24 Philosophical

Psychology
The point to always note, however, is that it is not the
substance of the subject itself that makes it a science, but the
procedure or method of ascertaining or obtaining knowledge.
In conclusion, we say that psychology has a foot in each of two
worlds. If science means the attempt to carry out a study systematically,
according to fundamental principles, then psychology is a science, but if
by science we mean the search for a general and universally acceptable
theory, with passion for exactness, then psychology is not a science.

In fact, a critic once made it clear that some human

problems have no known parallels among other animals. And
that the use of laboratories, cages and special boxes for research
by the psychologist is an artificial environment, dictating a
different behavioural response of animals, in contrast to how
they could have responded in natural environments. For
example, a study of aggression in the laboratory or in a cage, and
on the streets of Lagos, will definitely give different results.
Furthermore, when people are being studied or observed and they are
aware, this awareness or consciouness may make the subjects to be in their
best behaviour or to give responses that are not typical of their usual
conduct.

Social Psychology
Man is a social animal and a being-unto-others. It is either an individual
is moving away from people or going closer to them.Whatever is the
case, we need others in order to survive and social interaction is
inevitable. Whereas psychology is concerned with the ways the
individual is affected by his environment, social psychology focuses on
the ways the individual is affected by his social environment or other
people. The social psychologist still studies the behaviour of the
individualeven when not in group,but it is only where the presence of
others is implied.
Godwin Azenabor: The Nature and Scope of Philosophical Psychology 25

In chapter three, C. B. Okoro examines the

nature,importance and problems of social psychology. We
posit that social psychology is:
(a) the study of the ways in which people or a group of people affect
others and are in turn affected by them; social psychology attempts to
understand the dynamics of all interactions.
(b) a discipline in which an attempt is made to understand, explain and predict
how the thoughts, feelings and actions of individuals are influenced by the
perceived, imagined or implied thoughts, feelings and actions of others.

(c) the scientific study of the behaviour of the individual in the society.
So, social psychology deals with the individual in a group situation. It is
about group behaviour.
In social psychology, the following questions are raised and
answers attempted:
Under what circumstances, are people likely to be or more easily
influenced?

What nature of people can be more easily persuaded or

dissuaded? And under what circumstances?
To what extent does one's environment influence one's
behaviour? What is the relationship between the individual
and the society?
How do the individual and the group interact and come to
agreement?
How is the mind of racial discrimination developed?
How does the individual feel as a member of a prejudiced group?
Could his attitude to life be different if he was born in a different
societyor environment?
Under what process can a person be brought to change his attitude
towards others? What are the social influences that bring about change
in attitude?
26 Phllosophical Psychology

The methodology of the social psychologists includes:

(a)Universalism,
(b)Communism,and
(c) Authority and tenacity of idea.
Importance of Social Psychology
The study of social psychology is important because we have to
understand friends, have common interests, tolerate each other,live with
others, marry and interact on a daily basis. The basic knowledge of social
psychology helps in social interaction. In fact, the quest to understand
how the other mind works is an important intellectual effort. Social
psychology enables us to understand and carry out enquiry concerning
the nature of man in a social environment.
Problems and Limitations of Social Psychology
Individual behaviours may be easy to predict, but social interaction is not easy
to discern. It is a formidable task predicting the behaviour of a group of
persons under a given social context.How can the social psychologist offer us a
universally tenable account of human character in the face of differences in
race, nationality.creed,religious beliefs, etc.? It is doubtful if a valid universal
principle of human interaction can be built upon the methodology of social
psychology.

There is the problem of objectivity. The social psycho-logist is

himself part of his subject matter. So, he cannot be absolutely
objective in the evaluation of social phenomena or events. In fact,we
find that the social investigator may not be able to perfectly shed
away his personal predisposition in arriving at a conclusion
concerning other people. Even if the social psychologist is hired from
a different cultural background to investigate social events or issues in
another social context,the matter is not helped,since this would only
entail the transfer of
Godwin Azenabor: The Nature and Scope of Philosophical Psychology 27

prejudice from one cultural environment into another by the social

psychologist and his result would be a spurious conclusion.

As we know, atoms or molecules may remain constant, but a

society or group is always dynamic, ever changing and
elastic.Therefore,there may not be found a discoverable general
law relating to society just as we cannot have a social physics.
The social psychologist, as pointed out earlier,studies the way and
manner an individual is moulded and shaped by others around him. All these
attempts are to eradicate individual differences,prejudices and biases in
order to ensure that the society lives in peace and harmony. But then, the
world has been replete with hostilities,distress, rivalries, suspicion, hatred,
deep-rooted animosity, endless vendetta, discrimination, mutiny, breach of
peace, exploitation,imperialism and man's inhumanity to man. This is
because there is no theory, rule or science of human behaviour that can take
care of intention, volition,action, emotion, hope, imagination, pleasures and
needs in understanding other people's mind.

Behaviourism
Behaviourism is the school or branch of psychology that claims to make
scientific contributions towards the study of human behaviour. The
subject matter of psychology in this respect is observable behaviour. Femi
Akinfala in chapter four examines this subject. I also in chapter nine
examine the idea of Freedom and Determination, Egoism, Altruism and
Hedonism in the explanation of human behaviour.
Behaviourism is the theory that behaviour is a function of previous
natural events and that laws describing and correlating with the events
can be discovered. Behaviourism attempts to understand, explain, predict
and control human behaviour at different levels. The term 'behaviour' is
very broad in meaning.It is broadly applied to a whole range of activities,
including
observable actions, mental processes of thinking, feeling and sensing
and the processes of the mind that are unconscious. It includes what we
do, our feelings as well as our thoughts,mental responses as well as
28 Philosophical Psychology

unusual odds or abnormal reactions.Behaviour may be overt or covert.

When it is overt, it is observable behaviour, but when covert, it is inside
of the person, and this consists, for example, in thinking, imagination,
feeling,pain pleasure and sensation. The field of behavioural sciences
embraces psychology, sociology and anthropology.
Research methodology of the behavioural science includes:
(a) Experimentation,
(b)Observation,
(c) Documentation,

(d)Interviews,and
(e) Questionnaires.
Behavioual Sciences hover around the probability theory which is in
the realm of speculative theory. The behavioura predictions are hedged
with “ifs” and “buts” or other types o phraseologies, so that if things go
wrong, the behavioura scientist's reputation is not impaired.

Genetic Psychology
This is another aspect of psychology that tries to define the huma person
and behaviour. Genetics is the science of heredity an evolutionary
similarities and differences of related organisms a produced by the
interaction of the genes.
It is believed that there are certain tiny structures withi the nucleus
of the body cells that carry the idea of heredity. An the "genes" are said
to serve as the carrier of genetic information Accordingly, when a child
is conceived, the “genes” received frot the cells of the father and the
egg cell of the mother jointly ser
as chemical instruction to the developed organism. This genetic instruction
is said to affect the physical characteristics of the child. There is genetic
transfer, which is how heredity comes about.And the point is made that
heredity plays some roles in the determination of people's personality and
social attitudes.
Godwin Azenabor:The Nature and Scope of Philosophical Psychology 29

The claim is that the genes influence the child's development

and affect his intellectual capacity, personality and behaviour.
Hence, we have genetic traits (like colour, vision,hair,etc.) and
genetic diseases. In fact, it is asserted that certain psychological
disorders such as madness, mental retardation,megalomania,
schizophrenia, wildness, cruelty, sadism, hostility,eccentricism,
etc., are due to genetics or heredity. The behaviour manifested
becomes a question of determinism, if it can be said to be the
product of circumstances beyond control.
The question is, can genetic impulse be controlled? Can a man who acts
from the helpless influence of genetic impulse be held morally responsible
for his actions? This raises the problem of freedom and responsibility. The
question then arises: By genetic transfer of traits, can human behaviour still
be said to be voluntary? How do we hold a delinquent child responsible for
his immoral actions, if he claims to be acting under the helpless influence of
genes handed over to him by his parents at birth?Douglas Anele highlights
the genetic determination of human behaviour in chapter fifteen.

The genes make the child's genotype. It is claimed that

through a genetic screening, it could be proved by blood analysis
of parents that children may encounter genetic problems and
advice may be given for termination of embryonic
development.Of course, this has some ethical implications as with
abortion.
Finally, if man is so consumed by genetic impulses, then he is but a
finished product and no longer a moral person.There definitely seems to
be a conflict between the genetic make-up of

Chapter 2

Is Psychology a Science?
A Philosophical Inquiry
Moses Gbadebo
Godwin Azenabor:The Nature and Scope of Philosophical Psychology 29

HIS paper aims at revealing the scientific nature or

otherwise of psychology. In doing this, some
fundamental questions come to mind, such as, what is
psychology?What kind of things does psychology study?
What do psychologists do? What does psychology have to do
with life in the real sense? How scientific can we be in an
attempt to understand psychology? Is psychology really
scientific? Can psychology ever hope to attain the scientific
status enjoyed by physics,chemistry, or any of the other
disciplines of natural science? These are not questions that can
be answered with a yes or no. In order to answer them, there is
need to understand or define both psychology and science. This
work is designed to answer these questions and related ones.
Psychology:A Conceptualisation
The word 'psychology'is from psyche, which means 'mind';
so,psychology “is that branch of knowledge which deals with the human
mind. It is a science of human and animal behaviour"(Azenabor:
2001:1). It is both an academic and applied discipline involving the
scientific study of mental processes and behaviour.
That is, psychology studies human behaviour by scientific method
(Hapner: 1979: 5). Behaviour, as used here,refers to more than conduct,
habit or manner. It includes all normal and

abnormal activities of the whole organism, even those of the

mentally retarded and the mentally ill. Topics like
perception,cognition, emotion, personality, behaviour and
interpersonal relationship are studied by psychologists.Psychology
also applies such knowledge to various spheres of human activity,
such as family,education,etc.

50
Moses Gbadebo: Is Psychology a Science? A Philosophical Inquiry 51

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines

psychology as “the study or science of the mind and the way it
works and of behaviour as an expression of the mind" (Paul
Procter; 1978:887). It is also seen as a branch of study that deals
with a particular group or division of human activity” (Ibid); or "the
mind and behavioural patterns of a particular person or group,a
person's character” (Ibid).
Psychology, as one of the behavioural sciences, studies the
role human behaviour plays in social dynamics while incorporating
psychological and neurological processes into its conceptions of
mental function. It analyses the mental and emotional processes
that lead to the behaviour of individuals and groups. Psychology
applies scientific methods to mental phenomena,to behaviour and
experience. The outstanding approach to the problems of our
modern age is our highly developed technique for gaining insight
into all aspects of our experiences through scientific method.
Psychology is a field of scientific endeavour consisting of a number
of sub-fields such as clinical (or counselling), comparative,
experimental, human factors,psychobiology and several others.
Further,each of these sub-fields is divided into many areas of
concentration:some psychologists specialise in learning, others in
sensation and perception, and some in behaviour modification or
one of the many other highly specialised areas.
Having understood the meaning of psychology,what then is science?
The Concept of Science
In its pure definition, Longma Dictionary of Contemporary
English has provided us with a clue to the answer. It describes
science as "the sudy of knowledge which can be made into a
system and which depends on secing and testing facts, and
stating general laws" (ibid). From the above, science is
understood to mean a systematised knowledge derived from
observation or study, or a branch of knowledge that
systematises facts,principles and methods.
50
Steps in scientific method include the following:
1.Observation of a chosen phenomenon,
52 Philosophical
Psychology
4. Finding a plausible explanation of the pattern within these facts
(hypothesis),

5. Making a new prediction on the basis of the plausible

explanation,and
6. Checking the prediction, experimentally, hence increasing or
decreasing the belief in the plausible explanation, depending upon
whether the new findings agree or disagree with the prediction (Hapner:
1979: 5).

Having understood the meaning of our working concepts that is

psychology and science, let us now examine whether or not psychology
can fit this definition above.

Is Psychology a Science?
What,specifically,is meant by the statement that “the psychologis uses the
scientific method?” First, we must note that the psychologist relies on
empirical observation in a controlled environment rather than on subjective
opinion. His choice of personnel selection test, training method or type of
therapy is 1ot based on his "superior wisdom" as a psychologist, or ontho

53
recommendation of leading authorities, standard text or hundreds of certified
claims. Instead, the psychologist gathers data to evaluate, empirically, the
effectiveness of different tests,training methods or forms of therapy. He will of
course draw upon his previous knowledge and whatever wisdom he possesses
to choose promising procedure and to formulate testable hypothesis.He also
takes full records of observations with the aid of mechanical devices when
feasible. The psychologist also repeats his observations that are a replication
of observations by other people,to establish a conclusion with adequate
certainty.

Psychology,broadly defined, is the scientific study of

behaviour- both external, observable action and internal

50
M logy a Science? A Philosophical Inquiry
thought.Such a definition has important implications, especially
if we understand scientific study as a valid way of coming to an
understanding of life and can be very useful in every area of
life.Science develops theories based on what is observed. It
examines such theory with rigorous text to see if it describes
reality. The scientific method works well in observing and
recording physical data and in reaching conclusions which either
confirm or nullify a theory.The implication of this on the
scientific nature of psychology is that psychology does not seem
as 'scientific' as chemistry or physics. Where are the test tubes,
the microscopes, and the laboratory equipment? In fact,
psychologists do not study scientific terms like photosynthesis or
nuclear radation. What the psychologist does is to study the
effects of the presence of books in the home on the
development of children's reading skills, or the effects of being
watched by six experts on performance of a complex
task.Psychology studies individual and group behaviours and
interactions.It deals with interpersonal and inter-group or
person-to-group relations as well as the general determinant of
behaviours. It deals with such areas as learning, thinking,
remembering,perception,imagination, emotion,
motivation,attitude,socialisation,personality studies and
communication systems.
The broad areas of psychology include social
psychology.industrial psychology and clinical psychology.
Psychology became more systematic from the 19th century. At
a stage in its development, there was emphasis on primate
(animal) studies in order to show the simplest to the most
complex forms.Psychoanalysis, which was developed by
Sigmund Freud as a clinical method, has become an important
part of psychology. I is used in dealing with neurotic patients
and utilised in the analysis of pathological cases (behavioural
disorder) as well as in the diagnosing of personality problems.
Social psychology occupies a key place in socialscience. It deals
with the responses of individuals to various types of stimuli in
society,
50 the behaviour,motivations, and adjustments of
54 Philosophical
Psychology

individuals, and with personality and group structures and

processes.
The point to note is that science is defined not by what is studied,but
by how it is studied. Science is a process, a method of obtaining and
organising knowledge. Psychologists use the systematic methods of
science to gather information about things that interest them. Once they
have collected their data,psychologists carefully analyse them and
interpret their meaning as objectively as possible.
This brings us to the question of objectivity, one of the
characterisations of science. Can psychology be objective?Objectivity,
we must note, is one of the characteristics which,according to
common belief, must be present in any knowledge which can claim
scientific status. And, by describing a body of propositions as
objective in this context we “mean that they are such as to warrant
acceptance by all who seriously investigate them"(Azenabor, 2001:6).
Thus, we describe the results of a particular piece of work in physics as
making a contribution to objective knowledge when we think that any
competent physicist who repeated the work would reach those
results. The point to note here is to emphasise the universal character
of scientific
thinking, the fact that it is "impartial, impersonal, and
communicable to others and capable of repetition"(ibid).
Natural sciences have achieved this sort of objectivity to a higher
degree.
For the purpose of assessing the status of the propositions of psychology, it
is adequate to note that the standard ways of thinking in the natural sciences of
which we have spoken are generally recognised at any particular time, with the
result that arguments and conclusions inthose sciences can claim general
acceptance in the scientific world. Natural science provides objective knowledge
in this important sense. This cannot be said of psychology. If psychology is to be
pronounced a science in any sense of the term, there must be found in it some
features answering to the objectivity of the natural sciences. Psychological
objectivity may not be of exactly the same specie as scientific;yet it would surely

50
 Moses Gbadebo: Is Psychology a Science? A Philosophical Inquiry 55

be extremely paradoxical if the two had nothing in common.

If any enquiry is systematically conducted, provided the enquirer

asserts true propositions, then the enquiry is objective.“An objective
enquiry either (a) deduces its conclusions from self-evident axioms or (b)
unfolds them from essences or definitions (Passmore, 1958: 98). To this end,
we can safely state that if the “objectivity"of a form of inquiry depends upon
the possibility of deducing its content a priori, then psychology must
abandon al1 claims to objectivity. However, we must note that psychology
belongs to an excellent company which includes at least all scientific
activities as described by Toulmin. An objective enquiry is one which begins
from data that are literally such, i.e. which nakedly confront us (Ibid: 99).

To this end, one can conclusively argue that if,by "science”,

we mean the attempt to find out what really happens,then
psychology is a science. Because psychology demands the same
kind of dedication, passion for exactness as physics, then it may
be considered objective. If, however, by science we mean
the search for general theories, then psychology is not scien and cah
therefore wot pass the test of objectivity
Anotherssmption implied by this broad definition is th not all
behaviders are drectly observable,some behaviours su ss motivations,
emotions or thoughts are internal,and a therefore difficalt to stady.
For much of psychology's histor internal behavioer was considered
outside the realm psychology.If psychologists could not directly
observe an measure though,then it could not be studied scientifically.

Ferthermore,a look at the materials dealt with

psychologists shows that they are not exact,and this furth
derogates from its claim to being a science.While physics
chemistry deal with matter,psychology deals with man in
society:man in the society is not only unpredictable,but a
extremely cumbersome to observe accurately in an ever-
changi and difficult social environment.The psychologist has
no pow over bmunlike the chemist who can subject an elem
50 lahoratory test.
to
 These limitations on the scientific potential of the subj are a
reflection of the near-impossibility of qualifying variahles that
psychologists manage to identify.Thus,there copossibility of error in
the predictions of psyc lopistsAnd prodiction happens tobe another
characterization CICCE
In spiteof the limitations explained above,psychology dscientific
character. It is a science which conce Htheysmat study of
behaviour,both human aiand therefore interrelates with other
disciplines sucn dsociology.Psychology is connected w the stuby of
metal disorders(clinical psychology)or in scsulution of selationship
problems (counselling psycholoy Thn for psychologists are vast and
varied b the y specialised fields of psychology open
study, such as organisational psychology, educational
psychology,environmental psychology, clinical psychology, etc.

Psychology, like science, therefore searches for answers to the

question "how." From their research, they develop theories of human
functioning, often developing new approaches to current knowledge.
From this perspective, it can be seen that both normal and abnormal
behaviours are within the domain of psychological investigations. All the
substantive areas of psychology already mentioned lend common
similarities to the traditional sciences.All have elements of controlled
experimentation, as does physics or chemistry.

The methods of experimentation and research in

psychology are completed on a scientific basis: psychological
experimental research would involve the manipulation of a
situation to examine the way in which the subject of an
experiment reacts,in order to observe cause and effect. In all,
subjects are scientifically selected; results are tested and
conclusions drawn.In sum, one can conclude by saying that
psychology, though has adopted the scientific mode, has not
been able, from a strictly scientific point of view, to meet the
requirements of a true science.Scientific research rests on “the
principles of reliability,precision,objectivity,tetability,
comprehensiveness and universality"(Azenabor; 2001:4). This
marks a clear difference from psychological research which does
Moses Gbadebo: Is Psychology a Science? A Philosophical Inquiry 57

not issue in explicit generalisations. This is because the object of

psychological enquiries, that is human beings, are very
unpredictable; hence generalisations about human behaviour
are not likely to be valid,especially because human nature is
tricky and deceptive. The moment the human being knows that
he is being studied, he is likely to pretend to be good, contrary to
his nature or will.
The point to note is that generalisation about human
behaviour is a difficult task. The reason for this is that some
behaviours like attitudes, desires, aspirations, hopes,etc.,are
internally oriented,thereby making observation difficult
Furthermore,concepts like intention,volition,action,emotion etare
within the confines of psychological investigation and these
cannot be measured with precision as it is done in the sciences.
This forms part of the limitations of psychology,that is,ih spite of
its scientific character,it cannot be considered in line with the pure
sciences, though it has gone far in maximising its scientific
potential. But it is a science only to the extent to which the
scientific method is applicable to its phenomenon.I is a science to
the extent that it accumulates facts,links these facts together in
causal sequences and, from these,lays down generalisations of
fundamental principles and laws. This could be regarded as
scientific from a broad perspective,because “it is a study that is
carried out systematically according to fundamental principles
and it depicts facts accurately from a point of view.in such a way
that other psychologists would not contradict but complement
them"(Azenabor. 2007: 7).
This is why psychology may be regarded as a science on a broad
perspective;but,from a narrow perspective, it is not. This is
because,here,psychology is unable to cope with the rigours of a strict
science. But we must note that both the natural scientist and the
psychologist now employ two basic tools of scientific enquiry-theory and
empirical research.Theory,on its part,uIses reason,language and logic to
arrive at probable or predictabld relationships among the variables
 Philosophical Psychology

studied,while empirical research employs observation and recording of

details as they occur. In scientific studies,both theory and empirical
research ard complementary. Empiricism without a theoretical base is
meaningless,while any theory not tested against fact may be mere
speculation and hence not reliable.But the result of a sound scientific
study which has employed both tools is an organised systematic body of
knowledge comprising a set of logically
connected and observable behaviours which repeatedly occur under a
certain given conditions.
Present-day psychologists take pride in their use of the scientific
method. Years ago, it was not unheard of to set up a“law”after making a
hypothesis. Now the emphasis is on objectivity and qualitative data.
Conclusion
On the scientific nature of psychology, we conclude that
psychologists have achieved the scientific methodology to an
extent. They have made possible the objective appraisal of facts
with a minimum of subjectivity by devising methods of analysing
qualities of data to determine whether the data have any real
significance. Psychology is a most useful study because every
person must ive with himself and with others.
Even though a person may never study it as a science, his thought and
act illustrate its principles; to live means to function and behaviour is the
material of psychology. The unit of study is the individual. When a person's
behaviour is so removed from the norms of his society as to make him or the
society uncomfortable,psychotherapy is often advised. This is a job for
clinical psychologists. To this extent, psychology, as a social science, relates
closely to the natural sciences; both engage an approach and an attitude of
mind whose goal is to accumulate systematic knowledge of, or about how,
things work. Their main purpose is to understand the world in which we live
and our experience. One can safely conclude therefore that the scientific
character in psychology, compared to the natural sciences, is that of degree
not of kind.