THE CELL

The Cell is the smallest unit of protoplasm capable of independent existence. The living substance
of plants and animals is described by the general term PROTOPLASM.

A Cell may therefore be defined as the basic, living, structural, and functional unit of the body and,
in-fact of all organisms. Cytology is the branch of science concerned with the study of Cells.

For convenience, we can divide the generalized cell into four principal parts:
1. Plasma (Cell) Membrane: The outer, limiting membrane separating the cell's internal parts
from the extracellular fluid and external environment.
2. Cytoplasm: The substance between the nucleus and plasma membrane
3. Organelles: Permanent structures with characteristic morphology that are highly specialized
for specific cellular activities
4. Inclusions: The secretions and storage areas of Cells.

The Cytoplasm contains mainly of organelles and inclusions while the nucleus is made up of the
nucleolus and other nuclear materials bounded exteriorly by the presence of nuclear membrane.
The clear fluid protein of the cytoplasm where organelles are displaced is called CYTOSOL. It
contains mainly protein, electrolytes, glucose, small phospholipid and some esterified fatty acid.

CELL STRUCTURE

Fig.1. Showing cell structure

THE CELL MEMBRANE (PLASMALEMMA)

The Cell is enclosed by a thin limiting membrane, called the plasmalemma or simply the cell
membrane. The Cell membrane consists of three layers each approximately 2.5mn thick. The
phospholipid molecules are arranged in two parallel rows, forming a phospholipid bilayer and a
monomolecular layer of protein that make up the third layer of the cell membrane.

A Phospholipid molecule consists of a polar, phosphate-containing "head" which mixes with water
and non polar fatty acid "tails" that do not mix with water. The molecules are oriented in the bilayer
so that "heads" face outward on either side and the "tails" faces each other in the membrane's
interior.

The membrane proteins are classified into two categories: Integral and Peripheral.

Integral Proteins are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer among the fatty acid "tails". Some of the
integral proteins lie at or near the inner and outer membrane surfaces; others penetrate the
membrane completely. The phospholipid bilayer is somewhat fluid and flexible and the integral
proteins have been observed moving from one location to another in the membrane.
The subunits of some integral proteins form minute channels through which substances can be
transported into and out of the cell. Other integral proteins carry branching chains of carbohydrates
(glycoproteins). This glycoproteins provides receptor sites that enable a cell to recognize other cells
of its own kind so that they can associate to form a tissue, to recognize and respond to foreign cells
that might be potentially dangerous, and to recognize and attach to hormones, nutrients and other
chemicals.

Peripheral proteins are loosely bound to the membrane surface and easily separated from it.
Some peripheral proteins are believe to serve as enzymes that catalyze cellular reactions. E.g.
Cytochrome C, that is involved in cellular respiration. Other peripheral proteins, such as spectrin of
red blood cells, are believed to have a mechanical function by serving as a scaffolding to support
the plasma membrane. It is also believe that peripheral proteins may assume a role in changes in
membrane shape during such processes as cell division, locomotion and ingestion.

FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE

1. The membrane maintains the shape of the cell

2. It protects the cell from harmful substances that would have gain an entrance into it
(Barrier).
3. It controls the passage of all substances into or out of the cell.
 4. Its serve as a binding means with other cells.
5. Many membrane protein combine with potentially harmful foreign substances to produce
immunity
6. It serves as a receptor for binding hormone e.g. Insulin.
7. Some of the protein substances present in the cell membrane act as an enzyme while some
acts as a carrier protein.
8. The presence of the carbohydrate moiety increases the negativity of the cell and thus help to
repel some substances which are mostly negatively charge.

CYTOPLASM

The substance inside the cell's plasma membrane and external to the nucleus is called cytoplasm.
The cytoplasm is composed of a matrix in which are embedded several structures classified into
three groups: Organelles, Inclusions, and other Components.

Functionally, cytoplasm is the substance in which chemical reactions occur. The cytoplasm receives
raw materials from the external environment and converts them into usable energy by
decomposition reactions. It is also the site where new substances are synthesized for cellular use. It
packages chemicals for transport to other parts of the cell or other cells of the body and facilitates
the excretion of waste materials.

Organelles have a limiting membrane, and contain enzymes that participate in cellular metabolic
activity. They are permanent components of the cytoplasm. These structures called organelles are
specialized portions of the cell with characteristic morphology that assume specific roles in growth,
maintenance, repair, and control. Examples include golgi apparatus,
Endoplasmic reticulum, Ribosomes, lysosome.

Inclusions are a large and diverse group of chemical substances, some of which have recognizable
shapes. These products are principally organic and may appear or disappear at
various times in the life of the cell. E.g. glycogen, melanin, lipids etc. Cytoplasmic inclusions
generally are temporary components of certain cells and usually are accumulations of pigments,
lipids, proteins or carbohydrates that may or may not be enclosed in a membrane.

The other components cannot be classified as one of the two preceding classes and have different
structures and functions. They are not enclosed in a membrane and do not participate directly in
cellular metabolism e.g. Microtubules, Microfilaments, Centriole and intermediate filaments.
Taken together, these other components are often referred to as the cytoskeleton and act as a
dynamic supportive network within the Cytoplasm.

THE ORGANELLES

(1). Endoplasmic Reticulum: This is a complicated network of tubules and vesicles which are
interconnected. These channels take various form, including Cisternae (flattened Sac), tubules and
vesicles structurally, the channel system can be divided into granular (Rough) and agranular
(smooth) endoplasmic reticula. The granular endoplasmic reticulum has fine granules, ribosomes,
of ribo-nucleo-protein studding the outer surface of the parallel membranes. While the agranular
endoplasmic reticulum lacks the ribosomes and is more tubular.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ROUGH E.R: It helps in the glycosylation of the synthesized protein by the
golgi apparatus.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

(1). It helps in the synthesis of lipid like the phospholipids and cholesterol which help in the cell
growth. Excess of it is transported to the golgi apparatus as E.R. vesicles.

(2). It is associated with carbohydrate metabolism - It helps in glycogen breakdown to produce an

energy.

(3). It helps in the detoxification of substances. E.g. contains detoxifying enzymes.

THE RIBOSOMES

Each ribosome consist of protein and RNA (ribonucleic acid). Large numbers of them are present
in relation to the rough E.R and may also lie free in the cytoplasm in small clusters
(polyribosomes/polysomes).

FUNCTIONS: It play an essential role in protein synthesis.

THE MITOCHONDRION

It is nick-name as a "Power House" of the cell. It looks like small, partitioned sausages or a thread
like, spherical or ellipsoidal bodies located in the cytoplasm. It is so called mitochondria because it
appear either as granules or as rods. (MITOS=GRANULE; CHONDRIUM=ROD). The
mitochondrium is bounded by a smooth outer membrane within which there is an inner membrane.
The inner membrane is highly folded on itself forming incomplete partitions called Cristae. The
space bounded by the inner membrane is filled by a granular materials called Matrix. This matrix
contain numerous oxidative enzymes which catalyzes series of oxidative phosphorylative activity
of the cell to produce energy which is mainly in form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate).

GOLGI APPARATUS

The golgi apparatus is often Cup-shaped, usually with the convex side nearest the nucleus. It
consists of one or more zones of smooth endoplasmic reticulum arranged as stacks of flattened
interconnected cisternae, small vesicles are found clustered at their borders.

FUNCTIONS:

1. It is capable of synthesizing certain carbohydrate that cannot be formed in the E.R. e.g. sialic
acid and galactose.
2. It helps to process substances already formed by E.R to form secretory vesicles
3. It can also cause the formation of hydroluronic acid and Chondroitin Sulphate which are
components of proteoglycans secreted in mucus and other glandular secretions.

LYSOSOMES

It is a membrane -bound, spheroidal or ellipsoidal body. Lysosome contains enzymes that can
destroy unwanted materials present within a cell. Some of its enzymes are proteases, lipases,
esterases and nucleases.

FUNCTIONS: Lysosomes serve as scavenger cells for the body, engulfing bacteria and destroying
them in their lysosome. It may also be involved in bone removal.

Lysosomes means (lysis=dissolution; Soma =body)

CENTROSOME OR CENTRIOLES

It is cylindrical in shape located in the Cytoplasm.

FUNCTIONS: Centrioles are thought to play some part in the formation of mitotic spindle during
cell division.

THE NUCLEUS

The nucleus is a dense spherical body that is located at the centre of the cell. It is bounded
exteriorly from the Cytoplasm by the presence of the nuclear membrane. The nucleus is made up of
delicate network of fibres called CHROMATIN. It also contains nucleoli.

Chromatin is made up of mainly deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) other refers to as GENE. During
cell division, the entire chromatin within the nucleus becomes very tightly coded and takes on the
appearance of a number of short, thick rod-like structure called CHROMOSOMES.
Chromosomes are threadlike structure that is made up of units of inheritance called GENE. They
are located in the nucleus of all living cell as chromatin thread. Gene are inturn compose of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules. All body cells except the sex cells are called somatic cells
and it contains 46 chromosomes arranged in 23pairs.

The number of chromosomes in each cell is fixed for a given species and in man it is 46 and this is
referred to as the DIPLOID (or double) number. However, in Spermatozoa and Ova, the number of
chromosomes is only half the diploid number i.e. 23. This is called the HAPLOID (or half) number.
The 46 chromosomes in each cell can again be divided into 44 AUTOSOMES and 2
SEX CHROMOSOMES. The 44 autosomes really consists of 22pairs.

FUNCTIONS:

Contains genes which are genetic materials and controls cellular activities of the cell.

CELL DIVISION

Cell division is the process by which cells reproduce themselves. It consists of a nuclear division
and a cytoplasmic division. Nuclear division can be of two types: (a) Meiosis and (b) Mitosis.

The first is the mechanism by which sperm and egg cells are produced, preliminary to the
formation of a new organism. The process consists of a nuclear division called Meiosis plus a
cytoplasmic division called cytokinesis. It is often called reproductive cell division or reduction
division.

In the second kind of division, often called Somatic Cell division, a single parent cell duplicates
itself. This process consists of a nuclear division called Mitosis and Cytokinesis. The process
ensures that each new daughter cell has the same number and kind of chromosomes as the original
parent cell. Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm.