Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad

Semester Spring 2023

Tutor Name:
Dr. Muhammad Athar Hussain
Student Name:
Muhammad Danial Khan
Reg no:
0000355534
Level:
B. Ed
Course Name:
Critical Thinking & Ref. Prac.
Course Code:
8611
Date:
10-08-2023

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 Question No: 1

What are different strategies required for the development as critical thinker?

Answer

Critical thinking is a concept that has been developing in various forms in the past
two millenniums. Although the term critical thinking, was used more commonly in latefirst
half of twentieth century.

According to Glaser, the process of critical thinking comprises a persistent effort to

analyze any accepted form of knowledge in the light of new evidence that supports it or
challenges it for further analysis. It begins with the ability to recognize problem with the
existing knowledge, belief or assumptions then goes on to find workable means of solving
the problem. This process includes collection of empirical evidence and then to state the
unstated assumptions and values with clear descriptions in understandable language.
Clarity and accuracy of interpreting the data is the key to convince those who stand strong
on the already constructed knowledge. It is not at all an easy task tocohesively appraise
evidence and evaluate arguments, to recognize the existence (or non- existence) of logical
relationships between propositions, and then to carefully draw warranted conclusions
which are not over generalized. The critical thinkers are ready to put the conclusions and
generalizations to test before reconstructing one's patterns of beliefs, and they examine
closely before they move on to render judgments about specific things phenomenon of life.

Most of us are not what we could be. We are less. We have great capacity. But most
of it is dormant; most is undeveloped. Improvement in thinking is like improvement in
basketball, in ballet, or in playing the saxophone. It is unlikely to take place in the
absence of a conscious commitment to learn. As long as we take our thinking for granted,
we don’t do the work required for improvement.

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 Development in thinking requires a gradual process requiring plateaus of learning
and just plain hard work. It is not possible to become an excellent thinker simply because
one wills it. Changing one’s habits of thought is a long-range project, happening over years,
not weeks or months. The essential traits of a critical thinker require an extended period of
development.

There is nothing magical about our ideas. No one of them is essential. Nevertheless,
each represents a plausible way to begin to do something concrete to improve thinking in
a regular way. Though you probably can’t do all of these at the same time, we recommend
an approach in which you experiment with all of these over an extended period of time.

First Strategy: Use “Wasted” Time.

All humans waste some time; that is, fail to use all of their time productively or even
pleasurably. Sometimes we jump from one diversion to another, without enjoying any of
them. Sometimes we become irritated about matters beyond our control. Sometimes we
fail to plan well causing us negative consequences we could easily have avoided (for
example, we spend time unnecessarily trapped in traffic — though we could have left a
half hour earlier and avoided the rush). Sometimes we worry unproductively. Sometimes
we spend time regretting what is past. Sometimes we just stare off blankly into space.

The key is that the time is ―gone‖ even though, if we had thought about it and
considered our options, we would never have deliberately spent our time in the way we
did. So why not take advantage of the time you normally waste by practicing your critical
thinking during that otherwise wasted time? For example, instead of sitting in front of the
TV at the end of the day flicking from channel to channel in a vain search for a program
worth watching, spend that time, or at least part of it, thinking back over your day and

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evaluating your strengths and weaknesses. For example, you might ask yourself questions
like these:

When did I do my worst thinking today? When did I do my best? What in fact did I
think about today? Did I figure anything out? Did I allow any negative thinking to frustrate
me unnecessarily? If I had to repeat today what would I do differently? Why? Did I do
anything today to further my long-term goals? Did I act in accordance with my own
expressed values? If I spent every day this way for 10 years, would I at the end have
accomplished something worthy of that time?

It would be important of course to take a little time with each question. It would also
be useful to record your observations so that you are forced to spell out details and be
explicit in what you recognize and see. As time passes, you will notice patterns in your
thinking.

Second Strategy: A Problem a Day.

At the beginning of each day (perhaps driving to work or going to school) choose a
problem to work on when you have free moments. Figure out the logic of the problem by
identifying its elements. In other words, systematically think through the questions: What
exactly is the problem? How can I put it into the form of a question? How does it relate to
my goals, purposes, and needs?

1. Wherever possible take problems one by one. State the problem as clearly and
precisely as you can.

2. Study the problem to make clear the kind of problem you are dealing with. Figure out, for
example, what sorts of things you are going to have to do to solve it. Distinguish Problems
over which you have some control from problems over which you

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have no control. Set aside the problems over which you have no control, concentrating your
efforts on those problems you can potentially solve.

3. Figure out the information you need and actively seek that information.

4. Carefully analyze and interpret the information you collect, drawing what
reasonable inferences you can.

5. Figure out your options for action. What can you do in the short term? In the long
term? Distinguish problems under your control from problems beyond your control.
Recognize explicitly your limitations as far as money, time, and power.

6. Evaluate your options, taking into account their advantages and disadvantages in
the situation you are in.

7. Adopt a strategic approach to the problem and follow through on that strategy. This
may involve direct action or a carefully thought-through wait-and-see strategy.

8. When you act, monitor the implications of your action as they begin to emerge. Be
ready at a moment’s notice to revise your strategy if the situation requires it. Be prepared
to shift your strategy or your analysis or statement of the problem, or all three, as more
information about the problem becomes available to you.

Third Strategy: Internalize Intellectual Standards.

Each week, develop a heightened awareness of one of the universal intellectual

standards (clarity, precision, accuracy, relevance, depth, breadth, logicalness,
significance). Focus one week on clarity, the next on accuracy, etc. For example, if you are
focusing on clarity for the week, try to notice when you are being unclear in communicating
with others. Notice when others are unclear in what they are saying.

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 When you are reading, notice whether you are clear about what you are reading. When
you orally express or write out your views (for whatever reason), ask yourself whether you
are clear about what you are trying to say. In doing this, of course, focus on four techniques
of clarification:

1) Stating what you are saying explicitly and precisely (with careful consideration given
to your choice of words),

2) Elaborating on your meaning in other words,

3) Giving examples of what you mean from experiences you have had, and

4)Using analogies, metaphors, pictures, or diagrams to illustrate what you mean. In other
words, you will frequently STATE, ELABORATE, ILLUSTRATE, AND EXEMPLIFY
your points. You will regularly ask others to do the same.

Fourth Strategy: Keep an Intellectual Journal.

Each week, write out a certain number of journal entries. Use the following format
(keeping each numbered stage separate):

1. Situation. Describe a situation that is, or was, emotionally significant to you (that is,
that you deeply care about). Focus on one situation at a time.

2. Your Response. Describe what you did in response to that situation. Be specific and
exact.

3. Analysis. Then analyze, in the light of what you have written, what precisely was
going on in the situation. Dig beneath the surface.

4. Assessment. Assess the implications of your analysis. What did you learn about
yourself? What would you do differently if you could re-live the situation?

Strategy Five: Reshape Your Character.

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 Choose one intellectual trait---intellectual perseverance, autonomy, empathy, courage,
humility, etc.--- to strive for each month, focusing on how you can develop that trait in
yourself. For example, concentrating on intellectual humility, begin to notice when you
admit you are wrong. Notice when you refuse to admit you are wrong, even in the face of
glaring evidence that you are in fact wrong. Notice when you become defensive when
another person tries to point out a deficiency in your work, or your thinking. Notice when
your intellectual arrogance keeps you from learning, for example, when you say to yourself
―I already know everything I need to know about this subject. Or, ―I know as much as he
does. Who does he think he is forcing his opinions on me? By owning your ignorance,
you can begin to deal with it

Strategy Six: Deal with Your Egocentrism.

Egocentric thinking is found in the disposition in human nature to think with an

automatic subconscious bias in favor of oneself. On a daily basis, you can begin to observe
your egocentric thinking in action by contemplating questions like these: Under what
circumstances do I think with a bias in favor of myself? Did I ever become irritable over
small things? Did I do or say anything ―irrational‖ to get my way? Did I try to impose my will
upon others?

Did I ever fail to speak my mind when I felt strongly about something, and then later
feel resentment? Once you identify egocentric thinking in operation, you can then workto
replace it with more rational thought through systematic self-reflection, thinking along the
lines of: What would a rational person feel in this or that situation? What would a rational
person do? How does that compare with what I want to do? (Hint: If you findthat you
continually conclude that a rational person would behave just as you behaved you are
probably engaging in self-deception.)

Strategy Seven: Redefine the Way You See Things.

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 We live in a world, both personal and social, in which every situation is defined,
that is, given a meaning. How a situation is defined determines not only how we feel about
it, but also how we act in it, and what implications it has for us. However, virtually every
situation can be defined in more than one way. This fact carries with it tremendous
opportunities. In principle, it lies within your power and mine to make our lives happier
and fulfilling than they are. Many of the negative definitions that we give to situations in
our lives could in principle be transformed into positive ones. We can be happy when
otherwise we would have been sad.

We can be fulfilled when otherwise we would have been frustrated. In this strategy,
we practice redefining the way we see things, turning negatives into positives, dead-ends
into new beginnings, mistakes into opportunities to learn. To make this strategy practical,
we should create some specific guidelines for ourselves. For example, we might make
ourselves a list of five to ten recurrent negative contexts in which we feel frustrated, angry,
unhappy, or worried. We could then identify the definition in each case that is at the root
of the negative emotion. We would then choose a plausible alternative definition for each
and then plan for our new responses as well as new emotions. For example, if you tend to
worry about all problems, both the ones you can do something about and those that you
can’t; you can review the thinking in this nursery rhyme:

―For every problem under the sun, there is a solution or there is none. If there be one,
think till you find it. If there be none, then never mind it.

Let’s look at another example. You do not have to define your initial approach to a
member of the opposite sex in terms of the definition ―his/her response will determine
whether or not I am an attractive person. Alternatively, you could define it in terms of the
definition ―let me test to see if this person is initially drawn to me given the way they
perceive me.‖ With the first definition in mind, you feel personally put down if the

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person is not ―interested‖ in you; with the second definition you explicitly recognize that
people respond not to the way a stranger is, but the way they look to them subjectively.
You therefore do not take a failure to show interest in you (on the part of another) as a
―defect‖ in you.

Strategy Eight: Get in touch with your emotions:

Whenever you feel some negative emotion, systematically ask yourself: What, exactly,
is the thinking leading to this emotion? For example, if you are angry, ask yourself, what
is the thinking that is making me angry? What other ways could I think about this situation?
For example, can you think about the situation so as to see the humor in it and what is
pitiable in it? If you can, concentrate on that thinking and your emotions will (eventually)
shift to match it.

Strategy Nine:

Analyze group influences on your life:

Closely analyze the behavior that is encouraged, and discouraged, in the groups to
which you belong. For any given group, what are you "required" to believe? What are you
"forbidden" to do? Every group enforces some level of conformity. Most people live much
too much within the view of themselves projected by others. Discover what pressure you
are bowing to and think explicitly about whether or not to reject that pressure.

Conclusion:

The key point to keep in mind when devising strategies is that you are engaged in a
personal experiment. You are testing ideas in your everyday life. You are integrating them,
and building on them, in the light of your actual experience. For example, suppose you find
the strategy ―Redefine the Way You See Things‖ to be intuitive to you. So you

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use it to begin. Pretty soon you find yourself noticing the social definitions that rule many
situations in your life. You recognize how your behavior is shaped and controlled by the
definitions in use:

1. I’m giving a party,‖ (Everyone therefore knows to act in a ―partying‖ way)

2. The funeral is Tuesday, (There are specific social behaviors expected at a funeral)

3. Jack is an acquaintance, not really a friend. (We behave very differently in the
two cases)

You begin to see how important and pervasive social definitions are. You begin to
redefine situations in ways that run contrary to some commonly accepted definitions.
You notice then how redefining situations (and relationships) enables you to get in Touch
with your emotions. You recognize that the way you think (that is, define things) generates
the emotions you experience. When you think you are threatened (i.e., define a situation
as ―threatening), you feel fear. If you define a situation as a ―failure, you may feel
depressed. On the other hand, if you define that same situation as a ―lesson or opportunity
to learn‖ you feel empowered to learn. When you recognize this control that you are capable
of exercising, the two strategies begin to work together and reinforceeach other.

Next consider how you could integrate strategy #9 (Analyze group influences on your
life‖) into your practice. One of the main things that groups do is control us by controlling
the definitions we are allowed to operate with. When a group defines some things as ―cool‖
and some as ―dumb, ‖ the members of the group try to appear cool‖ and not appear dumb.
When the boss of a business says, that makes a lot of sense, his subordinates know they
are not to say, No, it is ridiculous. And they know this because

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defining someone as the ―boss‖ gives him/her special privileges to define situations and
relationships.

You now have three interwoven strategies: you ―Redefine the Way You See Things,
Get in touch with your emotions, and Analyze group influences on your life. The three
strategies are integrated into one. You can now experiment with any of the other strategies,
looking for opportunities to integrate them into your thinking and your life. If you follow
through on some plan analogous to what we have described, you are developing as a
thinker. More precisely, you are becoming a ―Practicing‖ Thinker. Your practice will bring
advancement. And with advancement, skilled and insightful thinking may become more
and more natural to you.

Question No: 2

Describe in detail roots of critical pedagogy.

Answer

ROOTS OF CRITICAL PEDAGOGY

Freire (1970) distinguished between banking education and problem posing
education. In the traditional view of education, teachers are pillars of knowledge; they
know everything and students know nothing. This model mirrors the structure of an
oppressive society in which the oppressed and the oppressors are divided. It advocates
fixation of reality. So it is a vehicle for continuing the political oppression and working
against liberation or emancipation. In critical pedagogy this model is rejected because
teachers should concern about society and to give human beings the opportunity to
critically reflect and act on the position within society. In this model, students believed that
power, authority and activity are held by the teacher and students are viewed as objects
rather than human. So in Joldersma‘s (1999) term, this model is dehumanizing

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because it creates oppressive passivity in students. Gadotti (1994) also noted that pedagogy
is of major interest for Freire by which he seeks to change the structure of an oppressive
society. Critical pedagogy in Kanpol‘s (1998) terms rests on the belief that every citizen
deserves an education which involves understanding the schooling structure by the teacher
that would not permit education to ensue. Vandrick (1994) claims that the major goal of
critical pedagogy, is to emancipate and educate all people regardless oftheir gender,
class, race, etc. Critical pedagogy is a transformation-based approach to education. Critical
pedagogy is a philosophy of education and social movement that combines education with
critical theory.First described by Paulo Freire, it has since been developed by Henry Giroux
and others as a praxis-oriented educational movement, guided by passion and principle, to
help students develop consciousness of freedom, recognize authoritarian tendencies, and
connect knowledge to power and the ability to take constructive action. Ira Shor (1992)
defines critical pedagogy as:

“Habits of thought, reading, writing, and speaking which go

beneath surface meaning, first impressions, dominant myths,
official pronouncements, traditional clichés, received wisdom,
and mere opinions, to understand the deep meaning, root
causes, social context, ideology, and personal consequences of
any action, event, object, process, organization, experience,
text, subject matter, policy, mass media, or discourse.”
(p.129)

Critical pedagogy developed in the 1960s and 70s as a reaction amongst academics
of an activist, radical left-wing inclination to the repeated failure of socialist governments
around the world to deliver on their promises of economic equality Critical pedagogy
includes relationships between teaching and learning. Its proponents claim that it is a
continuous process of what they call unlearning, learning, and relearning, reflection,

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evaluation and the effect that these actions have on the students, in particular students
whom they believe have been historically and continue to be disenfranchised by what
they call traditional schooling.

Critical pedagogy is a teaching approach inspired by Marxist critical theory and other
radical philosophies, which attempts to help students question and challenge posited
domination and to undermine the beliefs and practices that are alleged to dominate. In other
words, it is a theory and practice of helping students achieve critical consciousness. In
practical terms, the goal of critical pedagogy is to challenge conservative, right-wing and
traditionalist philosophies and politics. Here the teacher works to lead students to question
ideologies and practices considered oppressive (including those at school), and encourage
freedom of collective and individual responses to the actual conditions of their own lives.

The student often begins as a member of the group or process he or she is critically
studying (e.g., religion, national identity, cultural norms, or expected roles). After the
student begins to view present society as deeply problematic, the next behavior encouraged
is sharing this knowledge, paired with an attempt to change the perceived oppression of the
society. A good picture of this development from social member to dissident to radical
teacher/learner is offered in both Paulo Freire's book Pedagogy of the Oppressed, and bell
hooks' book Teaching to Transgress. An earlier proponent of a more active classroom,
where students direct the epistemological method as well as the actual object of inquiry is
the late Neil Postman. In his Teaching as a Subversive Activity, Postman suggests creating
a class where students themselves are entirely in control of thesyllabus, class activities, and
grading.

The primary concern of Critical Pedagogy is with social injustice and how to
transform inequitable, undemocratic, or oppressive institutions and social relations. At

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some point, assessments of truth or conceptual ambiguousness might come into the
discussion. Other important questions, from this standpoint, include: Who is making the
assertions? Why are they being made? Who funds such research? Who propagate these
"findings"? Such questions, from the Critical Pedagogy perspective, are not external to,
or separable from, the import of also weighing the evidentiary base for such claims.

Critical Pedagogy and the Role of Teacher and Student

Teachers in this approach are viewed as problem posers. As a pioneer to this

approach Dewey (1963) believes that, learning through problem solving and practical
application leads students to take a more active role in determining their experiences and
positions within society. Kincheloe and McLaren (1994) maintain that teacher must
empower his or her students by raising their awareness of reproducing process of an
inequitable status quo in schooling and offer societal institutions. So teachers, in Giroux ‘s
terms, are Transformative Intellectuals who have the knowledge and skill to critique and
transform existing inequalities in society. The role of this transformative intellectual, she
maintains, is to learn from students, appreciate their viewpoints and to take part in the
dialogical process.

According to Giroux (1997), by creating appropriate conditions, teachers enable

students to become cultural producers who can rewrite their experiences and perceptions.
They also help students learn from each other and to theorize and understand how to
question the authoritarian power of the classroom. According to Paulo Freire (1998),
classroom experiences, with the help of the teachers, should become situations in which
students are encouraged to act as active agents in their own education and to develop a
critical consciousness that helps them evaluate the validity, fairness, and authority within
their educational and living situations.

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 Teachers have also a critically reflective role, that is to say, for producing an open
and equal environment, they must engage in deep self-reflection about their position and
the effects of their authority in the classroom. According to Crabtree and Sapp (2004), self-
reflection is the form of questioning one’s motives, purpose, ideology, and pedagogy as
informed by theory and habit. Self-reflection enables teachers to make their classes student-
centered by accepting unsuccessful educational ideas and oppressive forms in their own
educational practices.

Degener (2001) states that a critical educator helps students to understand the reasons
behind the facts. This way, students through reflection can determine the necessary types
of action that they should take in order to improve the life conditions of the oppressed
groups. Students and teachers should engage in questioning knowledge but it is the teacher
who helps the students to identify how to move forward critically in their practice. Teachers
should challenge the current structure by rejecting long standing cultural expectations and
mores of their own and the system, additionally, they must give up much of the power
which is given to them through their titles. Students, as Giroux (1997) puts it, are active
participants in that together with the teacher they correct the curricula and that they share
their ideas and learn to challenge assumptions.

According to Degener (2001), students contribute to curricular decisions and

determine areas of study and the associated reading materials. Critical learners, as Moore
and Parker (1986) maintain, are those who can accept, reject or suspend judgment about a
claim. They can also offer good reasons for their ideas and can correct their own and other’s
procedures. They should engage in social criticism in order to create a public sphere in
which citizens can exercise power over their own lives and learning.

To help students engage in critical consciousness, educators should empower

students to reflect on their own worlds, and to self-assess in fact. Guthrie (2003) views

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both teachers and students as co-agents, that is, teacher’s authority directs the class but this
authority differs from that in the traditional pedagogy. This is in line with what Freire
(1970) proposed in that there is a fluid relationship between teachers and students, that is,
teachers are learners and learners are teachers. Therefore, learners are not recipients of
knowledge rather they become creators. Friere also confirms that no one teaches another,
nor is anyone self-taught, men teach each other, mediated by the teacher. When students
gain their lost voices and resist unjust reproduction, they become active agents for social
change. Freire also points out that marginalized students should be able to reflect on their
concrete situations to find out why things are the way they are. They should be aware of
the factors that contributed to their position in society.

Commonly used Pedagogies

a) Praxis

―The purpose of the educator and the educated, the leader and the followers in a
dialogue between equal partners is called praxis‖ (Gur-Ze'ev, 1998). It is defined as ―the
self-creative activity through which we make the world. The requirements of praxis are
theory both relevant to the world and nurtured by actions in it, and an action component
in its own theorizing process that grows out of practical and political grounding‖(Buker,
1990, cited in Lather, 1991, pp.11-12). In education praxis intends at filling the gap
between theory and transformational act.That is, praxis connects education which is
libratory with social transformation (Boyce, 1996).

b) Dialogism

Richard Paul says similarly that "dialogical thinking" is inherent to Critical Thinking
(Paul 1990). Critical Pedagogy includes reading the world along with reading the words
(Freire & Macedo, 1987). Hence language is the first barrier that is to be removed in a
critical pedagogy. Giroux (1997) maintains that with the help of a critical,

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oppositional, and theoretical language, teachers can move toward a discourse by which is
needed in educational criticism. Degener (2001) confirms that even when the same
language is spoken in the class, teachers should be sensitive not to favor one kind of
interaction over another. Because it is the educator who decides whose voices willbeheard
and whose will be submerged in the classroom (Giroux, 1997; Lankshear& McLaren,
1993). To Degener (2001), language is important in two ways; first, language needs and
curriculum should be grounded in student’s language in order to actively involve students
in learning and second, to be able to read the world and transform it, students need a form
of discourse. That is why for marginalized groups language is an important refuge
(Baynham, 2006). Thus is the power of language that enables students to enlarge their
scope of understanding (Dheram, 2007).

c) Questioning

The work of William Glasser, M.D. (1990), provides insight into nurturing the
critical thinking process through the use of specific types of questions. In Glasser‘s view
quality schools approach uses the questioning process to encourage students to process
information analytically. By preparing a questioning strategy, teachers can present
information in a manner that is conducive to promoting intellectually engaged thinking.
This is not merely content based questioning rather beyond content and contextual
questioning. There are two phases to content learning. The first phase occurs when learners,
initially, construct in their minds the basic ideas, principles and theories that are inherent
in content. This is a process of internalization. The second phase occurs when learners
effectively use those ideas, principles and theories as they become relevant in their lives.
This is a process of application. Good teachers cultivate critical thinking at every stage of
learning, by developing the questioning skill.

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 Question No: 3

Select a topic of debate from social sciences. Conduct a debate for about 20 minutes
and then write your own reflections on how it went?

Answer

Debate:
Moderator: Welcome, ladies and gentlemen, to today's debate on the topic of
Universal Basic Income (UBI). We have two teams, Team Pro and Team Con, who will
present their arguments and counterarguments. Each team will have 10 minutesto present
their case, followed by a 5-minute rebuttal period. Let's begin with Team Pro.
Team Pro: Speaker 1: Universal Basic Income is a crucial step towards
reducing poverty and ensuring social justice. By providing every citizen with a guaranteed
income, UBI would alleviate financial stress, promote equal opportunities, and empower
individuals to pursue education, entrepreneurship, and creative endeavors.
Speaker 2: UBI can address the challenges posed by automation and job
displacement. As technology advances, many traditional jobs will become obsolete. UBI
can provide a safety net, allowing individuals to transition into new industries, engage in
lifelong learning, and contribute to society in different ways.
Rebuttal (Team Con): Speaker 3: While the idea of UBI may sound appealing, its
implementation would be economically unsustainable. The costs of providing a universal
income to every citizen would be astronomical.
Speaker 3 (continued): Additionally, UBI could create a dependency on the state
and discourage individuals from seeking employment or pursuing higher

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education. It may disincentives work and hinder economic productivity, leading to a
stagnant economy and a burden on taxpayers.
Speaker 4: UBI fails to address the root causes of poverty and inequality. It
overlooks the structural issues in society, such as unequal distribution of resources and lack
of access to quality education and healthcare. Instead of a one-size-fits-all approach,
targeted social welfare programs and investments in education and skills training would be
more effective in tackling poverty.
Rebuttal (Team Pro): Speaker 5: UBI is not meant to replace work or discourage
productivity. It aims to provide a basic level of financial security, enabling individuals to
take risks, explore new career paths, and engage in meaningful work without the fear of
economic instability. Studies have shown that UBI can actually enhance productivity and
entrepreneurship.
Speaker 6: UBI can also address the unpaid care work predominantly performed by
women. By recognizing and valuing this essential labor, UBI can contribute to gender
equality and support the wellbeing of families and communities.
Closing Statements: Team Pro: In conclusion, Universal Basic Income has the
potential to create a more equitable society, reduce poverty, and provide individuals with
the freedom to pursue their aspirations. It is a transformative policy that can adapt to the
changing nature of work and ensure that no one is left behind.
Team Con: While the intentions behind UBI are noble, its implementation poses
significant challenges and potential negative consequences. We need to focus on targeted
interventions and systemic changes that address the root causes of poverty and inequality.
Reflection:

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 The debate on Universal Basic Income (UBI) provided a platform for exploring
different perspectives on a complex social sciences topic. Both teams presented strong
arguments, highlighting the potential benefits and drawbacks of UBI. The debaters
demonstrated their knowledge of economic principles, social implications, and the role of
government in addressing societal challenges.
Team Pro emphasized the potential of UBI to reduce poverty, support equal
opportunities, and address the future impacts of automation. They argued that UBI would
empower individuals to pursue education, entrepreneurship, and creative endeavors. Team
Con, on the other hand, raised concerns about the economic feasibility of UBI and its
potential to create dependency on the state. They advocated for targeted interventions and
focused investments in education and skillstraining.
As the moderator, I observed that the debate was respectful and well- structured, with
each team presenting their arguments coherently and offering rebuttals to counter opposing
viewpoints. Both teams utilized evidence and logical reasoning to support their claims,
showcasing critical thinking skills and the ability to articulate complex ideas.
Personally, I found the debate enlightening and thought-provoking. It provided a
comprehensive overview of the advantages and challenges associated with UBI, deepening
my understanding of the topic. The arguments presented by both teams made me consider
the economic, social, and political implications of implementing UBI. The debate also
highlighted the need for further research and analysis to determine the long-term effects
and feasibility of UBI.
One aspect that stood out to me was the emphasis on the potential of UBI to promote
gender equality by recognizing and valuing unpaid care work. This

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perspective shed light on the intersectional aspects of UBI and its potential to address social
inequalities beyond income distribution.
Overall, the debate on UBI provided valuable insights into a complex social sciences
topic. It showcased the importance of critical thinking, evidence-based arguments, and
respectful engagement in discussing and evaluating policyproposals. The debate format
allowed for a comprehensive examination of multiple perspectives, helping me develop a
more nuanced understanding of the topic and the considerations involved in implementing
UBI.
Moving forward, I believe it is crucial to continue exploring and researching the
potential impacts of UBI, considering its implications on the economy, social dynamics,
and overall well-being of individuals and communities. Only through rigorous analysis and
thoughtful debate can we develop informed and effective policies to address poverty and
inequality in our society.

Question No: 4

Explain in detail taxonomy of question types. For each type, devise five questions.
Answer

Taxonomy of Question Types

Multiple approaches to classifying questions exist in the education literature. The

taxonomy presented below is based on the research of William W. Wilen, and informed by
the work of Angelo V. Ciardiello, both of whom have published extensively on best
practices in questioning skills. Wilen‘s simplified classification system is based on the
taxonomy presented by Gallagher and Aschner‘s research and takes into account the

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Bloom’s taxonomy. The taxonomy below presents separates questions into four quadrants
with paired criteria: Questions can be either high or low order, and can beeither
convergent or divergent in their design.

Low order questions High order questions

What color is the lion in that picture? Why do you suppose the lion is that color?
These questions check a student’s ability This question allows the student to
to recognize color and identify the color. recognize and identify color, but then asks
There is a very narrow range of possible the student to consider the relationship of
answers (tan, light yellow, fawn) the lion’s color to other things (its
environment, other lions, other species of
animal, its place on the food chain)
Convergent Divergent
What other animals can you think of that Suppose the lion had been born with amuch
use color as camouflage? darker colored coat, what do you predict
would happen to that lion in the
wild?
This question checks a student’s ability This question allows the student to consider
to identify what role camouflage and a scenario, use knowledge regarding
animal coloration play in nature and camouflage, coat coloration and the
suggest other examples. (The responses environment the animal lives in to create an
are fairly easily anticipated and require original answer that is logicaland correct.
that students recall other examples of
animals they have seen or studied).

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 A low order question is one that requires the student to simply recall a single fact,
while a high order question asks the students to recall facts but to show that they
comprehend the topic, situation or solution to a stated problem. A high order question
will require that a student understand the relationship between a fact and piece of
knowledge within the greater context of the situation. The descriptor convergent refers to
the limits placed on the response to a given question.

A convergent question by its nature has a more narrowly defined correct answer –
the answer is generally short, requires little reflection and requires that the responded recall
from memory a bit of factual information. Convergent questions may also be referred to as
closed-ended questions, meaning that the instructor is looking for an anticipated response
that requires little original thought on the student‘s part. Convergent questions will not
require students to put original thought to the development of an answer. In other words,
the answer will have been provided within the context of the lecture or readings assigned
by the instructor.

A divergent question on the other hand, is open-ended by nature. To respond to a

divergent question, a student must be able to recall some information from memory, but
must apply that knowledge and other knowledge to explain, extrapolate or further analyze
a topic, situation or problem. Divergent questions are broader in nature, can have multiple
answers, and require then a higher level of thinking on behalf of the student. Activity
Discuss the Bloom’s Taxonomy with fellow teachers and then write down at least three
convergent and three divergent questions in each category; specify the level in the space
given:

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 Question No: 5

What are different reflective models of professional development?

Answer

REFLECTION

Reflection is a complex word with multiple meanings and shades in it. It has its purity
in the subject of science when we define it as the act of reflecting of an image and casting
back a light or heat. It is a word that we use in social science as well when we define it as
the act of reflecting or the state of being reflected. It can also be used in fixing of the
thoughts on something; careful consideration. (Miffin, 2005)

Reflection has rainbow of meanings. The context in which we will be considering it

in our unit and the coming units is the impact and the personality qualities of the mentor,
a teacher, a boss or a leader on its followers and under command people. The reflection

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of the leader is extremely important. It creates the culture in an organization or in an
institution. If the leader is unable to reflect him/herself, then there is an ample chance of
departmental culture instead of one-unit culture. So reflection has an important role to play
in an organization for the purpose of effective coordination, as the departmental culture is
against the unity and integration of an organization. Such culture only brings nothing, but
chaos.

Reflective practices are variously defined in versatile ways by different authors and
researchers. Reflective practice is the ability to reflect on action in order to keep the
learning process in cycle. (Schon, 1983). After analyzing and evaluating, we develop the
theoretical aspects in practice. This practice is being done for the better future. Such
process is known as Reflection. (Reid.B, 1993) Reflection is more than merely thinking
or musing. Reflection is a not simple, but complex in nature. It is planned and brainy
activity that flourishes learning from experience. (Dewey, 1933)

REFLECTIVE MODELS OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Rolfe's Model of Professional Development

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Explanation of the Model:

The first step in the model is the action that has been taken in a particular situation.
After the taking the action, comes the second stage - So what? Now the situation and the
action will be reviewed in the light of the theory and literature available. The last stage is
the most important stage not only for the action taken, but also for the actions to be taken.
This stage will bring improvement in the process of decision taking and in the action as
well. This model is loosely based on SWOT Analysis.

It basically tells us the following in simple words.

• What worked well?

• Why?

• What did not work well?

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 • Why not?

• What will I do the same next time?

• What will I do differently next time?

Peter's Four Step Data Model

Peters (1991, pp. 91-95) describes a process called DATA that consists of four
steps:

• Describe

• Analyze

• Theorize

• Act

First, the problem, task, or incident that the tutor desires to change is described. The
tutor identifies the context in which current practice takes place and the reasons for
changing it. Next, through analysis, factors that contribute to current practice are identified.
An important part of this stage is to identify the assumptions, underlying beliefs, rules, and
motives governing teaching and learning.

The third step of the DATA process involves theorizing about alternative ways of
approaching teaching by taking the theory derived from the previous step and developing
it into a new one. Finally, the tutor will try out the new theory. (Peter, 1991)

Brookfield 4 Critical Lenses Model

Brookfield (1995) suggests that we employ four ―critical lenses‖ through which to
view and reflect upon our practice. These are:

• our own view (which he refers to as autobiography);

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 • that of our students;

• that of our fellow professionals;

• and the various theoretical perspectives propounded in educational literature.

Despite the fact that teachers’ personal experience runs the risk of being dismissed
as merely anecdotal‖, Brookfield, whilst conceding that all experience is inherently
idiosyncratic‖, asserts that our autobiographies are ―one of the most important sources of
insight into teaching to which we have access. (Brookfield 1995)

Examining our own experiences as learners as well as teachers helps us ―to uncover
our most deeply embedded allegiances and motivations as teachers. (Brookfield 1995)

However, in considering any particular learning experience, tutors should not merely
be asking what "worked well" for themselves (often constrained to considerations of
classroom and lesson management) but should also be asking whether or not the learning
experience was a profitable one for their students (with regard to achievement of learning
outcomes). Additionally, tutors should consider whether the learning experience was
inclusive and motivational.

This is why, in my opinion, the most fundamental meta criterion for judging whether or not
good teaching is happening is the extent to which teachers deliberatelyand systematically
try to get inside students ‘heads and see classrooms and learning fromtheir point of view.
(Brookfield, 1995)

Talking to colleagues about what happens in our classroom (all too rare an
occurrence) may help to throw new light on our experiences; not necessarily because it
provides a solution but because it may help us to realize that what we thought were our
own idiosyncratic failings are in fact shared by others who work in similar settings.
Similarly, ―Studying theory can help us realize that what we thought were signs of our

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personal failings as teachers can actually be interpreted as the inevitable consequences of
certain economic, social and political processes. (Brookfield, 1995)

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES AND MODELS OF PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT

John Dewey:

We don’t learn from experience. We learn from reflecting on experience. (John

Dewey) Introduction: John Dewey, ( October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American
philosopher, psychologist, Georgist, and educational reformer whose ideas have been
influential in education and social reform. Dewey is one of the key figures related with
the philosophy of pragmatism and is considered one of the founders of functional
psychology. He is also considered one of the pioneers in the reflective teaching and
reflective practices.

There is an established fact that experience, reflection and learning are correlated or
at least have deep inter-related roots. We can find the work of John Dewey particularly
helpful in defining and describing the relationships among them. As a teacher we expect
our students to learn. We especially expect them to learn the knowledge within their
respective disciplines. For permanent learning, reflection on course readings and field
experiences is essential. John Dewey has defined what experiences are educative, how
learning proceeds, and what role reflection plays in learning.

Learning is cumulative and continuous process according to Dewey (1933) because

an individual gets experience when he/she interacts with the environment. Experience has
variety in it. It can be reading a book, interacting with the environment, taking lecture,
travelling from one place to another. It may also include physical participation or silent
observation of the activities. Secondly, an experience is continuity, a continuous flow of

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knowledge from previous experiences. Prior learning becomes the fodder for further
understanding and insight.

John Dewey on Reflection:

What contribute to learning is not confined to imagination, belief, and stream of
consciousness. They are certainly part of our thinking activities, but play too less a part in
lifelong learning. In the context of learning; reflection plays a different role. Dewey defines
reflection as the

" …active, persistent, and careful consideration of any

belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the
grounds that support it and the further conclusions to
which it tends (Dewey, How We Think, 1933)."
According to John Dewey "The increased, enhanced and accelerated power of
control is reflection. Although reflection starts with uneasiness, distress and anxiety but
ultimately leads a person to balanced state. The reflective thought and process basically
transforms the doubt into clarity, inconsistency into consistency and unpleasant
experiences into the pleasant experiences. No doubt that it takes time to enable the thoughts
to reach at the required balanced level. (Dewey, How We Think, 1933).

The reflective thought process takes time because it emerges in phases.

1. The first stage is known as "Perplexity", it starts when an individual respond to

suggestion and ideas that he/she confronts with a problem.

2. "Elaboration" is the second stage. Soon after confronting problem the individual
recalls the previous experiences, its pros and cons, negative and positive effects.

3. In the light of the elaboration, the person sets the "Hypotheses". What happened
why and how and what best choice was at that time.

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 4. When a person come across with the same experience or same to some extent he
then, compares the existing problem and its hypotheses with the previously learnt
experience and its hypotheses. This stage of "Comparing Hypotheses" enables him to come
to some better conclusion.

5. After carefully examining all the hypotheses, he is now ready for the final stage
"Taking Action". This action is now a well thought of and based on reflective thinking
process.

It is not enough just to have an experience. Reflection directs that experience to

learning and deeper insights … Dewey affirms that these are not the rigid steps, but are the
aspects of reflective activity. A person may go back and forth for more experience.

In fact, to Dewey, reflective thinking fosters the development of three attitudes that
further the ―habit of thinking in a reflective way.

These three attitudes are:

 Open mindedness (freedom from prejudice)

 Wholeheartedness or absorbed interest
 Responsibility in facing consequences

These dispositions are the foundation for education that give people a personal
interest in social relationships and control and the habits of mind that secures social
changes without introducing disorder.‖ (Dewey, Democracy and Education, 1944)

If we go through the above mentioned paragraph again and take its deep and
comprehensive aspect, we would come to know that perhaps the whole paragraph is the
aim of education in life. So we can now easily say that reflective thinking and reflective
process is closely linked with the aims and goals of education. A teacher with freedom
from prejudice, will treat the children equally and with wholeheartedness. Only by doing

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so the profession of teaching will certainly raise the required human resource for the
country and responsibilities in facing the consequences will let him improve his methods
and dealing with the students.

If we consider the benefits of the stages of reflective thinking, which are perplexity,
elaboration, hypotheses, comparing hypotheses and action we can say with any doubt that
they will provide a guideline to the teachers and provide them with an opportunity to
improve themselves professionally with going back and forth for any action. Each action
of the teacher is linked with the future of an individual and ultimately with the future of the
country. So it is strongly advisable to the teachers to go back and forth. Each action must
be taken after well thought off process - Reflective Thinking Process.

Some Methods of Reflection for the Teachers

Reflective teaching is therefore a means of professional development which begins

in our classroom. It starts when we start asking ourselves the questions like, why it is
important, how it can be taught better, what the children are perceiving through the applied
method, how can I do it in a better way etc.

Some of the methods of reflection that can be used by our teachers are:

a. Teachers' Diary:

If they are writing the diary in advance they might ask questions like:

1. How am I going to teach the lesson?

2. What objectives am I going to attain at the end of the lesson?

3. What is more important aspect that should be given more and quality time?

4. What concepts am I going to clear during the lesson?

b. Invite a Colleague:

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 Teacher may invite a colleague for the feedback on the teaching. A colleague may
be asked to observe the impact of the teaching method and technique on the students, the
responses of the student, how the shift time was utilized? etc.

c. Recording Lessons:

If you are shy or you do not feel comfortable with the presence of the teacher/
colleague, you can record the lesson and can see it over and over again for your own
improvement and better teaching - better reflection on your students.

D. A. Schön (1930-1997)

A philosopher who was concerned with the development of reflective practices from
all aspect of an individual's personal, professional and social life was a pianist and
clarinetist – playing in both jazz and chamber groups. (M.K. Smith, 2005).

According to Schon "Professional knowledge and expertise is developed through

reflective practices". Schon was basically interested in knowing as to when and how the
professionals use reflection for professional development. Schon's work was based on the
proximal development of theory and practice of reflection.

Schon was a trainer of the trainers. So his most of the work was for the educators
who educate/ train the educators. The basis of his work is "Espoused Theory". This is
basically the mind behavior model of an individual. What an individual think. What he
does is known as "Theory in Use". If we ask a teacher as to how she deals with the failure
students? She will say that we do the counseling and give special attention to that particular
child. In practice she calls the parents and suggest them for the extra coaching of the child.
The first one is the "Espoused Theory" and the later on is "Theory in Use". Similarly, some
theories do make sense in the textbooks but when applied they are not effective and as
useful as claimed by the theorist.

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 Schon work is based for the newly professionals to let them know as to how the
experts use "Theory in Use" in real life practices. In this regard his work is on reflection
in-action and reflection on-action. Professionals reflect while they are engaged in an
experience (reflection-in-action) and after an experience (reflection-on-action). In this
practice of reflection, the young

Light Discussion Do you think music had helped him in the development of the
learning theory and practices?

Stop here! What is shift time? It is moving from one activity to another. Share some
examples. professionals who are inexperienced, develop the "Theory in Use" that underlie
competence, knowledge, decision making skills and above all initiative practices.

Dewey described ―aspects‖ of reflection. Kolb described phases. Schön divided

reflection into two parts: reflection ―in‖ and ―on‖ action. All include experience followed
by reflection and the generation of hypotheses or experimental conclusions that are
applied to further experience. For each, learning from experience requires shuttling back
and forth from observations, to examination and reflection on those observations, and
then acting on those conclusions. The more people reflect on action, the better they get at
reflecting and the more they can learn about themselves…

David A. Kolb:

David A. Kolb (1939) was an American professor and educationalist who has the
specialization in experiential learning, individual and social change, career development
and executive and professional education. David Kolb was also the founder and chairman
of ‗Experience Based Learning Systems.

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 David Kolb bases his four stages of learning on two major opposite dimensions,
namely Concrete versus Abstract and Active versus Reflective. In practice, it appearsthat
adults (as opposed to children) depending on experience and stage of life, first needto
unlearn things before they can learn something new. Sometimes people need to cometo
terms with (undesired) experiences before they are open to new views.

Within the dimensions, Kolb’s experiential learning theory is based on a stage

theoretical model. Following is the graphical presentation of his model of learning.

Doers

Doers display a combination of active experimentation and concrete experience.

Doers prefer situations in which they can set to work as quickly as possible and they learn
best when there is room for gaining immediate experience by doing things. Doers are open
to new learning opportunities, good at solving problems and they are challenged by taking
on unfamiliar tasks.

Reflectors

Reflectors have a preference for concrete experience and reflective observation.

Reflectors like to think about something first and they are great at lateral problem- solving.
They want to consider all possible angles and implications of a problem and they never fail
to see new approaches and solutions. They are dreamers that do not wish to be hurried and
they want to take time before making a decision.

Thinkers

Thinkers combine reflexive observation with abstract conceptualization. They like

turning their observations into coherent hypotheses and theories. They do well at verbal
reasoning and they prefer to work independently. They learn best in structured learning

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situations with clear goals, theories and models. They would like to be able to ask
questions and discuss topics.

Deciders

Deciders have a preference for abstract conceptualization and active

experimentation. Deciders like trying out theories in practice. They often take the initiative,
are problem- solvers and they make decisions. They learn best by clear and briefly
formulated rules and principles they can immediately implement in practice. They are
practical people that do not like wasting time.

Four stages of the learning cycle

Kolb’s four stages of learning is a cyclical process in which people must work
through each of the four stages. This does not necessarily have to be from the same starting
point, but preferably in the same order. According to David Kolb the learning process
becomes easier by going through the four stages of learning despite people’s preference
for a certain stage.

Relationship

Until recently, many training courses focused on the assimilation learning style;
reflection and theory building. People were taught how certain things interrelate and how
they can be considered in a theoretical framework. Often, little attention was paid to the
accommodating learning style (experimentation and experiencing). By doing something,
people gain experience (doer). Then people look back on what happened (reflector).
Subsequently, people establish links between these reflections and observations and they
create a theory (thinker). Finally, people think how things can (still) be improved and
they will try and implement this in practice (decider). All round learners are oftenproficient
in all of the four learning styles. (Van Vliet, 2013).

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