WALLS

The various functions served by walls in a building are.

(a) Walls support loads of upper floors and roof (in case of load bearing walls).
(b) Exterior wall of a building has to give protection against natural elements like sun,
wind, rain, snow etc.
(c) Ground floor wall has to resist dampness also.
(d) They provide enclosure for ensuring security and privacy.
(e) Walls provide support for doors and windows.
(f) Walls provide thermal insulation.
(g) Walls provide sound insulation.
(h) Walls offer adequate resistance to fire.
(i) Walls serve as a base for suitable aesthetic treatment.

Walls can be constructed in various ways using a variety of building materials. The
common materials used for construction of walls are as follows :
(a) bricks,
(b) stones, and
(c) various type of blocks.

The details of materials and construction practices of walls built from these materials are
described in subsequent sections.

Partition Wall

The space inside a building has to be subdivided into rooms to serve different functions.
This is carried out by partition walls.

It ensures privacy, and may also provide insulation against heat and sound.
Openings with door leaves are provided in these partitions for giving access.
The partitions can be permanent or sometimes, as in offices, it may be desirable to have a
system of internal divisions, which can be shifted to suit the possible changes in the use
pattern of the spaces.
They could be folding or sliding type also. They normally extend from the floor to the
ceiling, but in some offices low partitions are used to afford a limited degree of privacy.
Partitions can be opaque, transparent or translucent. Internal load bearing walls also serve
the purpose of partitions. Non-load bearing partitions can be constructed from a wide
variety of materials. The choice would depend on a number of factors such as thickness,
weight, sound insulation, cost, ease of construction, necessity to shift, decorative
treatment and fire resistance.

For support of non-load bearing partitions, like for half brick masonry, there should be
adequate structural arrangement.

Types of Non-load Bearing Partitions

Partitions can be divided broadly into two categories :
(a) Made from blocks and slabs laid in suitable mortar.
(b) Made of boards, sheets etc.

Under the first category fall partitions made from bricks, cement concrete Superstructure
blocks, burnt clay blocks, gypsum blocks etc. These are normally self 2supporting if
confined within permissible spans and heights. The latter category consists of several
types of construction made of wooden panels, plywood, gypsum board, lath and plaster,
hard and soft fibre boards, metal sheets etc. These partitions are framed with timber,
metal or concrete frames, the sheets being fixed to one or both sides by means of screws,
nails, clamps or other means. Alternatively, these partitions can be of build-up
construction type fabricated in factories.

Brick Partition

These are constructed to half brick thickness by laying the bricks as stretcher. The mortar
can be of lime or cement. Generally, the mortar used is sand cement mortar of 1 : 3 or 1 :
4 mix. The walls are plastered on both sides. For added strength, reinforcement can be
provided as indicated in the section on reinforced brickwork. This type of partition is
extensively used in buildings and is easy to construct along with the brickwork in the rest
of the building. It has a good sound insulation and fire resistance properties. The earlier
practice of providing timber frames called nogging and constructing the brickwork within
is now not popular.

Block Partitions

This can be built from the various types of blocks, described later in this unit, in suitable
mortar and is generally 10 cm wide. The distance between supports for these partitions in
the vertical or horizontal direction whichever is smaller should not be more than 48 times
the thickness of the blocks. If required, reinforcement, as in reinforced brickwork, can be
provided and both sides plastered. Hollow burnt clay blocks can also be used for
partitions. They are comparatively lighter being only about 40 to 50% the weight of a
solid brick wall of same thickness and provide good sound insulation. Other materials
like gypsum block, wood wool slabs etc. are also used. Glass blocks can be used where
light is required to come in. Glass blocks of various sizes and shapes are available.
Generally, they are hollow. It has to be ensured that no other load than self-weight comes
on these partitions. The blocks can be laid in cement lime mortar (1 : 1 : 4). If blocks are
larger than 30 cm, the joints are reinforced with hoop iron or expanded metal strips. It has
an attractive appearance, can be easily cleaned and has good sound insulation properties.

Partitions of Sheeted Materials

The conventional timber partitions known as stud partitions are constructed of 100 × 75
mm heads and sills with vertical members or studs of 75 × 38 mm or 100 × 50 mm
framed at about 400 mm centres (Figure 2.1). Horizontal timber members known as
noggings of size 100 × 38 mm. Timber boards are nailed on both sides of the frame and
 painted or polished stiffen the studs. Other sheets like gypsum plasterboard, fibre
building board, plywood, particle board, blocks board, AC sheet, GI sheet etc., can also
be used with a timber frame. The details of spacing of supports and the nails for some
spacing of the commonly used sheets are given in Table

Note :

(a) Nails with shank diameter 2, 2.34 or 2.50 mm are commonly used.
(b) Joint thickness shall be of 6 mm. All vertical joints shall be staggered, particularly
when both sides of the wall are covered.

Timber partition
All portions of timber built into or against masonry or concrete shall be given two coats of
boiling coal tar. All wood work shall be painted with approved wood primer. The framework for
fixing the sheets can also be of light steel sections. Partitions with sheets are light in weight and
hence, can be put up directly over slabs. They are easy to install and can be dismantled without
any difficulty.
Retaining Wall
Retaining walls are structures which helps in maintaining the surface of the ground at different
elevations on either side of the structure. If the retaining wall was not there, the soil at higher
elevation would tend to move down till it acquires its natural, stable configuration. Consequently
the soil that is now retained at a steeper slope than it can sustain by virtue of its shear strength
exerts a force on the retaining wall. The different types of retaining walls are as follow :
(a) Gravity walls
(b) Cantilever walls
(c) Counterfort walls
(d) Buttress walls
(e) Crib walls
(f) Gabion wall
(g) Sheet pile walls
(h) Anchored earth walls
(i) Diaphragm walls
(j) Reinforced earth walls
Cavity Wall
A cavity wall consists of two distinct walls for a single-wall purpose, with a space or cavity
existing between them.
These two individual walls are referred to as the leaves of the cavity wall, with the inner wall
known as the internal leaf and the outer wall as the external leaf. Another term for a cavity wall
is a hollow wall.
Construction details for non-load-bearing cavity walls involve ensuring that the two leaves are of
equal thickness, or in some cases, the internal leaf may have greater thickness.
The recommended cavity size falls within the range of 4 to 10 cm, with both the internal and
external leaves having a minimum thickness of at least 10 mm.

Fig Cavity wall construction

 A cavity wall does not necessitate specific footings; instead, it is built upon a sturdy
concrete base at the center.
 The construction involves creating two leaves, resembling regular masonry, with a
required minimum cavity between them. This cavity is often filled with lean concrete,
sloped slightly above ground level.
 Weep holes, spaced at one-meter intervals, are incorporated at the bottom of the outer
leaf.
 The inner leaf employs normal bricks, while facing bricks are used for the outer leaf,
each made of different masonry.
 Metal ties or rust-proof steel wall ties connect the leaves, with a maximum horizontal
spacing of 900mm and a maximum vertical spacing of 450mm.
 Different bonds, such as stretcher bond for half-brick thickness leaves and English or
Flemish bonds for one brick thickness or more, are used.
 During bricklaying, wooden battens prevent cement mortar from filling the cavity.
 Simultaneous construction of both leaves, uniform spacing achieved through
predetermined wall tie locations, and the provision of damp proof courses for each leaf
 ensure a systematic and effective construction process, including the incorporation of
weep holes above the damp proof course for doors and windows.

Some special considerations to be considered during the construction of a typical Cavity Wall
are:

o The cavity should extend to 15 cm below the damp-proof course level.

o Below ground level, walls are constructed solid, or the cavity is filled up to 15 cm below
the damp-proof course with fine concrete.
o The damp-proof course should cover both leaves of the wall, extending below and above
the cavity.
o The upper part of the wall should be built solid for two or three courses below the wall
plate or roof line to enhance stability.
o Wall ties should be kept free from mortar droppings using a suspended timber batten
during construction.
o Temporary openings at the ground floor level allow clearing of cavity mortar droppings
daily.
o In exposed locations, leaving a few vertical joints open at the bottom of the cavity aids
water drainage.
o Ventilation in the cavity is recommended to prevent air stagnation and excess humidity,
achieved through vents at intervals.
o Solid jambs at door and window openings are permissible in sheltered sites with a rough-
cast wall surface or with a vertical damp-proof course.
o For exposed doors and windows, a trough or gutter made of lead, galvanized iron, or
other suitable material can collect water in the cavity.
o Below window sills, the cavity wall should not be built solid, and a damp-proof course is
desirable at this point.

The various applications of Cavity walls are:

o Energy-efficient insulation in buildings.

o Effective moisture control and prevention of dampness.
o Enhanced sound insulation for quieter indoor environments.
o Versatile design options and flexibility in material choices.
o Structural stability and resistance to water penetration.
o Thermal regulation for improved indoor comfort.
o Prevention of mold formation through controlled ventilation.
o Accommodates different masonry types and construction methods.

Advantages of Cavity wall

The multi-faceted advantages of Cavity wall are:

o Better thermal insulation compared to solid walls due to the air-filled space between
leaves.
 o Economically more affordable than solid walls.
o Prevention of moisture ingress and dampness due to the hollow space between leaves.
o Effective sound insulation properties.
o Reduced foundation load owing to their lesser thickness.
o Prevention of outer efflorescence.

Disadvantages of Cavity wall

The limitations of Cavity wall include the following:

o Possibility of cavity bridging leading to reduced insulation.

o Vulnerability to cavity wall tie corrosion.
o Increased construction complexity.
o Potential for cavity wall insulation settlement.
o Risk of moisture penetration if weep holes are blocked.