Digital Communication

Chapter 2
Digital Modulation
Orthogonal Vector Space
• A complete set of orthogonal vectors is referred to as
orthogonal vector space.
• Consider a three dimensional vector space as shown:

• Consider a vector A at a point (X1, Y1, Z1).

• Consider three unit vectors (VX, VY, VZ) in the direction of X, Y, Z axis respectively.

• Since these unit vectors are mutually orthogonal, it satisfies that

The mutually orthogonal unit vectors are called as orthonormal basis functions.

Any vector A can be represented in terms of its components and unit vectors as

Any vectors in this three dimensional space can be represented in terms of these
three unit vectors only.

If you consider N dimensional space, then any vector A in that space can be
represented as
Orthogonal Representation of Signal
• Representation of a signal as a
vector.
• As weighted sum of orthonormal
basis functions.

• Two functions said to be

orthonormal, if
Consider signals defined on the time interval [a; b].

The elements si are found by

Energy of signal

• The length of a vector in the signal space equals the square root of the
signal energy.
• The distance between two signal vectors represents the square root of
the energy of the difference of the two signals involved.
One-dimensional Signal
Consider the Orthonormal Basis Function
Consider, two rectangular signals
2
E 𝜙 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑠1 𝑡 = −𝑠2 𝑡 = , 0≤𝑡≤𝑇 𝑇
𝑇
Their bandpass equivalents, Two signals
E
𝑠1 𝑡 = −𝑠2 𝑡 = cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡), 𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝐸𝜙(𝑡)
𝑇
𝑠2 𝑡 = − 𝐸𝜙(𝑡)
Two-dimensional Signal

2
𝜙1 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑇

2
𝜙2 𝑡 = sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑇
Multi-phase signal
 Channel:

• It is the physical path to connect transmitter and receiver.

Examples:
• Coaxial / parallel wire cable: Signal propagates in form of electrical energy
• Optical Fiber Cable: Signal propagates in form of light energy
• Wireless channel: Signal propagates in form of electro-magnetic energy
Channel Attenuation
• It is a reduction of signal strength during transmission.
• The attenuation increases with separation between Tx and Rx (channel length)
• It is also depends on type of channel
Channel Noise
▪ It is a unwanted and unpredictable
signal that modifies the original signal.
▪ The noise signal is Additive in nature
i.e. it superimposes on the original
signal.
▪ It power spectral density is flat (like
white) have all frequency components
in it
▪ The noise voltage is random that can
be modeled with Gaussian probability
distribution function.
▪ Hence, it is called as Additive White
Gaussian Noise (AWGN)
Channel as a Filter
• Filter is a device/ system whose gain/ attenuation changes with frequency.
• Some frequencies suffers heavy attenuation while some other frequencies
pass through the filter with very low attenuation.
• The frequency band suffers heavy attenuation is called stop-band of the filter.
• The frequency band passes with low attenuation is called pass-band of the
filter.
Channel as a Filter (cont..)
• The communication channel also behaves as filter, allowing some band and
rejecting other bands.
Copper Cable Low Pass Filter
OFC, Waveguide High Pass Filter
Wireless Channel Band Pass Filter

• In time-domain, signal is convolved with the impulse response of the channel

 Golden Rule for Transmission
• In order to have distortion free transmission, the transmitted signal band must be
matched with the pass band of the channel.

• If signal BW > channel BW, some frequency component of signal will be stopped.
Modulation: Pass band transmission
▪ The wireless channel behaves as a pass
band filter that allows the signal in a
given limited band.

▪ To transmit signal through the channel,

the signal band must be changed to the
pass band of the channel.

▪ It is done by multiplying the signal with

a sinusoidal carrier with frequency
same as the center of the pass band of
the channel.

▪ This process is called modulation.

Digital Modulation
Base band signal (Digital PAM)
• The binary information has two possible values:

1. Logic 1 represented as a voltage of amplitude A for 0<t<Tb

2. Logic 0 represented as a voltage of amplitude -A for 0<t<Tb

• The transmission rate Rb = 1/ Tb, Tb= Bit duration

 M-ary concept
• Instead of transmitting one bit at a time, the binary
information sequence can be transmitted in a group of k
bits at a time.

• It results in increase in transmission rate by k times. Symbol Bit Sequence

S1 00
• The bit sequence is sub-divided into blocks of k-bits called S2 01
symbol. S3 11
S4 10

• In each transmitting interval, one symbol (block of k-bits) is

transmitted instead of single bit.

• Grouping of bits results M = 2k possible symbols.

 No of No of possible Symbol Transmission Bit Transmission
bits/symbol (k) symbols, (M = 2k) Rate (1/Ts) Rate (k/Ts)

2 4 1/Ts 2/Ts

3 8 1/Ts 3/Ts

4 16 1/Ts 4/Ts

5 32 1/Ts 5/Ts

6 64 1/Ts 5/Ts
M-ary PAM
• Each symbol is represented with one of the M = 2k
possible amplitude values.

• The M-ary PAM signal is represented by

• 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 𝑔𝑇 (𝑡)
• 𝑚 = 1,2, . . , 𝑀. 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠
• 𝑔𝑇 (𝑡): Signal pulse of any arbitrary shape
• 𝐴𝑚 : Signal amplitude symmetric across zero
= (2m-1-M)

• For k = 2, M =4, 𝐴1 = −3 𝐴2 = −1 𝐴3 = 1 𝐴4 = 3
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• To transmit the digital information through bandpass channel, the baseband
signal 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 is to be multiplied with a carrier signal cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡).
• 𝑓𝑐 is the carrier frequency corresponding to the center frequency of the pass
band.
• Such signal is called Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• ASK signal:

𝑢𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

= 𝐴𝑚 𝑔𝑇 (𝑡)cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

Binary ASK:
For Signal 1: 𝑔𝑇 𝑡 = 1,
𝑢1 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

For Signal 2: 𝑔𝑇 𝑡 = 0, 𝑢2 𝑡 = 0
 𝐹
If 𝑔𝑇 𝑡 ֞𝐺𝑇 𝑓 , Spectrum of ASK signal:

𝐹 𝐴𝑚
𝑢𝑚 𝑡 ֞𝑈𝑚 𝑓 = 𝐺𝑇 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝐺𝑇 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐
2
 Geometric representation of ASK
• 𝑢𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 𝜓(𝑡)

• 𝜓(𝑡): Orthonormal Basis function, i.e., 𝜓(𝑡) = 1

2
•𝜓 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑇

𝑇
• 𝑠𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴 .
2 𝑚

• 𝐴𝑚 = 2𝑚 − 1 − 𝑀
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
• Symbols are different in phase.

• All symbols are have same energy level.

• General representation of M-ary PSK signal waveform:

2E 2𝜋(𝑚−1
• 𝑢𝑚 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + , 𝑚 = 1,2, . . , 𝑀
𝑇 𝑀

• With change in value of ‘m’ the carrier phase changes abruptly at the beginning
of each signaling interval
 Binary PSK (BPSK) M=2

• It has two possible symbols:

(0 and 1)

• One symbol represents one bit.

• Symbols are:

2E
• 𝑢1 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑇

2E 2E
• 𝑢𝑚 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜋 = − cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
𝑇 𝑇
Quadrature Phase Shift
Keying (QPSK) M=4
• M=4, It has four possible symbols

• 2k = M, So, k = 2, i.e.,

• One symbol represents 2 successive bits.

• QPSK symbols are:

2E
• 𝑚 = 1 (00) → 𝑢1 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 0
𝑇

2E 𝜋
• 𝑚 = 2 01 → 𝑢2 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2
𝑇

2E
• 𝑚 = 3 11 → 𝑢3 𝑡 = 𝑇
cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜋

2E 3𝜋
• 𝑚 = 4 10 → 𝑢4 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 +
𝑇 2
Geometric representation of PSK
2E 2𝜋(𝑚−1)
• 𝑢𝑚 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + , 𝑚 = 1,2, . . , 𝑀
𝑇 𝑀

2E 2𝜋 𝑚−1 2𝜋 𝑚−1
= cos cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − sin sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ,
𝑇 𝑀 𝑀

• The signal can be represented in two-dimensional signal space with help of two orthonormal basis
functions:

2 2
• 𝜙1 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝜙2 𝑡 = sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑇 𝑇

2𝜋 𝑚−1 2𝜋 𝑚−1
• So 𝑢𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐸 cos 𝜙1 𝑡 − sin 𝜙2 𝑡
𝑀 𝑀

2𝜋 𝑚−1 2𝜋 𝑚−1
• In vector notation 𝑠𝑚 = 𝐸cos , − 𝐸sin
𝑀 𝑀
 𝑢𝑚 𝑡
2𝜋 𝑚 − 1 2𝜋 𝑚 − 1
= 𝐸 cos 𝜙1 𝑡 − sin 𝜙2 𝑡
𝑀 𝑀

• Example: M = 2 (BPSK)

𝑢1 𝑡 = 𝐸𝜙1 𝑡 𝑢2 𝑡 = − 𝐸𝜙1 𝑡

• Example: M = 4 (QPSK)
𝑢1 𝑡 = 𝐸𝜙2 𝑡 𝑢2 𝑡 = − 𝐸𝜙1 𝑡

𝑢3 𝑡 = − 𝐸𝜙2 𝑡 𝑢4 𝑡 = 𝐸𝜙1 𝑡
Constellation Diagram
Euclidean distance between two signal points on constellation

2𝜋 𝑚−𝑛
• 𝑑𝑚𝑛 = 𝑠𝑚 − 𝑠𝑛 2 = 2𝐸 1 − cos
𝑀

• Minimum Euclidean distance:

2𝜋
𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝐸 1 − cos
𝑀

• The value of M controls the performance of M-ary PSK.

• With increase in M :

(i) 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 decreases resulting more bit error

(ii) Number of bits per symbol increases resulting increase in data transmission rate
Spectral analysis of M-ary PSK
• Considering rectangular shape of the baseband pulse, spectrum of the modulated
signal (considering only positive frequency):

𝑆𝑚 𝑓 = 𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 2 (𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓)𝑇

Here, 𝑇 : symbol duration = 𝑇𝑏 log 2 𝑀, 𝑇𝑏 : bit duration

• Null to null bandwidth of main lobe: 𝐵 = 2/𝑇

• Spectral efficiency: Bits/Hz k M Symbol/Hz Bits/Hz

1 2 0.5 0.5
• 2/𝑇 Hz spectrum accommodates 1/𝑇 symbols 2 4 0.5 1
3 8 0.5 1.5
• 1 Hz spectrum can accommodate 0.5 symbols
4 16 0.5 2
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

• In M-ary PSK, the minimum Euclidean distance (dmin) between

reduces with increase in value in M.
• It leads to increase in symbol-error-rate at receiver.
• So, high data rate transmission using M-ary PSK is unsuitable.
• QAM is a modulation scheme combination of ASK and PSK
• It aims to keep the dmin value constant with increase in M
• The equation of transmitted M-ary QAM signal waveform is

𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 𝑔𝑇 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛

𝑚 = 1,2, . . , 𝑀1 .

𝑛 = 1,2, . . , 𝑀2
• 𝑀1 = Number of amplitude level present = 2𝑘1
• 𝑀2 = Number of phase level present = 2𝑘2
• So, total number of bits per symbol = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 = 𝑘
• Total possible signals = 2𝑘1 . 2𝑘1 = 2𝑘 = 𝑀1 𝑀2 = 𝑀
The equation can be expressed as:

𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 𝑔𝑇 𝑡 cos 𝜃𝑛 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑚 𝑔𝑇 𝑡 sin 𝜃𝑛 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

= 𝐴𝑚𝑛𝐼 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑚𝑛𝑄 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

Here, 𝐴𝑚𝑛𝐼 =𝐴𝑚 𝑔𝑇 𝑡 cos 𝜃𝑛 is In-phase component

𝐴𝑚𝑛𝑄 =𝐴𝑚 𝑔𝑇 𝑡 sin 𝜃𝑛 is Quadrature-phase component

Putting, 𝑝 = 𝑚. 𝑛, 𝑝 = 1,2, … , 𝑀

𝑢𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑝𝐼 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑝𝑄 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡

QAM signal can be viewed as summation of two AM carrier signals in phase

quadrature.
Geometric representation of QAM signal
The signal can be represented with help of two
orthonormal basis functions:

2 2
𝜙1 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝜙2 𝑡 = sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝑇 𝑇

𝑢𝑝 = ( 𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝐼 , 𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑄 )

Examples: M = 8 (8-QAM):

M=8 M1 = 2 M2 = 4
k=3 k1 = 1 k2 = 2
𝐴𝑝𝐼 = ± 𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑄 = ± 𝐸𝑠 , ±3 𝐸𝑠
Examples: M = 16 (16-QAM):
M = 16 M1 = 4 M2 = 4
k=4 k1 = 2 k2 = 2
𝐴𝑝𝐼 = ± 𝐸𝑠 ,± 3 𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑝𝑄 = ± 𝐸𝑠 , ±3 𝐸𝑠
64 QAM constellation diagram
Some Important points on QAM
• Unlike M-ary PSK, in M-ary QAM, the minimum Euclidian distance (distance
between two nearest signal points) remains constant with increase in the
value of M.

• Hence, QAM is suitable for high rate data transmission.

• The signal energy is not constant for every signals.

• The average signal energy of QAM signaling technique is

𝑀
1 2
𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ෍ 𝑠𝑖
𝑀
𝑖=1
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
• Symbols are represented with different frequencies.

• The expression of an M-ary FSK signal is:

2E
• 𝑢𝑚 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋(2𝑚 − 1 − 𝑀)∆𝑓𝑡 , 𝑚 = 1,2, . . , 𝑀
𝑇

• For Binary FSK (M=2)

2E 2E
• 𝑢1 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 𝑢2 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡
𝑇 𝑇

• Here, 𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑐 − ∆𝑓 𝑓2 = 𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓
• The BFSK signal can be represented with help of two orthonormal basis functions:

2 2
𝜙1 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 𝜙2 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡
𝑇 𝑇

• So, two signals can be represented as:

𝑢1 𝑡 = 𝐸𝜙1 𝑡

𝑢2 𝑡 = 𝐸𝜙2 𝑡

• The orthonormality among two basis function is established with given condition:

𝑛
∆𝑓 = , 𝑛 = 1,2, . .
𝑇
 2
Spectrum of orthogonal BFSK signal with ∆𝑓 =
𝑇

Peak of one signal occurs

when other signal is zero.