Bamboo material is also excellent in compressive strength. Awalludin et al. [14] con-
firmed that the compressive strength of bamboo increases as the moisture content decreases.
Bahtiar et al. [15] developed the structural grading of Guadua culms under axial compres-
sion and concluded that the strongest coefficients of determinations for structural grading
were related to density. Five different bamboo species were studied by Drury et al. [16] such
as Moso, Guadua, Tali, Black Java, and Madake. The compressive strength of these species
was found to be greater than 50 MPa, which makes them excellent for construction use.
Gauss et al. [17] stated that the presence of nodes has a local stiffening effect with respect
to compression and shear. Shawana et al. [18] investigated the strength characteristics of
bamboo along the length of the culm and observed that the size of the culm governs the
ultimate load capacity. The larger culm and thicker wall obtained more load. Lo et al. [19]
conducted a strength analysis of Mao Zhu and Kao Zhu bamboo species that are basically
used for scaffoldings in China. They observed that the compressive strength of both species
ranges from 45 to 65 MPa, and the top section of the culm has higher strength than its
bottom section. Suarez et al. [20] studied the influence of weathering on the mechanical
properties of bamboo culm from Guadua species with and without nodes. There was a
9% decrease in the compressive strength, but they had no influence on the tension and
bending performance when the silica layer was placed on the compression face. Also,
nodes have a positive effect on the stiffness near the points of load application when tested
for bending. Bamboo material is also outstanding in flexural strength [1,5,21,22], allowing
it to bear substantial loads and stresses. Its good elasticity enables efficient absorption and
distribution of impact energy. Bamboo’s mechanical properties vary based on factors such
as species, age, and culm regions [23]. It is highly regarded for its strength, flexibility, and
resilience, making it suitable for various applications, including construction, furniture,
and engineered products. Bamboo composite or engineered bamboo is widely explored to
optimize the utilization of bamboo. These mechanical properties of engineered bamboo
products can be influenced by processing methods [24].
Despite the excellent potential of bamboo, its durability and resistance to weathering
actions might be compromised because it decays compared to conventionally manufactured
materials [25]. That is why treatment is basically considered. Treating bamboo is widely
studied nowadays, and this continues to develop an effective and optimal treatment.
Bamboo can be treated by natural methods such as drying, heating (boil, fired, oven),
steaming, soaking, smoking, oil application, and impregnation of natural resin (e.g., rosin).
The use of natural treatment for bamboo is environmentally friendly compared to chemical
treatment, especially for the local communities who better understand the workings of
bamboo [26]. Chemical treatment is used by various researchers since it can be done in
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 3 of 38

less time compared to the natural method. However, a fraction of the chemicals introduce
environmental and safety issues. Some chemicals used in treating bamboo are boric acid,
copper naphthenate (CuN), polycarboxylic acids (CA), butanetetracarboxylic acid (BTCA),
disodium octaborate tetrahydrate (DOT) aqueous, boron-based preservatives, epoxy resin,
deltamethrin, and alkali with sodium hydroxide. These components were used by the
literature reviewed in this paper. Sharma et al. [24] observed that the thermal processing
technique influences the mechanical strength of materials, notably affecting their bending
behavior and properties, as evidenced by the enhanced compressive and shear strength
parallel to the grain following treatment. Cid et al. [27] studied the influence of hornification
on the physical and flexural properties of Moso and found that the process through the
wetting and drying cycle lead to a reduction in the water retention capacity of the bamboo
at the end of treatment. With regards to the flexure, the hornification process leads to
reductions of the ultimate deflection and increased stiffness and strength. Yang et al. [28]
proved that rosin impregnation improved the dimensional stability and hydrophobicity
of bamboo. Marasigan et al. [29] studied the effect of thermal treatment on the wettability
of giant bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper) and Kawayan Tinik (Bambusa blumeana) in the
Philippines, and found that thermal treatment changed the color of both bamboo species,
the density decreased, and improved the wettability.
Bamboo is a sustainable material that is used in construction; however, it has limited
application [30] and global adoption, especially in medium and high construction. In
Bangladesh, bamboo was utilized in the construction of a low-height telecom tower located
on a rooftop [31]. The Barajas International Airport in Madrid, Spain, used engineered bam-
boo for ceilings [32]. Bamboo is also used in scaffoldings in Japan in high-rise buildings [33].
The existing codes and standards may not be sufficient to optimize the usage since there are
many variations with regard to species, age, locations, methods of preparation and testing,
and others. It could be potentially interesting to assess the variations of the result from the
available standard methods from international and other national standards.
This paper provides a review of the use of bamboo culms as building materials in
construction with regard to the species, physical and mechanical properties, treatment,
applications, and codes and standards tackled by the gathered literature, and determines
the research gaps and challenges which could be addressed for future work. The paper
highlights several research gaps in bamboo’s physical and mechanical properties. These
include the need for centralized guidelines in preparation and processing, exploring sus-
tainable filling materials, advancement of culm connections, testing under different loads,
standardizing treatment methods, and assessing existing codes and standards for bamboo.
Addressing these gaps will optimize bamboo’s potential as a sustainable construction
material.

2. Methodology
The collection of relevant literature or articles is a crucial step in conducting a compre-
hensive review paper. A summary of the research methodology is shown in Figure 1. In
this paper, the Scopus database was utilized as a primary resource for gathering scholarly
articles. Scopus is widely recognized as a comprehensive abstract and citation database
encompassing a vast range of disciplines [34]. Furthermore, Scopus offers advanced search
functionalities, citation analysis, and author metrics, enabling the researcher to conduct
thorough and efficient literature searches, evaluate the impact of previous studies, and
identify influential authors.
The general topic for the review had already been recognized as “Use of bamboo
culms as building materials in construction”. Presently, Scopus provides 14,456 articles for
“bamboo”, 1753 articles for “bamboo culms”, 86,867 for “building materials”, and 437,526
for “construction”. These keywords were combined and used the advance search and
Boolean operators. The search was filtered to articles only and limited to subject areas
such as engineering, material science, environmental engineering, chemical engineering,
agricultural and biological sciences.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 4 of 38

Figure 1. Research methodology.

To ensure a wider range of studies to be reviewed and synthesized, the inclusive

years for the publications included were from 2003 to 2023. A total of 793 documents
were found. The articles were filtered based on high-ranking journals from the SCImago
Journal Ranking (SJR) selecting only those Q1 and Q2 journals such as Construction and
Building Materials, Buildings, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Materials, and Royal
Society Open Science. The SCImago journal rank indicator is a novel instrument for the
evaluation of the scientific journals that may challenge the established premiership of the
impact factor (IF) in ranking scientific journals, and the primary strength of SCImago is that
it uses Scopus as the data source for the development of the SJR indicator [35]. Choosing
only the highly-ranked journals, the articles were narrowed to 138.
These articles underwent a rigorous manual screening, wherein they were assessed
tt
based on specific author and index keywords. Only those articles that contained relevant
terms such as “bamboo”, “bamboo culms”, “bamboo poles”, “bamboo species”, “bamboo
properties”, “bamboo construction”, “building materials”, or a combination of these were
considered for inclusion. Subsequently, the abstracts of the identified articles were scruti-
nized to evaluate their relevance to the study. Only those abstracts that provided a clear and
concise discussion of essential aspects of bamboo properties, species, testing, treatments,
and a key summary of findings in relation to bamboo performance and properties were
selected. As a result of this thorough approach, a total of 57 articles were meticulously
reviewed and systematically assessed to gather comprehensive insights on the subject
matter. However, additional references were also incorporated to address issues on topics
regarding properties, treatments, applications, and standards to provide a methodical and
in-depth understanding. The 57 articles were imported into Matlab software (R2023a)
for Text Analytics. The Matlab Text Data Analytics provides an overview of the topic by
word clouds, topic mixtures, journal distribution, and publication year. The text analytics
with Matlab can be useful in automating the process of extracting information from text,
significantly reducing the time required for manual processing [36]. This method is similar
to the studies of Ongpeng et al. [37,38], where Matlab Text Data Analytics was utilized for
generating the topics. Figure 2 shows the word cloud generated, which contains regularly
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 5 of 38

occurring words from the documents extracted. It can be seen that the distinct word is
“bamboo” which is basically the general keyword of the study. The validation perplexity
is shown in Figure 3, from 1 to 10 topics; the results show that of the three topics, the
validation perplexity has the lowest value. For this graph, the lowest perplexity validation
has the most suggested number of topics to be used [36]. Figure 4 presents the topic mixture ff
generated, which shows the percentage of topic occurrence on each document through
colors. Topic 1 (the blue color) highlights the words “properties, materials, strength, den-
sity, and test”. Topic 2 (the red color) emphasized the words “effect, structural, method,
specimen, and high”. Lastly, Topic 3 (the yellow color) pointed to the words “mechanical,
treatment, increase, show, and modulus”. These groups of words were interpretedff and
developed a specific topic for this study. For topic 1, the corresponding interpretation
is the “Physical and mechanical properties of different bamboo species”. Topic 2 was
interpreted as “Bamboo standards and structural applications”, and topic 3 was interpreted
as “Bamboo culm treatment methods”. These three topics are discussed qualitatively in this
paper. The publication year distribution of the collected articles is presented in Figure 5.
tt The publication behavior shows an increasing and decreasing pattern. Few articles were
published in 2006 to 2010 and 2014. The number of highest publications was in 2021, but
decreased in 2022 and the present year. However, this is justifiable since we are still in the
middle of the year 2023. Figure 6 shows the countries that have bamboo studies, of which
46% belong to China.

Figure 2. Word cloud generated by Matlab Software (R2023a).

Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 6 of 38

Figure 3. The number of topics.

Figure 4. Topic mixtures.

Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 7 of 38

Figure 5. Publication year distribution.

Figure 6. Countries with bamboo studies.

ff
ff

ff
ff
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 8 of 38

3. Results and Discussion

The objective of this paper is to provide a review of the use of bamboo culms as
building materials and identify the research gap that could be addressed. This section
assesses the different bamboo species used in construction, the physical and mechanical
properties of bamboo, the treatment methods used, how this affects the properties of
bamboo, and the standards and applications of bamboo culms and composites. There are
various species of bamboo used in gathered literature with different locations. Since most
of the studies were oriented from China, the majority of the bamboo samples were situated
in this country.

3.1. Bamboo Species

The globalization of bamboo’s potential as a construction material is enormous due
to its lightweight nature, abundant renewability, and rapid growth [39]. With its wide
advantageous properties, bamboo presents an environmentally friendly and sustainable
alternative for various construction applications across the world. Bamboo belongs to the
Poaceae family of grasses, exhibits remarkable lightweight characteristics, and stands as
one of the most rapidly growing plants found on our planet [40]. A total of 1662 bamboo
species are known to exist, distributed across 121 genera; among these, 232 species have
been introduced to areas beyond their native ranges and have become invasive [41]. In Asia,
China boasts the greatest diversity of bamboo, having 500 native species. Japan follows
with 139 species, while India, Indonesia, and Myanmar have 119, 118, and 97 species,
respectively [42].
Bamboo exhibits a wide array of applications, including construction, furniture, food,
biofuel, textiles, paper, charcoal production, ornamental gardening, and environmental
benefits like carbon sequestration and phytoremediation capabilities that enhance soil
quality and mitigate erosion [33]. The most used species for structural construction is given
in Table 1. Most of these species are found in Asia.

Table 1. List of bamboo species commonly used in construction. Data are adapted from [43], The
Institution of Structural Engineers, 2016.

Scientific Name (Local Name) Areas Found Diameter (mm)

Guadua angustifolia Kunth South America 120–160
Dendrocalamus strictus (Calcutta) Asia 25–80
Bambusa vulgaris Africa, Asia, South America 80–150
Phyllostachys edulis (Moso) Asia 120–180
Dendrocalamus asper (Petung) Asia, South America 80–200
Bambusa blumeana
Asia, Asia–Pacific 60–150
(Spiny/ThornyBamboo)
Gigantochloa apus Asia 40–100

Figure 7 shows 18 different species that were used by the researchers in this study,
such as (1) Moso (Phyllostachys pubescens/Phyllostachys edulis), (2) Hong (Phyllostachys
iridencens), (3) Phyllostachys viridiglaucecsens, (4) Phyllostachys family, (5) Guadua angustifolia
kunth a.k., (6) Bambusa vulgaris, (7) Tregai (Bambusa stenostachya), (8) Dendrocalamus strictus,
(9) Ater (G. atter), (10) Makino (Phyllostachys makinoi), (11) Pseudosasa amabilis, (12) Bambusa
Balcoa, (13) Madake (Phyllostachys bambusoides), (14) P. aurea, (15) Dendrocalamus giganteus,
(16) Dendrocalamus asper, (17) Schizostachyum Grande, and (18) Gigantochloa Scortechinii. It
can be seen that most of the researchers used Moso bamboo in their study. This paper will
use “S” to stand for species and numbers “1–18” for the specific type as discussed (e.g., S-1,
Moso (Phyllostachys pubescens/Phyllostachys edulis). Moso bamboo stands out as the globally
predominant bamboo species in terms of widespread harvesting [22], temperate bamboo
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 9 of 38

species which basically grows in China [41] and performs better compared to other species
both environmentally and mechanically [44].

Figure 7. Species used by the researchers.

3.2. Physical Properties

Bamboo possesses several noteworthy physical properties that contribute to its wide
range of applications. These properties include size, color, dimension, texture and grain,
density, moisture content, thermal conductivity, and absorption. The dimensions and length
of bamboo can differ based on the species and the maturity of the plant [2], in comparison to
timber, bamboo achieves maturity at a faster rate, typically taking only three to four years to
ff
reach maturity [3], while the latter ages more slowly, over 6 years and lacks strength up to
12 years old [4]. The bamboo culm is composed of vascular bundles and parenchymal base
tt enclose conducting elements such
tissue. Within the vascular bundles, fiber caps or sheaths
as vessels, sieve tubes, and companion cells, all of which collectively influence bamboo’s
characteristics [2,40]. It has been observed that vascular bundles are distributed unevenly
throughout the culm, ranging from the outer to the inner layer [45,46]. Additionally, the
shape and size of vascular bundles within the culm exhibit variability.
In Figure 8, Lee et al. [3] provide a detailed look at the anatomy of a typical bamboo:
(a) shows a mature bamboo culm ready for harvesting, with internodes and nodes. The
nodes have internal diaphragms and an external ridge; (b) displays a cross-section of the
bamboo culm; (c) presents an enlarged cross-section (2 mm to 4 mm scale) highlighting the
distribution of vascular bundles, which are more concentrated towards the outer diameter.
In (d), a microscopic view (0.2 mm to 0.3 mm scale) reveals the bamboo culm wall in
detail, with its main components being the parenchyma cells and vascular bundles. The
vascular bundles, with their four-winged structure, consist of fiber strands that determine
the mechanical properties of the bamboo.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 10 of 38

Figure 8. Typical bamboo anatomy: (a) the whole bamboo culm in its natural state, (b) a cross-section
of the bamboo showing its internal structure, (c) a close-up view of the cross-section area, (d) a
magnified view of the parenchyma cells and vascular bundles, and (e) an enlarged view of a vascular
bundle, Figure is reproduced with permission from [3], Elsevier, 2022.

The culm internode length has an increasing pattern tt from the bottom
tt to the mid-
section and then decreases towards the top, while the culm’s conical shape decreases in
the outer diameter from bottomtt to top; furthermore, the inner diameter of the mid-section
decreases both towards the bottom tt and the top, which results in the reduction of culm
ff
thickness [46]. The properties of bamboo can vary significantly among different species.
ff
Different bamboo species have distinct cellular structures and varying proportions of
fibers, which can impact their density. Some bamboo species may have a higher density,
while others may have a lower density. P. edulis has a density of 796 kg/m3 [5], and
Bambusa balcoa has a density of 685 kg/m3 [6], tending to have higher densities compared to
species like Phyllostachys pubescens that have 601–640 kg/m3 [7], but these densities can be
modified through treatment and mechanical processes. Other species, like Bambusa vulgaris,
have a density ranging from 630 kg/m3 to 680 kg/m3 and do not vary significantly with
location [8]. Table 2 shows the articles that highlight the physical properties of different
species. It can be seen that most of the studies highlighted the density and moisture
content of bamboo. The average age was between 3 to 4 years, where 6 years is the oldest
and 2 years is the youngest sample used. Various types of samples have been used for
density testing, as shown in Figure 9. These are bamboo strand composite lumber (BSCL),
bamboo culm, modified bamboo splits, bamboo scrimber, outdoor bamboo-fiber re-inforced
composite (OBFRC), bamboo slivers, laminated bamboo timber (LBT), and unidirectional
round bamboo stick boards (UBSBs). UBSBs undergo processes such as splitting and tt
peeling, converting it to a round bamboo stick, drying and heating treatment, immersion in
tt
PF resin, then a flattening process to form UBSBs [22]. Bamboo culm samples is just cut from
the whole culm, where basically, the length is twice the diameter [15]. MBS is a product
tt
of flattening and densification of natural bamboo splits. Bamboo scrimber undergoes
processes such as splitting, flattening, crushing, and steam carbonizing at 170 ◦ C for
100 min, then it is impregnated with PF resin (15–17%) and undergoes cold molding; finally
a bamboo scrimber is formed after activation of resin for 12 h at 80–120◦ [23]. OBFRC
processes include mechanical fluffingffi(splitting, tt peeling, or skin removal) to produce
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 11 of 38

bamboo fiber mats; these mats are impregnated by PF resin and then assembled fortthot
tt [47]. The LBT processes include splitting, treating with
pressing to finally form OBFRC slabs
borax, air-drying, then splitting into strips, strips arere then glued and pressed horizontally
at a temperature of 140 ◦ C and a pressure of 1.47 MPa for 30 min [44]. The BSCL processes
tt
involve splitting of the bamboo culm, peeling of the outer skin, cutting into parts, and then
tt
is followed by dripping and drying. After drying, it will then be assembled and hot-pressed
to form BSCL [48].

Figure 9. Samples used for testing the bamboo properties: (a) BSCL [49], (b) bamboo tube [50],
(c) MBS, (d) scrimber, (e) OBFRC, (f) bamboo slivers, (g) LBL, (h) UBSBs. All figures are reproduced
with permission from (a) BSCL [49], Elsevier, 2021; (b) bamboo tube [50], Elsevier 2019; (c) MBS [51],
Elsevier, 2023; (d) Scrimber [23], Elsevier, 2016; (e) OBFRC [47], Elsevier, 2020; (f) bamboo slivers [12],
Springer Nature, 2023; (g) LBL [44], Elsevier, 2016; and (h) UBSBs [22], Elsevier, 2018.

Table 2. Summary of the study on the physical properties of bamboo.

Moisture Water
Reference Species Age Density Porosity Thermal Microstructure
Content Absorption
[1] S-1, S-5 NA ✓

✓
[52] S-1 5 ✓ ✓

✓ ✓
[49] S-1 4 ✓

✓
[8] S-6 4 ✓ ✓
[53] S-1, S-5, S-7 3–6 ✓ ✓ ✓
[15] S-5 NA ✓ ✓
[54] S-1 4 ✓✓ ✓
[7] S-1 NA ✓✓ ✓ ✓
[48] S-1 3 ✓✓ ✓ ✓
[51] S-1 4 ✓✓
[55] S-1 4 ✓ ✓
[23] S-1 NA ✓✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[56] S-1 4 ✓ ✓
[57] S-1 NA ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
✓ ✓ ✓
✓
✓ ✓ ✓
✓ ✓ ✓
✓
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 12 of 38

Table 2. Cont.

Moisture Water
Reference Species Age Density Porosity Thermal Microstructure
Content Absorption
[28] S-11 4 ✓ ✓ ✓
[42] S-5 2 to 5 ✓
[27] S-1 3 ✓
[58] S-13 3 ✓ ✓
[59] S-1 2, 4, 6 ✓
[12] S-1 NA ✓
[10] S-15 6 ✓ ✓
[60] S-16 3 to 5 ✓ ✓
[47] S-1 4 ✓ ✓
[61] S-1 5 ✓ ✓
[44] S-18 NA ✓
[62] S-7 NA ✓
[63] S-9 2–3 ✓ ✓
S-1, S-6,
[14] NA ✓
S-17, S-18
[64] S-1 3–5 ✓ ✓
[65] S-1 5 ✓

3.2.1. Density of Bamboo

One of the most important physical properties of bamboo is its density; some studies
noted the density of the bamboo, as shown in Table 3. It is important to determine the
density of the bamboo culm that will be used because it is one of the key parameters
that influence the performance of the material [2,40]. The dry density of bamboo com-
monly used in structures ranges from 500 kg/m3 to 800 kg/m3 [43]. Various studies have
confirmed that the density of bamboo has a significant influence on the mechanical prop-
erties [22,23,49,54,66], water absorption [23,67], and a higher density means the bamboo
fibers are more compacted together [23]. Density is the most relevant parameter of the
mechanical properties of the original bamboo parallel to the grain [54]. Sun et al. [49]
observed in Moso bamboo that the higher density of 900 kg/m3 has a significant influence
on shear strength and modulus of rupture under natural drying treatment; soaking time
affects density and higher density swells after boiling.

Table 3. Summary of studies on the density of bamboo.

Reference Age Species Sample Density (kg/m3 ) Remarks

Bamboo strand
soaking time affects density,
[49] 4 S-1 composite 730–1320
higher density swells after boiling
lumber (BSCL)
684 1 Moso 1
[1] NA S-1, S-5 Bamboo tube
730 2 Guadua 2
[8] 4 S-6 Bamboo tube 646 average
400–850 1,3
[53] 3–6 S-1, S-5, S-7 Bamboo tube Moso 1 , Guadua 2 , Tregai 3
500–100 2
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 13 of 38

Table 3. Cont.

Reference Age Species Sample Density (kg/m3 ) Remarks

794.5 1
[15] NA S-5 Bamboo tube w/o node 1 , w/node 2
1099.4 2
density is a relevant parameter to
[54] 4 S-1 Bamboo tube 586–982
mechanical properties
Unidirectional round
density has positive relationship
[22] 3 S-1 bamboo stick 918–975
w/flexural strength
boards (UBSBs)
Modified bamboo
[51] 4 S-1 1080–1130 density increased after treatment
Split (MBS)
density influenced the absorption
[23] NA S-1 Bamboo scrimber 1054–1215
and mechanical properties
density increased after treatment
[12] NA S-1 Bamboo slivers 550–1100
by 45.6–88.3% treated at 40 ◦ C
[60] 3–5 S-16 Bamboo tube 1600 maximum
Laminated bamboo
[44] NA S-18 low density is attributed to nodes
timber (LBL)
internode has uniform density,
[57] NA S-1 Bamboo tube
density fluctuation at nodal parts
762 1
[63] 2–3 S-9 Laminated bamboo hydraulic press 1 , manual press 2
747 2
[24] NA S-1 Laminated bamboo (LB) 644 1 , 673 2 Bleached 1 , Semi-caramelised 2
[10] 6 S-15 Bamboo split 710–940
Outdoor bamboo-fiber-
[47] 4 S-1 reinforced 1160 average
composite OBFRC
[64] 3–5 S-1 Laminated bamboo 800–980
[65] 5 S-1 Bamboo strip 600–690
Superscript on the density corresponds with the identifications indicated in “Remarks” to categorized each value.

In a study conducted by Dixon et al. [53], a comparison was made of the structure
and flexural properties of Moso, Guadua, and Tre Gai bamboo. The results revealed that,
at a given density, Guadua exhibited a higher axial modulus of elasticity compared to
Moso and Tre Gai, which showed similar properties. Additionally, the ultrastructural
analysis indicated that Guadua has a higher stiffness in its solid cell wall. The density
of Moso bamboo decreases from the external surface to the internal surface of the culm
wall in the radial direction, both in the internodes and nodes parts [7]. The internode has
uniform density, and it fluctuates at the nodal parts. The weakness in nodes is the influence
of low density and the irregular vascular bundle arrangements [44]. Luan et al. [51]
observed that for bamboo split, the density of the inner part was tremendously increased
to over 1.0 g/cm3 and is consistent with that of the outer part under steamed treatment.
The density of specimens containing nodes is consistently higher than that of specimens
without nodes [15]. This observation is considered trivial because diaphragms contribute
to the overall mass but are not taken into account in the measurement of volume or length.
Kadivar et al. [60] observed that density increased in bamboo after DOT treatment. An
increase in density also of bamboo splits was observed by Luan et al. [51] after-steam after
steam treatment. Wu et al. [12] tested the bamboo slivers and confirmed that after treatment,
density increased by 45.6–88.3% and treated at 40 ◦ C.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 14 of 38

3.2.2. Moisture Content of Bamboo

Table 4 shows a few of the literature in this paper that noted the moisture content (MC)
of bamboo. Bamboo is considered suitable for use when its moisture content is around 8%
to 12% [44,58,63,65]. The mechanical properties and durability of bamboo are dependent on
its moisture level, therefore, MC must be kept below 20% [31]. This range is often preferred
for construction purposes, furniture making, and other applications where dimensional
stability and resistance to warping or cracking are important.

Table 4. Summary of moisture content.

Reference Age Species Sample Moisture Content Remarks

Nodal and internodal
[15] NA S-5 Bamboo tube 7.3–10.9%
is similar
[8] 4 S-6 Bamboo tube 12.95% average
[23] NA S-1 Bamboo scrimber 7% average
water uptake reduced by
[61] 4 S-1 Bamboo split
24.7% after rosin treatment
Outdoor bamboo-fiber-
[47] 4 S-1 6.95% average
reinforced composite OBFRC
[53] 3–6 S-1, S-5, S-7 Bamboo tube 4%, 6%, 6% Moso, Guadya, Tregai
[62] NA S-7 Bamboo tube 12% average
17.2% Hydraulic press
[63] 2–3 S-9 Laminated bamboo
16.0% Manual press
8% Bleached LB
[24] NA S-1 Laminated bamboo (LB)
7% Semi-caramelized LB
[22] 3 S-1 UBSBs 5.2–10.3%
S-1, S-6, S-17,
[14] NA Bamboo split 19.63% Maximum, S-17
S-18
[64] 3–5 S-1 Laminated bamboo 7% average

Most of the studies stored their bamboo culm specimens and allowed them to reach the
equilibrium MC before they were tested [52,55,65]. It is known that bamboo culm shrinks
when dry and swells when wet [15]; therefore, it is important to attain the equilibrium
moisture content of bamboo before undergoing testing and processing. Some studies
managed the moisture content of the bamboo by undergoing treatments and process
modifications. Su et al. [52] used the rosin treatment in Hong bamboo and found that
equilibrium moisture content decreased across relative humidity values. The test found
that the film formed on the surface of the bamboo culms might greatly weaken the surface
wettability and moisture absorption of bamboo culms. The study of Bahtiar et al. [15] on
the structural grading of Guadua angustifolia demonstrated that the correlation between
moisture content and mechanical properties of bamboo bears a striking resemblance to that
of wood, with compression resistance of short members as the grading foundation. The
moisture content of Guadua angustifolia kunth species typically falls within the range of 9%
to 10% [42], a similar range to that of [15], having a higher MC at the nodal section but
considered insignificant. Sa Riberio et al. [8] studied the MC of untreated Bambusa vulgaris
and found that the average MC was 12.95% higher than that obtained by Dixon et al. after
borax treatment for three species Moso, Guadua, and Tregai, which were 4%, 6%, and 6%,
respectively.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 15 of 38

3.2.3. Porosity and Absorption of Bamboo

Bamboo is considerably porous due to the presence of small open spaces or pores
within its structure, and has a certain capacity to absorb and retain moisture [68]. The
absorption characteristics of bamboo are influenced by its porosity, as well as the structure
and composition of its cell walls, which consist of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin [69].
When bamboo is exposed to moisture, it can absorb water into its cell walls, causing it
to swell and increase in dimensions. The porosity of bamboo culm may be improved by
treatment and processing procedures. Huang et al. [57] addressed that the hygrothermal
properties show a stronger correlation with open porosity than with bulk density.
The determination of the porosity of bamboo is presently less advanced compared with
the equivalent research conducted on wood. Well-recognized and established approaches
for quantifying porosity within the domain of wood research includes mercury intrusion
porosimetry (MIP), gas pycnometry (GP), microscopy image processing, and computed
tomography (CT scan). MIP is known to be effective for wood, but high pressure can
cause deformation of the pores. GP is considered highly accurate, but sample preparation
and displacement media need to be treated carefully [70]. The average values of the
measurement will be utilized as the bulk density in calculating the porosity, as shown
in Equation (1). ρbulk is the bulk density, ρs is the skeletal density, Ø is the porosity, and
ρ air is the air density (1.184 kg/m3 at 1 atm, 25 ◦ C). With an unknown bulk and skeletal
density, the porosity value can be obtained. The bulk density is obtained by CT scanning
measurement [71].
ρbulk = ρs × (1 − Ø) + ρ air Ø (1)

3.2.4. Thermal Performance of Bamboo

Few studies from the literature emphasized the thermal performance of bamboo.
Dong et al. [56] evaluated the anti-mold termite resistance and properties of Moso bamboo
cross-linking utilizing polycarboxylic acids, and observed that the thermal stability of
bamboo is enhanced by cross-linking modification. Polycarboxylic acid treatment is an
eco-friendly, low-cost, and versatile method to improve bamboo properties. Another
study [61], observed that surface color and contact angle of bamboo were notably influenced
by the treatment temperature and duration. Higher treatment temperatures resulted in
darker surface colors and larger contact angles, ensuring favorable hydrophobicity of
the bamboo [55]. The exposure of bamboo to water or high humidity tends for the cell
walls of the bamboo fibers to absorb moisture, causing them to expand or swell [52].
The thermal conductivity of a material has a crucial role in determining how quickly the
temperature rises within the material, which affects how rapidly the material’s mechanical
properties deteriorate when exposed to high temperatures and is significant in terms of fire
safety [72]. Wu et al. [69] and Yang et al. [70] stated that the thermal conductivity of bamboo
is influenced by the combined effect of final moisture content, the structure of cellulose, and
the density of bamboo. Some methods for determining the thermal conductivity are steady-
state platforms [70], hot disk thermal constant analyzers [72], and thermal conductivity
testers [69]. The thermal conductivity can be calculated using Equation (2) where k is the
thermal conductivity (W/(m·K)), µ is the thermal effusivity (W/(m2 ·K)), ρ is the density
(kg/m3 ), and C p is the specific heat capacity (J/(kg·K)) [73].

µ2
k= (2)
ρ Cp

3.2.5. Microstructure of Bamboo

Bamboo microstructure was widely studied by the different researchers. Bamboo is
a radially graded, transversely isotropic composite material [7]. The microstructure of
bamboo can vary among different bamboo species and culm regions. The arrangement and
characteristics of the vascular bundles, parenchyma cells, and fiber strands impact the over-
all mechanical behavior and physical properties of bamboo. Figure 10 shows the scanning
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 16 of 38

electron microscope (SEM) images of raw bamboo culm with different constituents [73].
It is a zoom-in view of the vascular bundles of bamboo along with the parenchyma cells.
The SEM images of bamboo are shown in Figure 10. Dixon et al. [53] investigated three
different bamboo species: Moso, Guadua, and Tregai. They observed that Moso and Tre
Gai exhibited similar volume fractions of fibers and similar variations across the culm wall,
whereas Guadua generally had a higher fiber volume fraction but a similar distribution.
The average fiber volume fractions obtained for each species were 0.20 for Moso, 0.33
for Guadua, and 0.16 for Tre Gai. The variation in the density of Moso bamboo can be
attributed to the distinct proportions and growth patterns of its vascular bundle tissues
and parenchyma ground tissues [7]. The volume of lumen in parenchyma tissue was signif-
icantly reduced, resulting in a nearly uniform distribution instead of gradually changing
along the thickness direction [51]. Lee et al. [55] examined the structure of Moso bamboo
subjected to heating treatment and found that bamboo treated at higher temperatures
experienced significant damage to its tissue structures, especially the parenchyma cells.
Through FTIR spectroscopy, they observed that as the treatment temperatures increased, the
intensity of characteristic absorption peaks of polysaccharides decreased while the intensity
of lignin peaks increased. Yang et al. [28] performed an alkali pre-treatment method of 6%
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) on Moso bamboo, which aimed to remove the hydrophobic
layer from bamboo surface and improve the permeability for the main treatment which
is the impregnation of two types of rosin such as epoxy-modified and natural rosin. The
study found that by modifying rosin with epoxy, it was possible to fill the cell lumens of
bamboo, including the small nanopores in cell walls and spaces between cells. This filling
of the bamboo’s structure resulted in improved dimensional stability, with a decrease in
swelling by 33.74%. The modified rosin also enhanced the hydrophobicity of the bamboo,
as indicated by an increased contact angle and a reduction in water absorption by 24.73%.
The modified rosin physically filled the vessels, parenchyma cells, and other structures of
the bamboo after impregnation. Ramful et al. [58] studied Madake bamboo and conducted
smoke treatment to the culms and found that bamboo showed an increase in lignin content
at a specific peak of 1114 cm−1 . This increase was due to the thermal effect of temperatures
above 100 ◦ C, resulting in poly-condensation reactions.

Figure 10. Cont.

Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 17 of 38

Figure 10. SEM micrographs of the raw bamboo culm with different ff constituents. Transversal
direction (a,c,e,g), and longitudinal direction (b,d,f,h). All figures are adapted with permission
from [73], Scientific Reports, 2014.

3.3. Mechanical Properties

Bamboo exhibits remarkable mechanical properties that make it a versatile and sustain-
able material. Bamboo composite or engineered bamboo is widely explored to optimize the
utilization of bamboo. The mechanical properties of engineered bamboo products can be
influenced by processing methods [24]. Table 5 shows the summary of the studies that high-
lighted the mechanical properties of bamboo. Compressive strength (CS), tensile strength
(TS), flexural strength (FS), shear strength (SS), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of
elasticity (MOE), hardness, ultimate bearing capacity, and durability. Figure 11 shows the
test set-up for mechanical testing of bamboo specimens for compression, bending, shear,
and tensile parallel to the grain.

Figure 11. (a) shear strength test, (b) tensile strength test, (c) compressive strength test, (d) four-point
bending test. All figures are adapted with permission from [18], MDPI, 2021.

ff
ff
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 18 of 38

Table 5. Summary of the study on mechanical properties of bamboo.

Ultimate
Reference Bamboo Age CS TS FS SS MOR MOE Hardness Bearing Durability
Species Capacity
[11] S-1 3 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[74] S-1, S-15 4 ✓ ✓ ✓
[75] S-3 3 ✓ ✓
[76] S-4 NA ✓ ✓
[21] S-5 NA ✓
[45] S-1 NA ✓ ✓ ✓
[49] S-1 4 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[8] S-6 4 ✓ ✓
[77] S-7 NA ✓
S-1, S-5,
[53] S-7 3–6 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

[15] S-5 NA ✓
[54] S-1 4 ✓ ✓
[62] S-7 NA ✓ ✓
[63] S-9 2–3 ✓ ✓
[78] S-1 4–5 ✓ ✓ ✓
[24] S-1 NA ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[22] S-1 3 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[51] S-1 4 ✓ ✓
[23] S-1 NA ✓ ✓ ✓
[56] S-1 4 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[5] S-1 4 ✓ ✓ ✓
[42] S-5 2–5 ✓ ✓ ✓
[27] S-1 3 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[79] S-1 NA ✓
[80] S-12 3–4 ✓
[58] S-13 3 ✓ ✓
[81] S-12 NA ✓ ✓ ✓
[59] S-1 2, 4, 6 ✓ ✓
[13] S-1 NA ✓
[1] S-1, S-5 NA ✓ ✓ ✓
S-1, S-5,
[16,67] S-18, NA ✓
S-13
[12] S-1 NA ✓ ✓
[10] S-15 6 ✓
[60] S-16 3 to 5 ✓
[47] S-1 4 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
S-6, S-16,
[14] S-17, NA ✓ ✓
S-18
[48] S-1 3 ✓ ✓ ✓
[64] S-1 3–5 ✓ ✓
[65] S-1 5 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[44] S-18 NA ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[17] S-1 3–5 ✓ ✓
[59] S-1 NA ✓ ✓ ✓
[82] S-1 NA ✓
[83] S-6 NA ✓
[84] S-7, S-14 NA ✓
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 19 of 38

3.3.1. Compressive Strength

Among all the species studied in this article, Drury et al. [16] reported that Moso
bamboo from China had the highest compressive strength of 69.9 MPa tested with nodes
in their study comparing four bamboo species such as Moso, Guadua, Madake, and Tali,
which were obtained from three different countries. Awalludin et al. [14] observed in their
comparative study of the mechanical properties of the different species that Bambusa vulgaris,
D. asper, and Gigantochloa scortechii have excellent mechanical properties in compression as
well as tensile strength.

Bamboo Culms
Generally, compressive strength is correlated with density [1,10,54]. Bahtiar et al. [15]
studied the structural grading of Guadua angustifolia on short members to determine the
compression resistance and developed a prediction model. The grading capacity could
be predicted through the linear mass, and the density is the indicating predictor for the
compressive strength. Here, the compressive strength of samples that have nodes was
higher compared to non-node samples although the difference was not significant (82.2 MPa
and 75 MPa). Still, the result differed from some of the studies that observed nodal samples
had lower strength than those without nodes [45,82]. According to Nie et al. [82], the
influence of bamboo nodes on compressive behavior increases with an increasing nominal
diameter. Specifically, specimens with relatively larger diameters and without nodes can
experience an increase of up to 18.2% in ultimate stress compared to bamboo tubes with
nodes. The influence of bamboo nodes on the compressive behavior of bamboo tubes
should be considered during the design of practical structures, especially for bamboo
columns with relatively larger diameters. But with respect to ultimate bearing capacity,
nodal samples are better. In addition, Drury et al. [16] observed that the compressive
strength of culm is not affected by the nodes because, in his study of the comparison
of strength of different species, the highest compressive strength was obtained by the
sample that had nodes, i.e., both Moso and Madake species. However, in the result of
Guadua, Tali, and Black Java specimens, the highest compressive strength was obtained
from the internodal specimens. Gauss et al. [17] identified that nodes have a significant
local effect on the behavior of the tensile, but it can be disregarded in compression and shear.
The failure mode is also a general concern in bamboo specimens tested in axial loading.
Zhou et al. [54] observed a ductile failure characteristic in Phyllostachys edulis bamboo tested
in parallel to grain, similar to the observation of Cui et al. [11] on bamboo fiber bundles.
Basically, the common mode of failure of bamboo culms tested in parallel to the grain
is splitting and end bearing [14,45,82,85]. The end-bearing failure is mostly influenced
by high moisture content [85]. In the study conducted by Nie et al. in 2022 [82], it was
observed that in full-culm bamboo tubes with bamboo nodes, longitudinal cracks appeared
first on the bamboo nodes, followed by the tearing of the inner diaphragm into multiple
sections. Various research findings have led different researchers to conflicting conclusions
regarding the variation of bamboo strength along its culm length. Mukhopadhyay et al. [80]
confirmed higher compressive and cleavage strengths in the relatively upper parts of culms,
which aligns with the findings of Jusoh et al. [86]. But Chung et al. [85] observed that
both physical and mechanical properties are constant along the bamboo culm length. The
compressive strength of bamboo can be improved with treatments. The bamboo treated
with polycarboxylic acid increased compressive strength up to 17–20% [56].

Concrete-Filled Bamboo Culms

Aside from treatment, the strength of bamboo culm can be further improved, and fail-
ure will be delayed by filling materials inside it. The compressive strength of bamboo filled
with concrete and mortar was investigated by Li et al. [45]. Culm specimens are comprised
of nodes, without nodes, with and without stiffener, with and without reinforcement, and
the combinations of these parameters. It was observed that both concrete and mortar–filled
culm had a higher axial load-bearing capacity and initial stiffness. But concrete fill was
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 20 of 38

more efficient than mortar. This coincides with the study of Nie et al. [82], which also
utilized a concrete filler in bamboo culm and proved that by adopting the method of
internal concrete filling, the ultimate bearing capacity of full-culm bamboo tubes could
be significantly enhanced. Also, Li et al. [45] observed that the concrete-filled specimen’s
failure occurred in splitting mode; the splitting failure can be delayed by the nodes and
stiffener. The horizontal stiffener on the bamboo that passes through the bamboo internodes
had a good effect on the ultimate bearing capacity (UBC) and axial strains of both concrete
and mortar filler, but for the stiffener that passes through the node, it is not advisable since
it decreases bearing capacity. The average UBC of concrete filled culm was increased to a
maximum of 65.3% compared with no-fill bamboo culms. But this UBC of the bamboo was
further improved by [82] by using bamboo sheet-strengthened concrete-filled full-culm
bamboo tubes (BSCBs) in which the bamboo sheets are wrapped to bamboo tubes with
epoxy resin adhesive. This method improves the ultimate bearing capacity by more than
2.5 times higher than the concrete-filled bamboo alone. However, ref. [82] did not include in
their study the effect of nodes on both concrete filled and sheet-strengthened concrete-filled
bamboo culm. For these studies, different filling materials could have different effects also,
such as geopolymer concrete, recycled concrete with ash, or a combination, which is a
possible future interest.

Bamboo Composite
Bamboo culm is also utilized to produce composite materials or used as reinforcement
in which the application could be optimized. Sayed et al. [87] studied bamboo sticks and
used it as reinforcement for concrete, Fabricating a concrete tube with bamboo sticks. Using
bamboo sticks as reinforcement improves the compressive strength of concrete. The test
result shows that with the addition of 0.6% of sticks, the BSRC compressive strength rose
by 3.24 and 17.33% for length-to-diameter ratios 20 and 30, respectively. The compressive
strength of specimens was enhanced by adding 1.2% and 2.4% bamboo sticks with a
length-to-diameter ratio of 10 by 21.38 and 20.94%, respectively. For laminated bamboo
lumber made from Moso bamboo, the bamboo nodes have a beneficial effect when tested
perpendicular and parallel to the grain because they increase the compressive strength by
11.25% and 27%, respectively [78]. A semi-caramelized laminated bamboo demonstrated a
slightly higher capacity in compression for both perpendicular and parallel to the grain [24].
Rao et al. [47] studied a composite bamboo material, which was the outdoor bamboo-fiber-
reinforced composite (OBFRC) to be used in flooring. This study utilized resin and observed
the 20% content is effective. The compressive strength of the specimen decreases gradually
as the resin content increases. Yang et al. [22] fabricated a unidirectional round bamboo
stick boards (USBS) from bamboo culm and recognized the improvement of compressive
strength under heat treatment of 155 ◦ C, and not advised to increase the temperature more.
An engineered bamboo scrimber was fabricated and tested by Kumar et al. [23] from Moso
species and observed that the compressive strength of bamboo is comparable to that of the
commonly used grade of concrete in residential buildings and can be further improved by
treatment because treated bamboo performed better. In laminated bamboo lumber, nodes
have a beneficial effect in compression tested in parallel to the grain, which seemed to
increase the compressive strength by 11.25% and 27% for perpendicular to the grain.

3.3.2. Hardness of Bamboo

The hardness of bamboo is not the main concern of most of the studies in this article.
The study of Dong et al. [56] on bamboo scrimber treated with three methods, such as
heating, polycarboxylic acid (citric acid), and butanetetracarboxylic acid (BTCA), observed
that the hardness of bamboo after heat treatment was dramatically reduced. However, in
other treatments, such as CA and BTCA, they had no significant impact and noted that the
hemicelluloses degradation of bamboo caused by heating could be the main factor in the
decrease of the surface hardness. Another study, which also differentiates the hardness
with respect to different treatments, was conducted in [58]. In their study, the methods
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 21 of 38

were smoke, dried, and dyed treatments. The hardness of the specimen was measured
from the radial–longitudinal section, and they observed that smoked treatment resulted in
greater hardness ranging from 75 MPa to 250 MPa. This obtained value is two-fold higher
compared to the untreated samples. Furthermore, Cui et al. [11] attributed the increase in
hardness of Moso bamboo fiber bundles to a change in chemical structure resulting from
treatment modification, and their observations revealed a positive correlation between
temperature and the hardness of the fiber cell walls, with an increase from 0.36 to 0.47 GPa.

3.3.3. Tensile Strength

Culms
Like compressive strength, the tensile strength of bamboo can vary depending on
several factors, including the species, age, growing conditions, processing methods, and
treatment. The comparative study of Awalludin et al. [14] observed that Bambusa vulgaris,
D. asper, and Gigantochloa scortechii have excellent tensile strength. Zhou et al. [54] observed
that the tensile strength of bamboo culm is correlated with the density; as the density
increases, the tensile strength also increases. This is similar to the findings of [23] on
density and strength with a typical brittle failure. Gauss et al. [17] identified that nodes
have a significant local effect on behavior on the tensile properties. On the other hand, the
tensile behavior of the bamboo culm is dictated by the fiber volume fractions [10]. The
integrated process of flattening and densification on the gradient structure of bamboo
improves the tensile properties across the gradient, which was observed by [51]. Also,
the tensile properties of full-thickness bamboo splits were improved, and the change in
stress distribution led to a stable structure. Cui et al. [11] examined Moso bamboo fiber
bundles (BFB) obtained manually from Moso bamboo culms. The fiber bundles underwent
heat treatment at temperatures ranging from 160 ◦ C to 220 ◦ C. The initial average tensile
strength of the unheated specimens was measured at 423.29 MPa. As the temperature
increased, the tensile strength gradually decreased, reaching 191.61 MPa at 220 ◦ C. In a
parallel study by Wang et al. [59], the mean tensile strength of bamboo fiber bundles (BFB)
ranged from 653.3 MPa to 766.2 MPa.

Composite
Sun et al. [49] determined the tensile strength of bamboo strand-based structural
composite lumber that underwent rosin treatment. The study confirmed that there was a
decrease in the tensile strength of the high-density board with the content of rosin. The
thickness of the strand has no impact on the mechanical properties of composite material
with different densities. The mechanical properties of laminated bamboo lumber (LBL) from
Moso species under a drying treatment were determined by [78] in both perpendicular and
parallel to the grain. The presence of nodes had a negative impact on the tensile resistance of
the bamboo, indicating that the strength against pulling forces was reduced. A similar study
on laminated bamboo lumber (LBL) and that also tested both perpendicular and parallel
to the grain, but with different treatments, was conducted by [24]. The material subjected
to bleaching exhibited a slightly higher tensile strength compared to the caramelized and
semi–caramelized treated bamboo. However, the tensile strength of non-treated sample is
still higher. The effect of node in the result of the test was not indicated in this study.
The tensile and bending performance of the bamboo sliver were tested by Wu et al. [12].
After treating the specimens with alkali, the outer bamboo slivers showed the highest tensile
strength at 60 ◦ C, while the inner bamboo slivers achieved their highest tensile strength
at 40 ◦ C, with both values being 86.6% and 132.0% higher, respectively, than the tensile
strength of the untreated ones.

Concrete-Filled
Tensile testing was primarily conducted by Li et al. [45] in their study on the bamboo
culm filled with concrete and cement mortar, as one of the baselines for the evaluation
of the ultimate bearing capacity. The average longitudinal tensile strength, longitudinal
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 22 of 38

tensile modulus, and longitudinal ultimate tensile stain of bamboo obtained from these
coupon tests were 147.06 MPa, 13.70 Gpa, and 1.07%, respectively. The samples tested
in transverse, obtained average values of 8.36 MPa for circumferential tensile strength,
2.11 GPa for circumferential tensile modulus, and 0.40% for circumferential ultimate tensile
strain. It was observed that the ultimate bearing capacity of bamboo filled with concrete
and mortar increased by 226% and 86%, respectively, compared to the hollow specimens.
Another study on bamboo filled with concrete by Nie et al. [82], performed a tensile test for
the evaluation of the ultimate bearing capacity of the bamboo culms filled with concrete.
The average tensile strength, tensile modulus, and ultimate tensile strain were 184.28 MPa,
14.74 Gpa, and 1.26%, respectively, were obtained from testing parallel to the grain. For
the test of perpendicular to the grain, only the average hoop tensile strength of bamboo
was indicated, which was 9.38 MPa. Both studies used Moso bamboo species. It can be
observed that between these two studies, the bamboo culm that was used by the previous
study has higher tensile properties compared to the later. But it would have been better if
the later study also indicated the sets of tensile properties obtained in testing perpendicular
to the grain.

3.3.4. Shear Strength

Bamboo possesses a unique fibrous structure with interconnected fibers that contribute
to its mechanical properties [3,45,46], including shear resistance. The shear stress behavior
of bamboo is a critical aspect in understanding its mechanical properties and suitability for
various applications. Bamboo, known for its remarkable strength and flexibility, exhibits
distinct shear characteristics due to its unique fibrous structure [45]. Regarding the shear
property of a composite bamboo material, the existence of a node in the test specimen
leads to a localized stiffening effect. Additionally, the type of adhesive used and its spread
rate were found to have a significant impact on the compression and shear bond strengths
of LBL [44]. Similar to the study of Zhang et al. [78] in Moso bamboo, which underwent
drying treatment, the presence of nodes did not affect the shear strength of LBL units but
had an obvious negative impact on the shear modulus, causing an average reduction of
34.62%. In the study of Kumar et al. [23], which determined the effect of density on the
mechanical properties of bamboo scrimber, the shear strength of bamboo was found to
range from 4.09 to 5.86 N/mm2 , which is comparable to concrete. However, this strength
can be further enhanced by transforming bamboo into a composite material or applying
appropriate treatment methods. Bamboo’s eco-friendly nature is evident as it decomposes
faster than other construction materials and does not generate harmful waste that could
harm ecosystems.

3.3.5. Flexural and Bending

The flexural strength of bamboo is on par with other timber, and compared to wood,
the strength in flexure of bamboo is better [21], which may be further influenced by
different treatment methods. Similar to other mechanical properties of bamboo, the flexural
strength of bamboo has a positive relationship with its density [48]. On the other hand,
Chen et al. [5] confirmed that the flexural strength of bamboo exhibited a direct correlation
with the vascular bundle content, while the flexural ductility showed a direct correlation
with the parenchyma composition. However, there was a contradictory association between
the flexural strength and ductility in bamboo. Also, bamboo outperforms wood with respect
to flexural ductility.
Greco et al. [75] investigated the impact of ultraviolet (UV) irradiation on the mechani-
cal properties of bamboo culm, in both dried and untreated samples. The research revealed
that UV exposure for up to 360 h resulted in a decrease in the lignin content and surface
changes, but it did not compromise the longitudinal fiber structure. Therefore, the study
confirms that UV exposure lasting 360 h has no significant effect on the bending properties
of bamboo. Cid et al. [27] determined the effect of hornification treatment on the flexural
behavior of bamboo. Distinct mechanisms were observed for each orientation examined:
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 23 of 38

a brittle response was observed when the inner face was subjected to tension, while a
ductile response was observed when the outer face was under tension. The treatment,
in general, resulted in decreased ultimate deflection and increased stiffness and strength.
However, the effect on strength was not significant when the inner wall was subjected to
tension. Lorenzo et al. [13] used prestressed stainless-steel bands to reinforce the bamboo
pole when tested in bending stress. However, the result showed that the reinforcement
has no significant effect in counteracting the development of significant circumferential
tensile stresses in the pole. This was extensively tested through simulation, but the result
remains the same. A laminated veneer lumber (LVL) was tested by Wang et al. [59], and
they observed that the bending strength and modulus were significantly increased with
the addition of bamboo fiber bundles (BFB). Another composite is the laminated bamboo
lumber (LBL), which was fabricated from a bamboo culm with and without nodes to deter-
mine the effect of nodes on the mechanical properties of composite material. Increasing
the intervals between nodes in LBL resulted in improved flexural performance. The study
findings also indicated that most bending failures occurred at the nodes.

3.3.6. Modulus of Rupture

The modulus of rupture is a mechanical property of bamboo that measures its resis-
tance to breaking or fracturing under bending stress. The modulus of rupture represents
the maximum stress that bamboo can withstand before it fails or fractures when subjected
to a bending load. The modulus of rupture of Moso, Tregai, and Guadua bamboo species
are similar at a given density [53]. Sa Ribeiro et al. [8] determined the MOR of culm of
Bambusa vulgaris, which ranged from 48 MPa to 132 MPa. For the bamboo composite, such
as Bamboo strand composite lumber (BSCL), the MOR was as high as 300 MPa. The MOR
of a single glue line (SGL) bamboo composite has a higher value than the DGL or the
double glue line, and the MOR value also had a wider brushed surface for a given assembly
time limit [63].

3.3.7. Modulus of Elasticity

The MOE of bamboo is higher than that of wood by about 0.84 times [5]. Guadua
exhibits a higher axial modulus of elasticity compared to Moso or Tre Gai, with the latter
two showing similar values. Additionally, ultrastructural results indicate that Guadua
has a higher solid cell wall stiffness. At a given density, their moduli of rupture are also
similar [53]. The modulus of elasticity of bamboo improves when it undergoes treatment
methods [11,24,53,56]. Gottron et al. [62] stated that the orientation of the specimen sig-
nificantly influenced both the creep behavior and residual strength of creep-conditioned
specimens; specimens loaded with the outer culm-wall in tension exhibited a larger mod-
ulus of elasticity. Sa Ribeiro et al. [8] investigated the modulus of elasticity of Bambusa
vulgaris culm, which ranged from 6.1 GPa to 14.2 GPa. The analysis of the results revealed
that bamboo culm density and dynamic modulus of elasticity are useful indicators for de-
termining its strength and stiffness. Thin-walled bamboo laminated bamboo esterilla sheets
(LBES) showed higher MOE, which is superior for the flexural member [63]. For bamboo
composite, such as Bamboo strand composite lumber, the MOE is as high as 30,000 MPa [49].
BSCLs have the potential to be considered as a high-performance alternative to wood-based
structural composite lumber.
Table 6 provides a comprehensive summary of the mechanical properties of bam-
boo; this includes compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, shear strength,
corresponding modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture, hardness, and ultimate
bearing capacity. While some studies presented their findings in terms of percentage
increase and overall improvement without specific numerical values, those results were
not incorporated into the summary. Table 7 shows some of the mechanical properties
of wood. David et al. [88] presented some physical and mechanical properties of various
types of wood grown in America, which include basswood, cherry back, black cottonwood,
hackberry, and chestnut oak. The average tensile strength of bamboo is very much higher
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 24 of 38

compared to these woods, as well as the compressive strength. Tumenjargal et al. [89]
studied Larix sibirica wood species and obtained a high compressive and shear strength;
however, the availability of this wood worldwide is limited compared to bamboo. Bamboo
stands out as a readily accessible and rapidly growing plant worldwide compared to other
types of wood.

Table 6. Summary of findings on mechanical properties of bamboo.

Ultimate
Reference CS (MPa) TS (MPa) FS (MPa) SS (MPa) MOR (MPa) MOE (GPa) Hardness Bearing Remarks
Capacity, kN
[11] 191.61–423.29 k 21.29–27.53 360–470 MPa

159.01 k 1 148.69 k 1 1
[74] 42.50–52.73 k S-1, 2 2 S-15
164.30 k 2 153.31 k 2
[75] 130–160 k
[76] 57 k

[45] 32.72 k 147.0 k, 8.36 ⊥ 171.44–210.14 1 1 mortar, 2

326.25–550.87 2 concrete
[49] 24.27–158.26 k 5.48–36.22 64.63–328.18 13.35–29.34
[8] 48–132 6.1–14.2
[53] 50–220 5.0–20.0
[15] 75–82.2 k
[61] 38.46–162.82 k 8.30–17.15
[62] 76.7–107.6 26.82–36.24
1 manual, 2
[63] 74.56 1 , 82.72 2 18.93 1 , 18.74 2
hydraulic
50.57 k,
[78] 112.56 k 118.0 k 17.34 9.90
14.82 ⊥
[24] 55–60 k, 22 ⊥ 116–124 k 76–79 k, 3.0 ⊥ 14–17 10.20–10.50
[22] 114 k, 19.3 ⊥ 136–294 k 13.5–14.8 225.0 21.0
[51] 156.43–397.96 k 188.04–361.75 k
104.71–115.7 k 111–144.75 k,
[23]
49.33–77.0 ⊥ 4.18–6.70 ⊥ 131–83-166.5 k 11.89–17

[56] 58.1–66.3 k 194.9–225.5 22.3–23.8 3.0–3.76 kN

[5] 85.0–230.0 k 80–210.0 8.0–12.5
[27] 122.0 18.5
[79] 211.0 k
[80] 38.40–92.37 k

243.4 1 , 76.0 2 , 1 smoked, 2

[58]
266.6 3 MPa dried, 3 dyed
[81] 81.43–124.30 k 3.76
[84] 2.11
[59] 653.3–766.2 k 22.5–26.7
[13] 43.9–72.2k 15.9–21.8 8.81–13.2
[1] 54–58.0 k 12.0–16.0 11.93–20.68
[16] 59.1–69.9 k

204.76–382.01 1 1
[12] outer, 2 inner
62.96–146.07 2
[10] 67.3–94.7 k 0.60–0.70
[60] 18.0
[47] 95.26–107.09 k 178.35 k 19.21 165.65–178.35 16.6–18.16
[14] 78.74 233.0 20.0 S-6, optimum
[64] 51.0 k 82.0 k 99.0 k 94.0 10.40
[65] 123.62–149.84 k 106.39–128.14 7.24–7.60
[44] 54.01–64.01 k 3.12
[82] 619.54
[83] 130.0

k—parallel to the grain; ⊥—perpendicular to the grain. Superscript on the mechanical properties corresponds
with the identifications indicated in “Remarks” to categorized each value.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 25 of 38

Table 7. Mechanical properties of other types of wood.

FS MOR MOE Ultimate

Reference CS (MPa) TS (MPa) (MPa) SS (MPa) (MPa) (GPa) Hardness Bearing Remarks
Capacity, kN
[89] 46.3–51.1 k 10.4–13.0 79.8–13.9 7.03–9.51 Larix sibirica
[88] 15.3 k 1.9 4.1 34 7.2 Basswood
[88] 24.4 k 3.6 7.8 55 9.0 Cherry black
Black
[88] 15.2 k 1.9 4.2 34 7.4
cottonwood
[88] 18.3 k 4.3 7.4 45 6.6 Hackberry
[88] 24.3 k 4.8 8.3 55 9.4 Chestnut oak
Persian silk
[90] 54.78 5.53 wood
(heartwood)
Persian silk
[90] 50.12 4.80 wood
(sapwood)
k—parallel to the grain.

4. Bamboo Culm Treatment Methods

Bamboo is a natural material with impressive mechanical strengths; however, its
long-term performance as a construction material is often questioned due to sensitivity
to moisture and durability concerns, requiring further research for sustainable treatment
solutions [52,61,76]. Hence, most of the studies on the mechanical properties of bamboo
emphasized the treatments and methods used. This paper discusses the treatments used
by the collected literature. Bamboo culms could be naturally or chemically treated, or
a combination. Tables 8 and 9 show the summary of the treatments used by different
articles collected in the respective bamboo species used. Natural treatments used in
these papers are heating or thermal treatment with different methods (air and sun drying,
boiling, oven), smoked, rosin impregnation, fire or flame, soaking or saturation (salt,
seawater), oil treatment, and hornification. The chemical treatment includes the use of
borax, alkali, epoxy resin, boron-based preservatives, polycarboxylic acids (citric acid
and butanetetracarboxylic acid), disodium octaborate tetrahydrate (DOT) aqueous, rosin
impregnation, copper naphthenate (CuN) impregnation, and or a combination.

Table 8. Summary of natural treatment on bamboo.

Reference Age Bamboo Species Treatment

[11] 3 S-1 Heating
[75] 3 S-3 Abura–Nuki technique (Flame)
[51] 4 S-1 Steaming
[81] NA S-12 Lime water (slaked lime)
[91] 2, 4, 6 S-1 Heating
[58] 3 S-13 Smoked
[49] 4 S-1 Drying
[78] 4 to 5 S-1 Drying
[61] 5 S-1 Rosin impregnation
[52] 4 S-2 Steamed and rosin
[48] 3 S-1 Heating
[59] NA S-1 High-temperature saturated steamed treatment
[65] 5 S-1 Tung oil and heat
[22] 3 S-10 Heating
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 26 of 38

Table 8. Cont.

Reference Age Bamboo Species Treatment

[55] 4 S-1 Heating
[76] NA S-4 Oil
[23] NA S-1 Thermal treatment using saturated steam (SST)
[64] 3–5 S-1 Boiling and air-drying
[21] NA S-5 Drying
[92] NA S-6 Hornification

Table 9. Summary of chemical treatment on bamboo.

Reference Age Bamboo Species Treatment

[28] 4 S-11 Alkali pretreatment plus rosin (epoxy-modified rosin and natural rosin)
[16] NA S-1, S-5, S-13 Borax
[12] NA S-1, S-5 Alkali
[93] 4 S-2 Copper naphthenate (CuN) impregnation
Polycarboxylic acids [citric acid (CA butane tetracarboxylic acid
[56] 4 S-1
(BTCA) plus heating
[60] 3 to 5 S-16 Disodium octaborate tetrahydrate (DOT) aqueous
[15] NA S-5 Boron-based preservative
[27] 3 S-1 Hornification phenomenon, cold impregnation w/epoxy resin
[1] NA S-1, S-5 Borax
[47] 4 S-1 PF resin post-treatment
[14] NA S-6, S-16, S-17, S-18 Borax
[94] NA S-8 Akali
[10] 6 S-15 Chemical treatment (deltamethrin)
[44] NA S-18 Borax
[53] NA S-1, S-5, S-7 Borax
[24] NA S-1 Steamed and bleaching
[79] NA S-1 Alkali
[84] NA S-14, S-7 Borax
[77] NA S-7 Borax

4.1. Natural Treatment Methods

The use of natural treatments on bamboo is more environmentally advantageous,
making it a preferred choice for enhancing its properties and durability; natural treatments
are also more economical. There were 20 studies that used natural treatment on bamboo,
and most of them found that treatments have a beneficial impact on the improvement of
the properties of bamboo. Some of the studies did not emphasize the impact of treatment
on the physical and mechanical properties of bamboo; only a few have been discussed. The
number of studies used heat treatment and discovered that it has a positive impact on the
properties of bamboo [3,11,21,48,58,59], but the performance is affected by temperature in
which higher temperature will result in a decrease in the properties [21,28,65,76]. The heat
treatment had a notable impact on the surface color of the bamboo.
Cui et al. [11] used heat treatment and observed that with a heat treatment of 180 ◦ C,
the fracture surfaces of both bamboo bundles and single fibers exhibited a smoother
appearance, which is a favorable outcome because smoother fracture surfaces observed
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 27 of 38

after heat treatment on bamboo bundles and single fibers are indicative of positive effects,
suggesting an enhancement in the mechanical properties and structural performance of
the bamboo material. A similar method was used by Wang et al. [59], except that they
performed mechanical modification. The thermal-mechanical method effectively extracted
the fiber bundles from bamboo culms with little damage to the microstructure of bamboo
fibers. This method did the isolation of the fiber bundles while preserving the integrity of
the bamboo fibers’ microstructure.
For a composite bamboo, the compressive strength, shear strength, and modulus of
rupture values of Unidirectional bamboo stick boards (UBSBs) significantly improved when
using bamboo sticks heat-treated at 155 ◦ C, but higher heat treatment temperatures above
155 ◦ C resulted in a decrease in the mechanical properties of UBSBs [48]. Temperature has
a significant impact on all treatments that utilize temperatures in which there is a ceiling
value of temperature. The study of Mena et al. [21], which used drying treatment, found
that the flexural strength decreases if the temperature increases more than 15 ◦ C. Heating
with sunflower and vegetable oil treatment was performed by Bui et al. [76] who noticed
that the maximum temperature of positive impact on compressive strength is up to 180 ◦ C
only, higher than it will decrease the compressive strength. Also, the oil is best if applied
after heating, which they refer to as a “cooling” stage only. Tang et al. [65] applied Tung
oil treatment to bamboo at temperatures ranging from 100 ◦ C to 200 ◦ C. Their findings
indicated that the mechanical properties of bamboo, such as ultimate stress, modulus of
elasticity, and modulus of rupture, remained unaffected when heat-treated below 200 ◦ C,
in comparison to untreated bamboo. The ceiling temperature in their study will not be
determined because 200 ◦ C is the highest temperature that they used. Maybe the result will
be different with the temperature higher than 200 ◦ C; this could be a call for a future study.
The density of bamboo culm improved after the steamed treatment [51]. Wang et al. [59]
verified the difference between steam and heat treatment and observed that the equilibrium
moisture content (EMC) of bamboo culms was effectively reduced through high-temperature
saturated steam treatment. The smoke treatment has good performance, according to Ram-
ful et al. [58], because smoke treatment on bamboo resulted in a hydrophobic surface with
improved water-repelling ability. The treatment led to reduced hygroscopicity and increased
lignin content due to thermal effects and poly-condensation reactions. Another advantage
of the smoke treatment is it improves the hardness ranging from 75 MPa to 250 MPa, which
is two-fold higher than untreated. Another treatment that is relatively new is the rosin
treatment. Here, rosin is impregnated with the bamboo culm or bamboo composite. The
effect of rosin on the porosity of bamboo is significant in that it decreased up to 14.43%, as
verified by [52] using Hong bamboo species. The moisture absorption of the rosin–treated
culms is significantly lower compared to the untreated culms.

4.2. Chemical Treatment Methods

Chemical treatment on bamboo enhanced its physical and mechanical properties
[12,24,27,48,56,78]. Compared to the natural treatment methods, using chemicals will
obtain faster results. However, some of the drawbacks are its environmental, health,
and safety factors. There are 19 studies that applied chemical treatments on bamboo
culms and composites in their methodologies. The chemical treatment includes the use
of borax, alkali, epoxy resin, boron-based preservatives, polycarboxylic acids (citric acid
and butanetetracarboxylic acid), disodium octaborate tetrahydrate (DOT) aqueous, rosin
impregnation, copper naphthenate (CuN) impregnation, and or a combination. Some of the
studies did not discuss the impact of treatments used to the properties of bamboo. None of
the research that used the borax treatment specifically detailed how the treatment affected
the characteristics of bamboo. However, these studies found that the compressive, tensile,
and bending strength have significant performance during testing [14,16,47,54]. But on the
literature available and other studies like Handana et al. [95], using borax treatment is an
excellent choice. Borax solution, being environmentally friendly and water-soluble, is an
ideal choice for preservation in both cold and hot soaking techniques. Its effectiveness in
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 28 of 38

protecting bamboo from insect and fungal attacks has been well-established. Yang et al. [28]
used alkali treatment and observed that as the alkali concentration increased, the weight
loss rate of the bamboo samples also increased gradually. The contact angle decreased with
higher alkali concentration, indicating a more effective removal of wax and silica from
the outer and inner layers of bamboo. These changes significantly improved bamboo’s
permeability, making it a favorable environment for subsequent modification. As the alkali
treatment temperature increased, the parenchyma cells in bamboo experienced greater
collapse, leading to a significant reduction in width and thickness, resulting in a denser
structure, especially in the inner bamboo slivers. The highest density for both outer and
inner slivers was achieved at 40 ◦ C, increasing by 45.6% and 88.3%, respectively, compared
to untreated slivers [12]. A similar treatment was used by Zhang et al. [78], which also
observed a similar result on the improvement on the mechanical properties of bamboo
using alkali treatment. Sharma et al. [24] differentiate the effect of using bleached to heat
treatment. In heat treatment, it is classified into two categories; caramelized and semi-
caramelized. The mean shear strength of the semi-caramelized bamboo is higher than
the bleached bamboo. They found that the specimens that had undergone bleaching had
a slightly higher tensile strength. An improvement in the tensile strength of bamboo is
similar to the findings of Cid et al. [27], except that they used a different treatment; here,
they used Epoxy resin. Dong et al. [56] conducted a study showing that polycarboxylic
acid treatment is an eco-friendly and cost-effective method to enhance bamboo properties.
Treated samples exhibited high termite resistance and minimal mass loss. The compression
strength of bamboo increased by 17–20% after treatment. However, heat treatment reduced
the surface hardness significantly, whereas CA and BTCA treatments had no evident
impact. The decrease in surface hardness is likely due to hemicellulose degradation caused
by heating. Jiang et al. [93] performed Copper naphthenate (CuN) impregnation and
oil on bamboo specimens and observed that the application of CuN during heat-cold
impregnation enhanced the termite resistance of bamboo significantly. Compared to the
untreated control, heat oil treatment, and heat-cold impregnation of mineral oil alone, the
CuN-treated round bamboo showed notable improvements in decay and mold resistance.

5. Bamboo Codes, Standards and Application

Bamboo can be utilized in all parts of the house, including structural columns, beams
and walls, flooring, doors, and windows [96]. It is a sustainable building material. However,
its application is still limited [30]. In the early ages, it is already used as a building
material for the construction of light houses. This material is also used as bracings and
temporary scaffoldings for light construction in Asian countries. However, the application
of this material cannot be optimized because of some constraints, such as preservation and
connections. It is known that the weakness of bamboo is its decay over time and that it will
be attacked by termites and other insects if not treated [25]. Bamboo connection is also a
concern, especially the use of whole culm. Many researchers nowadays are still working
on the development of bamboo connections to maximize its performance. The codes and
standards available regarding the requirements and procedures are also insufficient to fully
adapt the use of bamboo as a structural material [30].

5.1. Codes and Standards Utilized by References

The significant impact of testing methods on results has prompted most industries to
establish standardized testing procedures [39]. There are available International Standards,
requirements, and testing procedures for bamboo. However, there are variations in the
result [97], which may be because of different variables such as methods, species, origin,
type of testing machines, and others. Among the various variables, the testing standard
emerged as the most influential factor affecting the mechanical property values of bam-
boo [39]. Some of the literature in this paper did not mention the codes and standards used
in their studies. Table 10 shows the different codes and standards used in this paper.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 29 of 38

Table 10. Codes and standards used.

Codes and General Testing Testing Structural Characteristics

Reference International National Country bamboo Wood Composites Grading Treatment
Standards Guidelines (Physical) (Mechanical) Design Value
[1,15,50,64,74] ISO 22157-2019; ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[8,14,15,17,24,27,92] ISO 22157-2004; ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[77,98] ISO 22156 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[42] ISO 12122–1 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[15,42] ISO 19624 ✓ ✓ ✓
[44,63,64,84] ASTM D143 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[91] ASTM D3379 ✓ ✓ ✓
[91] ISO 9427 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[59] ISO 16979 ✓ ✓ ✓
[48,91] ASTM D1037-12 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[10] ASTM D3039 ✓ ✓ ✓
[44] ASTM 3043 ✓ ✓ ✓
[44] ASTM D7078 ✓ ✓ ✓
[44] ASTM 5266-99 ✓ ✓ ✓
[78] ASTM D3822-07 ✓ ✓ ✓
[12,56] GB/T 15780 ✓ China ✓ ✓ ✓
[1,13,54,78] JG/T 199:2007 ✓ China ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[52] GB/T 1928-2009 ✓ China ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[47] GB/T 17657-2013 ✓ China ✓ ✓ ✓
[47] GB/T 30364-2013 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[98] EN 12512 ✓ Europe ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[24] EN 408 ✓ Europe ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[75] UNI 11842-2021 ✓ Italy ✓ ✓ ✓
[75] JIS-A ✓ Japan ✓ ✓
[80] NBC SP7-2005 ✓ India ✓
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 30 of 38

The International Standards used includes (1) ISO 22157-2019 [1,16,54,74,75]: 2004 [8,
14,15,17,24,27,92]: test methods for determination of physical and mechanical properties of
bamboo culms; (2) ISO 22156 [77,98]: bamboo–structural design which basically concerned
with the requirements for the mechanical resistance, service and durability of bamboo
structures; (3) ISO 12122-1 [42]: determination of the characteristic values for a defined
population of timber products; (4) ISO 19624 [15,42]: basic principles and procedures of the
grading of bamboo culms for bamboo structures; (5) ASTM D143 [44,63,64,84]: standard
test methods for small clear specimens of timber; (6) ASTM D3379-75 [91]: standard test
method for tensile and young’s modulus for high–modulus single filament materials;
(7) ISO 9427 [91]: methods of determining the density of wood–based panels; (8) ISO
16979 [59]: determination of the moisture content of wood–based panels; (9) ASTM D1037-
12 [48,91]: standard test methods for evaluating properties of wood–based fiber and particle
panel materials; (10) ASTM D3039 [10]: standard method for tensile testing composites;
(11) ASTM 3043-00 [44]: standard test for structural panels in flexure; (12) ASTM D7078-
12 [44]: standard test method for shear properties of composite materials by V-notched rail
shear method; (13) ASTM 5266-99 [44] standard practice for estimating the percentage of
wood failure in adhesive joints; and (14) ASTM D3822-07 [78]: standard test method for
tensile properties of single textile fibers.
China has their own codes in standards of bamboo. The earliest is the (1) GB/T
15780 [12,56]: testing methods for physical and mechanical properties of bamboos; (2) JG/T
199:2007 [1,13,54,78]: testing methods for physical and mechanical properties of bamboo
used in building; (3) GB/T 1928-2009 [52]: general requirements for physical and mechani-
cal tests of wood; (4) GB/T 17657-2013 [47]: test methods for evaluating the properties of
wood-based panels and surface decorated wood-based panels; (5) GB/T 30364-2013 [47]:
guidelines for bamboo scrimber; and (6) GB/T 20241-2006 [47]: a guidelines of the lami-
nated veneer lumber.
There are studies in the literature that used European standards such as (1) EN 12512,
and (2) BS EN 408. The EN 12512 [98] governs the requirements and test methods for
materials, geometry, strength, stiffness, and durability aspects of dowel fasteners used in
load-bearing timber structures. Another is the BS EN 408 [24], which guides the determina-
tion of some physical and mechanical properties of timber structures and glued laminated
timber. Italy has UNI 11842-2021 [75], which governs the test procedures for the mechanical
characterization of bamboo culms. Greco et al. [75] used this in their investigation of the
photodegradation of bamboo in UV rays. The JIS is the Japanese International Standard,
which was used by Bui et al. [76] in their study on the effect of heat and oil treatment on the
mechanical properties of bamboo. They observed that the compressive strength of bamboo
was improved after heat treatment and oil application (after heating). They noted that the
maximum temperature is 180C because larger than it will degrade the strength. Lastly,
Mukhopadhay et al. [80] used the National Building Code NBC SP7–2005 of India in their
investigation of the compressive and cleavage strengths of Indian bamboo species. It is
observed that most of the studies utilized International Standards. Based on the articles
gathered in this paper, there is no study that has common parameters that can be used to
differentiate the standards because they differ in methods, preparations, treatment, and
species. This could be an avenue for future interest. Putting more interest on the codi-
fication and standardization of bamboo usage is needed for the growing interest in this
material [99]. Kumar et al. [23] pointed out that there are still no codes and standards in
characterizing engineered bamboo composites; thus, comparing it with the literature is the
best they can do to assess the results, each of which also utilized different standards. There
is available literature outside the articles gathered, which conducted an assessment on the
tensile strength of bamboo, which assessed the result obtained between ISO 22157 and
modified ASTM D143 [100]. They observed that the result of tensile strength obtained from
modified ASTM has obtained a higher value compared to ISO 22157. This could be a lead-
ing option for the designer in considering standard test for tensile. The further assessment
and comparison of different properties might be a subject for future study. Furthermore,
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 31 of 38

it would be better if there were centralized Standard Guidelines for the usage of bamboo
considering different variations such as species, locations, treatments, and others. There
is no existing standard procedure for treating bamboo, maybe it could be another future
interest to promote standardization for bamboo optimization.

5.2. Bamboo Applications

Bamboo is a sustainable material. In old times, bamboo was considered a material
for the poor since it is mostly used by marginalized people in remote areas; However, at
present, it is known worldwide due to its good properties as a building material and its
aesthetic purpose [30]. However, the bamboo needs to be treated and properly processed to
optimize it and have a long service life. That is why engineered and or bamboo composite
arises. In which bamboo is mixed and or combined with other materials to perform better.
This section briefly discusses some of the bamboo applications presented and mentioned in
the gathered literature. [22] used bamboo sticks in reinforced concrete mix for structural
columns. The other way around was the study of [45,82,83], in which they used concrete
to reinforce the bamboo and determined the ultimate load-bearing capacity of bamboo
culm, which can be used for structural columns. Sun et al. [49] studied bamboo strand
composite lumber (BSCL) for building material application. A laminated bamboo lumber
was the focus of Liliefna et al. [63] and Zhang et al. [79] to be used in flexural members.
A bamboo stick board was introduced by Yang et al. [22], which they recommended for
structural construction. Bamboo–based panels were explored by Huang et al. [57] and
Wang et al. [91], which they suggested to be used in structural construction. Xiao et al. [64]
and Anokye et al. [44] studied glued laminated bamboo, commonly known as “glubam”.
Both studies addressed that glubam can be used in general structure applications. Flooring
application was the recommendation of Rao et al. [47] in their study on outdoor bamboo-
fiber-reinforced composites (OBFRC). They concluded that the OBFRC is good for outdoor
purposes not only it has good strength but also aesthetics, and its use as a building material
is one of the many applications of bamboo. This material is excellent in many ways.
Engineered or bamboo composite is indeed improved and widened the application of
bamboo; however, it is difficult and expensive. The use of bamboo culms as building
materials in construction still interests many researchers today. The common weakness
of bamboo culms or bamboo poles that needs further study is the preservation and the
connection. Figure 12a shows how bamboo was used to construct the ceiling at the Madrid-
Barajas Airport in Spain, Figure 12b a laminated bamboo curtain wall in Germany, and
Figure 12c an aesthetic footbridge in China.
 ffi

Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 32 of 38

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 12. (a) Engineered bamboo ceiling, Barajas International Airport in Madrid, Spain. (b) Lami-
nated bamboo curtain wall, Germany, (c) bamboo footbridge in China. All figures are reproduced
with permission from (a,b) [32], Elsevier, 2015; and (c) [45], Elsevier, 2017.

6. Research Gaps and Challenges

The literature review comprehensively studied the physical and mechanical properties
of bamboo, treatment methods, some applications, codes, and standards. However, there
are still challenges that need to be address in these different aspects. Figure 13 shows the
summary of recommendations for research topics that may be addressed for future studies.

6.1. Properties of Bamboo

The identification of optimal harvesting, curing, and storage practices must be stan-
dardized and establish criteria for selecting species and maturity levels. The selection of
nodal and internodal specimens should also be indicated since there are variations in the
performance testing results [15,45,82,101]; the use of both nodal and internodal should
always be considered since the nodes cannot be disregarded [82]. Another thing is the
exploration of the improvement of the properties of bamboo, which includes modification
of treatments, processing for composite products, and incorporation of other materials,
particularly sustainable materials. Furthermore, the continuing trend issue in bamboo as a
structural material is the development of connections in different applications. A single
article in this paper discussed the nailed connection using Moso [98], which was laterally
loaded. Various researchers involved in modifications of bamboo connection include plate
with bolt [31], steel cap with lashing [102], buckle plate connection [103], modified steel
clamps [104], bolted with sleeves and inserts [105], and wooden block joint with hose
clams [106]. The mechanical testing performed for bamboo specimens in the literature is
mostly static in nature; factors such as seismic, wind, and vibration were not performed.
This is a major concern if the material will be used in structures, especially in outdoor
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 33 of 38

settings. Generally, these gaps and challenges are summarized as follows: (1) develop
centralized guidelines and procedures for the preparation and processing of bamboo with
respect to species, age, and locations; (2) explore alternative sustainable filling materials
for bamboo aside from concrete and mortar in which the strength will be increased but
not compromise the ductility; (3) further development of the bamboo culm connections
for different structural applications; and (4) testing of mechanical properties of bamboo
subjected to seismic, wind and vibrations in relation to structural applications.

Figure 13. Research topic recommendations.

6.2. Treatment Methods

The treatment of bamboo is one of the factors in the improvement of its properties.
The various treatment presented in the literature has their own modification. It would
be a great contribution if there were a standard procedure to be used in treating bamboo
naturally or chemically, with respect to its species, age, and location. Further modification
of treatment methods, such as investigation of potential natural materials to be used as
treatment, like rosin [28,52] mango sap [107], or a combination of natural and chemical
treatments, and development of a standard procedure from it.
ff
6.3. Bamboo Codes and Standards
ff
Codes and standards play a crucial role in the use of bamboo as a sustainable material
in construction and other applications; they are essential for gaining confidence and trust
in the reliability and safety of bamboo-based structures. Gatoo et al. [99] emphasized that
codification and standardization of bamboo use are needed for the increasing interest in
this sustainable material. Kumar et al. [23] also emphasized that there is still a need for
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 34 of 38

codes and standards in characterizing engineered bamboo composites because comparison

with the existing literature is what most researchers do. In this literature, some studies
used different codes and standards in testing the mechanical properties of bamboo [8],
refs. [12,56,63] though in this literature, there is no direct similar parameter that could
differentiate the result because they vary in species, age, location, treatment, and sample
specimen used. This challenge might be addressed in future work.

7. Conclusions
As a sustainable material, bamboo has consistently demonstrated its environmental
credentials throughout history and in contemporary times, from being used as a temporary
structure to becoming a structural material. Presently, the Scopus database provides thou-
sands of documents related to bamboo use in construction, and these are still progressing.
The most widely studied aspects of bamboo are its physical and mechanical properties,
and few are in the areas of connections and applications, especially in applications to tall
building construction. The gathered literature provided widespread data regarding the
generated three topics: (1) physical and mechanical properties of different bamboo species,
(2) bamboo treatment methods, and (3) bamboo applications and standards. Most of the
physical and mechanical properties of bamboo surpasses all other types of wood and are
comparable to steel with respect to tensile strength. Its properties can be further enhanced
by various types of treatment and processing methods. The decaying weakness of bamboo
can be addressed with proper treatment. Natural treatment is better and environmentally
friendly compared to the chemical treatment available. However, chemical treatment pro-
vides results in less time. The availability and sustainability of bamboo material is optimum
compared to other construction materials. There are still gaps and key points that need
further study and assessment. For the physical and mechanical properties: (1) develop
centralized guidelines and procedures for the preparation and processing of bamboo with
respect to species, age, and locations that have established criteria for bamboo maturity,
level, optimal harvesting, curing, and storage. (2) Explore alternative sustainable filling ma-
terials for bamboo aside from concrete and mortar in which the strength will be increased
but not compromising ductility. (3) Further development of the bamboo culm connections
for different structural applications. (4) Testing of mechanical properties of bamboo sub-
jected to seismic, wind, and vibrations in relation to structural applications. For methods
of treatment: (5) standardization of the treatment procedures using natural or chemical
methods, or a combination; and for bamboo codes and standards: (6) assessment of existing
codes and standards for testing the mechanical properties of bamboo, highlighting the
potential limitations and areas, uniformity, differences with all existing similar standards.
By filling these gaps and future study recommendations, it can support the reliability and
robustness of bamboo as a sustainable material, fostering its promotion and adoption in
the construction industry.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.F.V.A. and J.M.C.O.; methodology, M.F.V.A. and

J.M.C.O.; software, M.F.V.A. and J.M.C.O.; validation, J.M.C.O. and M.F.V.A.; formal analysis,
M.F.V.A.; investigation, M.F.V.A.; resources, M.F.V.A. and J.M.C.O.; data curation, M.F.V.A.; writing—
original draft preparation, M.F.V.A., J.M.C.O. and M.E.P.S.; writing—review and editing, M.F.V.A.,
J.M.C.O., D.N.R.V. and M.E.P.S.; visualization, M.F.V.A. and J.M.C.O.; supervision, J.M.C.O., M.E.P.S.
and D.N.R.V.; project administration, J.M.C.O. and D.N.R.V.; funding acquisition, J.M.C.O. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Buildings 2023, 13, 2449 35 of 38

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