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Journal of Affective Disorders 293 (2021) 197–204

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Affective Disorders


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jad

Research paper

Momentary and longitudinal relationships of mindfulness to stress and


anxiety among Chinese elementary school students: mediations of cognitive
flexibility, self-awareness, and social environment
Xue Wen a, b, Qian Zhang c, Xiaoyan Liu a, Jiaxuan Du b, Wei Xu a, b, *
a
Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education (Beijing Normal University),
Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, CN, 100875
b
School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, CN 210097
c
University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Mindfulness could benefit elementary school students’ mental health, but little is known about the mechanisms
elementary school students of mindfulness in the elementary school context. The current studies explored mindfulness’s relationship to stress
mindfulness and anxiety in elementary school students and potential mediators in the connections from proximal and distal
stress
perspectives.
anxiety
Design: In Study 1, a daily diary approach was used to examine the mediating role of cognitive flexibility on
mindfulness’s dynamic association to stress and anxiety. In Study 2, we examined the longitudinal relationships
between mindfulness at baseline and stress and anxiety at 6-month follow-up and the mediating roles of self-
awareness (i.e., self-esteem and self-identity) and social environment (i.e., student-teacher relationship and
peer relationship).
Main outcomes: From a proximal perspective, cognitive flexibility mediated the negative relationship of state
mindfulness to stress and anxiety. From a distal standpoint, self-esteem mediated the relationship between
dispositional mindfulness and anxiety. Perceived peer relationship mediated the association of dispositional
mindfulness to stress and anxiety.
Conclusion: For elementary school students, state mindfulness showed immediate effects, and dispositional
mindfulness showed long-term effects on reducing anxiety and stress through different mechanisms. Limitations
and implications were discussed.

Introduction negative experience as the problems that will accompany them for a
long time be solved. They allow negative experiences to fade over time
In the past two decades, mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) and will not be bothered by the negative experience for a long time
have been increasingly applied to improve children’s mental health. (Lindsay & Creswell, 2017). From this perspective, children with high
Empirical studies showed the effectiveness of MBIs for elementary dispositional mindfulness may also not focus too much on stressful and
school children in reducing stress and anxiety (Malboeuf-Hurtubise, anxious emotions. Thus, dispositional mindfulness is supposed to be
Lacourse, Herba, Taylor, & Amor, 2017; Schonert-Reichl, 2015; van de negatively associated with stress and anxiety among children.
Weijer-Bergsma, Langenberg, Brandsma, Oort, & Bögels, 2014). In Meanwhile, researchers have been investigating the role of mind­
addition to the positive effect of interventions on reducing stress and fulness level in the mental health of children. Some researchers believed
anxiety, an individual’s dispositional mindfulness level is also supposed that children have the experiences of state and dispositional mindful­
to be a predictor of stress and anxiety levels. According to the monitor ness. For example, their emotional reactions to instant situations and the
and acceptance theory (MAT; Lindsay & Creswell, 2017), individuals quick movement to the subsequent experiences are consistent with re­
who are high at dispositional mindfulness levels are less likely to see the searchers’ descriptions of the process of mindfulness (Hooker & Fodor,

* Corresponding author at: Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, New Main Building, No.
19 Xinjiekouwai Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100875, P. R. China.
E-mail address: livingxw@163.com (W. Xu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.06.038
Received 16 September 2020; Received in revised form 27 April 2021; Accepted 19 June 2021
Available online 24 June 2021
0165-0327/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
X. Wen et al. Journal of Affective Disorders 293 (2021) 197–204

2008). The method of developing a measure of children’s mindfulness relationship between mindfulness and stressful or anxious experiences.
levels also clarified the positive correlations between mindfulness and Individuals who are high in mindfulness might be more cognitively
social skills, academic competence, and life quality, as well as the flexible, predicting reducing the adverse effects of stressful or anxious
negative correlations between mindfulness and problem behaviors, events on individuals. For elementary school children, higher levels of
internalizing and externalizing symptoms (Greco, Baer, & Smith, 2011). mindfulness can facilitate their capacity to reappraise potential adverse
The results of this study indicated that mindfulness levels could predict situations and improve their cognitive flexibility (Garland et al., 2009;
better mental health of children since higher levels of mindfulness were Napoli, Krech, & Holley, 2005; Schonert-Reichl et al., 2015). Therefore,
associated with reductions in internalizing symptoms such as anxiety we proposed that one of the proximal mechanisms of mindfulness
and depression (Greco et al., 2011). among elementary school children in reducing adverse emotional re­
However, it is not yet clear how mindfulness can help children’s actions in stressful and anxiety-provoking situations is enhancing
mental health by reducing stress and anxiety, especially from an inte­ cognitive flexibility.
grated and systematic perspective. The present article proposes a theo­
retical model explaining the proximal and distal mechanisms of Distal mechanism of mindfulness: the improvement of self-awareness and
mindfulness in relieving stress and anxiety among elementary school social environment at the trait level
children. To verify the theory, we conducted two studies to examine the
momentary and longitudinal association between mindfulness and stress Numerous studies have shown the long-term effect of dispositional
and anxiety by considering potential mediating roles. mindfulness on mental health (Lyons, Alba, & Pepping, 2017; Murphy,
Mermelstein, Edwards, & Gidycz, 2012). Based on these findings, we
Proximal mechanism of mindfulness: the enhancement of cognitive believe that the implementation of the distal mechanism of mindfulness
flexibility in everyday life at the state level should be at the trait level, which means that individuals with high
levels of dispositional mindfulness can cultivate some extraordinary
Defined as the moment-to-moment awareness of the experience capacities which help manage stress and anxiety.
without judgment, mindfulness is considered to show immediate effects Mindfulness related theories and empirical studies showed that
on emotional states as a kind of state (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Bishop and mindfulness could be beneficial for improving individuals’ self-
his colleagues (2004) believed that mindfulness would be maintained awareness (Coholic, 2011; James, 2011; Kutz, Borysenko, & Benson,
when attention is purposely focused on the current experience. Mind­ 1985; Thompson & Gauntlett-Gilbert, 2008; Vago & Silbersweig, 2012)
fulness will cease when attention is no longer focused on the occasion. and social environment (Glomb, Duffy, Bono, & Yang, 2011; Herndon,
Thus, mindfulness is believed to be “much closer to a state than a trait” 2008; Brown, Weinstein, & Creswell, 2012; Turel & Osatuyi, 2017;
since it is thought to be evoked and maintained depending on attention Waszczuk et al., 2015), which are both crucial factors in stress and
regulation (Bishop et al., 2004, p. 234). State mindfulness is distinct anxiety management (Evans, Sherer, Nick, Nakase-Richardson &
from dispositional mindfulness since mindfulness of an individual’s Yablon, 2005; Monroe & Hadjiyannakis, 2002; Nezlek, 2002; Pattison,
unique way of engaging the world (dispositional mindfulness) does not Llamas & Hurd, 1979). Vago and Silbersweig (2012) provided an inte­
necessarily equate to the degree of mindfulness that the person has when grative theoretical framework of mindfulness from a neurobiological
facing daily tasks (state mindfulness; Johnson, 2018). It was found that perspective. The framework suggests that mindfulness reduces distorted
participants’ state mindfulness levels during a mindfulness-based cognitions and emotions primarily by promoting one’s meta-awareness
intervention predicted the pre-post intervention changes in partici­ of the self (Vago & Silbersweig, 2012). Meanwhile, according to the
pants’ negative inner experience (Mahmood, Hopthrow, & Randsley de interdependence theoretical approach proposed by Van Doesum et al.
Moura, 2016), which supports the idea that individuals who have higher (2013), individuals who adopted a stance of mindfulness in social re­
levels of state mindfulness may treat their negative thoughts or feelings lationships tended to show more empathy and honesty to facilitate their
as transient mental events, and disengage these thoughts since they do social ability, indicating that mindfulness could be beneficial to one’s
not require actions (Bishop et al., 2004). That means state mindfulness social environment.
may be related to the momentary reductions of stress and anxiety. Children usually show significant advances in awareness of self and
Therefore, the proximal mechanism of mindfulness should be performed others at the age of 4-5 years. After this, as they move through
in everyday life in which state mindfulness is dynamically linked with elementary school, their self-awareness develops and becomes increas­
momentary stress and anxiety. ingly general and stable (Harter, 2006). The non-biased awareness of
Cognitive flexibility refers to an individual’s ability to use adaptive self in elementary school children could play an essential role in coping
cognitive processing strategies to deal with novel and unanticipated with negative feelings when encountering setbacks (Vickery & Dorjee,
situations, which is inherently associated with the attentional process 2016). Self-esteem and self-identity are two aspects of self-awareness
(Cañas, Quesada, Antolí, & Fajardo, 2003). By selecting and switching (Pedersen, Williams, & Kristensen, 2000). Self-esteem refers to a per­
cognitive sets, the individual could adapt to the changing environment son’s comprehensive judgment of himself (Porter & Washington, 1993),
and regulate negative emotional states (Moore & Malinowski, 2009). and self-identity refers to individuals’ self-perception that is salient and
Elementary school students are in the stage of developing constructive enduring (Rise, Sheeran, & Hukkelberg, 2010). Most school-age children
cognitive strategies in stress management and emotion regulation always experience an up and down in self-esteem with a more
(Hurlock, 2001). Cognitive flexibility can play an essential role in coping comprehensive evaluating system on themselves (Marsh, Craven, &
with momentary stress and anxiety in daily life. Debus, 1998). Likewise, children aged 9 to 13 years are going through
Many scholars emphasized the role of cognitive flexibility in the ef­ pre-and early adolescence, in which achieving self-identity is a major
fect of mindfulness (Moore & Malinowski, 2009; Roemer & Orsillo, task (Bhana, 2010; Cole et al., 2001; Twenge & Campbell, 2001).
2003). Mindfulness involves various aspects of cognitive functions, Self-identity affects how students think and react when experiencing
including sustaining and switching attention, which may have a bene­ frustration and difficulty in pursuing complex tasks (Wonica, 2014). The
ficial effect on cognitive flexibility (Moore & Malinowski, 2009). Ac­ empirical studies have found the positive relationships between mind­
cording to the Mindfulness Coping Model suggested by Garland et al. fulness and self-esteem and self-identity (Haertel, 2016; Johnston,
(2009), the metacognitive stance of mindfulness allows decentering 2012), indicating that children with higher levels of mindfulness might
from stress-related experience and shifting cognitive sets, through which develop higher levels of self-esteem and self-identity. According to the
cognitive flexibility is increased. Awareness is broadened, leading to a MAT, that might because children with higher levels of mindfulness
reduction in the negative evaluation of stressful events. The evidence could be more acceptable at all the aspect of themselves (Lindsay &
indicates that cognitive flexibility might be a potential mediator in the Creswell, 2017), which may allow them to have higher levels of

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X. Wen et al. Journal of Affective Disorders 293 (2021) 197–204

self-esteem and self-identity. their parents signed informed consent. During the daily diary procedure,
Meanwhile, school-aged children spend significant proportions of participants were asked to complete a brief paper questionnaire at 4:00
their lives in school settings, and schools become the primary socializing p.m. in their classrooms for ten school days, which took up to 5 minutes.
contexts that contribute to the developmental processes. Notably, these One researcher in each class administered the survey, distributing and
children’s relationship with teachers and peers are critical relational collecting the questionnaires every afternoon. Some students could not
experiences in school which can significantly influence their mental complete the questionnaires during the study period for reasons such as
health (Abela, Vanderbilt, & Rochon, 2004; Ekornås, Heimann, Tjus, participating in interest groups or taking sick leave. Data of the students
Heyerdahl, & Lundervold, 2011; Hughes & Cavell, 1999; Park & Park, who completed the questionnaire less than five times were seen as
2010). It is suggested by MAT that individuals with higher levels of invalid and excluded from further analysis. Participants received school
mindfulness might be better at monitoring the external and internal supplies such as pens and rubbers as compensation every Friday. A
experiences and may also better accept the negative experiences lecture on elementary school students’ learning problems was given by a
(Lindsay & Creswell, 2017). When it comes to children at school, it may professor of psychology from the first author’s University to the stu­
manifest as children high in mindfulness may be better able to perceive dents’ parents on the Saturday after the study.
kindness from teachers and peers and to embrace the negative experi­
ences brought by teachers and peers occasionally, which may predict the Measures
higher levels of children’s relationships with teachers and peers (Black,
2015). Taken together, self-esteem, self-identity, and relationship with State Mindfulness
teachers and peers can be important factors that predict mental health in Five items were adapted from the Five Facets Mindfulness Ques­
elementary school children aged 9 to 13 (grade 3 – 6). Based on the tionnaire (FFMQ; Baer, Smith, Hopkins, Krietemeyer, & Toney, 2016) to
theoretical and empirical evidence reviewed above, we proposed the assess momentary mindfulness. The FFMQ has five dimensions. In this
improved self-awareness (i.e., self-esteem and self-identity) and social study, we used the items of FFMQ which were adapted by Friese and
environment (i.e., children’s relationship with teachers and peers) as the Hofmann (2016) in a daily diary study: they chose five items that have
distal mechanism of mindfulness in reducing emotional distress of high factor loadings, one item for each facet, which is observing (“Right
elementary school children. now, I pay attention to my physical experiences”), describing (“Right
now, I am good at finding words to describe my feelings”), act with
The current studies awareness (“Right now, I find myself doing things without paying
attention”), nonjudging (“Right now, I tell myself that I shouldn’t be
The current studies aimed to explore the proximal and distant thinking the way I am thinking”) and nonreactivity (“Right now, when I
mechanisms of how mindfulness reduces stress and anxiety in elemen­ have distressing thoughts or images, I just notice them and let them go”).
tary school students. To achieve this goal, two studies were conducted. In Friese and Hofmann’s research (2016), this measurement’s reliability
Study 1 explored the proximal mechanism of mindfulness by examining was acceptable (α = 0.66). The items were rated on a 5-point scale from
the mediating role of cognitive flexibility on the momentary association 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). A composite score was calculated for each
between state mindfulness, stress, and anxiety. The daily diary approach day, with higher scores indicating higher levels of mindfulness. To es­
(Gunthert & Wenze, 2012) was adopted to assess studied variables in timate the data’s interrater reliability, the Interclass Correlation Coef­
everyday life. Study 2 explored the distal mechanism by investigating ficient (ICC) is used (Castro, 2002). It is suggested that when the ICCs are
the longitudinal relationship of dispositional mindfulness to stress and bigger than 0.059, the similarity of the data cannot be ignored, which
anxiety, considering the mediating role of self-awareness and social means a hierarchical linear model (HLM) is required to process the data
environment. Using a questionnaire survey, two critical components of (Castro, 2002). The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of mindful­
self-awareness, i.e., self-esteem and self-identity, were assessed to ness was 0.523.
represent the broad concept of self-awareness (Pedersen et al., 2000).
The student-teacher relationship and peer relationship were considered Cognitive Flexibility
to illustrate children’s social environment in an elementary school Two items of the high factor loadings (Gunthert & Wenze, 2012)
setting. In Study 1, we hypothesized that state mindfulness would be were selected from the Chinese version of the Cognitive Flexibility In­
negatively associated with stress and anxiety in daily life, and cognitive ventory (Dennis & Wal, 2010; Wang, Yang, Xiao, & Su, 2016) for two
flexibility would significantly mediate the associations. In Study 2, we subscales, namely alternatives (“I consider multiple options before
hypothesized that dispositional mindfulness at baseline would nega­ making a decision”) and control (“When I encounter difficult situations,
tively predict stress and anxiety at a 6-month follow-up; self-esteem, I feel like I am losing control”). The items were rated on a 5-point scale
self-identity, and relationships with teachers and peers at a 3-month (1 = not at all, 5 = very much) and were combined into a total score to
follow-up would mediate the predictive associations. represent the daily level of cognitive flexibility. High total scores indi­
cated high levels of cognitive flexibility. The ICC of cognitive flexibility
Study 1: The Momentary Relationship of Mindfulness to Stress was 0.671.
and Anxiety and the Mediating Effect of Cognitive Flexibility
Stress and anxiety
Method Stress and anxiety were assessed using two items: “Do you feel
stressed today?” and “Do you feel anxious today.” Each item was rated
Participants and procedure on a 7-point scale (1 = not at all, 7 = very much), with higher scores
The Biomedical Research Ethics Committee approved this study of indicating higher assessed emotion levels. The ICC of stress and anxiety
the first author’s University. Children in grades 3-6 were recruited from were 0.455 and 0.431.
an elementary school in China. After obtaining consent from the school,
one class from each grade was randomly selected. Parents of students in Data analysis
these classes received a participant information sheet and were invited Descriptive data analysis was conducted using SPSS 22.0. Multilevel
to consider giving consent on behalf of their children. Inclusion criteria structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed using Mplus 7.0 to
for participants included no current and/or history of mental disorders test the hypothetical mediating models.
and having sufficient reading skills to complete the questionnaires
(confirmed by parents and school teachers).
A total of 193 students took part in a 10-day daily diary study after

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X. Wen et al. Journal of Affective Disorders 293 (2021) 197–204

Results researchers in study 1, who distributed and collected the paper ques­
tionnaires in participants’ class. As the 6-month follow-up assessment
Sixteen (8.3%) of the 193 participants were excluded for not (T2) was conducted during the school holiday, a link to the question­
completing the daily questionnaire for more than 5 times. The final naires’ survey was sent to participants’ parents via smartphone, and
sample included 177 children aged 9 to 13 years (M = 11.06, SD = 1.20), participants were invited to complete the survey online.
of whom 41.24% were female, 20.90% (n = 37) were in grade 3, 27.12% Among the 193 participants of study 1, 184 (95.34%) completed
(n = 48) in grade 4, 27.12% (n = 48) in grade 5 and 24.86% (n = 44) in assessments at all three time points. This sample’s mean age was 11.64
grade 6. Each student completed the questionnaire 7 to 10 times during years (SD = 1.17; ranged 9 - 15 years), and 43.1% were girls. The
the 10-day daily diary procedure (1 time a day for 10 days), generating a number of students in grade 3 to 6 were 44 (23.92%), 47 (25.54%), 47
total of 1732 valid responses (97.85%). (25.54%), and 46 (25.00%), respectively.
The mean, standard deviation of the variables, and the correlations
between the variables in study 1 were first examined. The results are
shown in Table 1. We used the SEM to examine the correlations. Measures
Expressly, we set up the SEMs by using the table column’s standardized
variable as the dependent variable, the standardized variable of the Dispositional mindfulness
table row as the independent variable, and controlling the grand- Dispositional mindfulness was assessed using the Mindful Attention
meaned standardized dependent variable at the between-person level Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown & Ryan, 2003). This scale is composed
for the standardized independent variable. of 15 items (e.g., “I could be experiencing some emotion and not be
The mediating role of cognitive flexibility on the relationships of conscious of it until some time later”) rated on a 6-point scale from 1
mindfulness to stress and anxiety was then examined. The grand- (rarely) to 6 (always). The composite score was averaged to represent
meaned mindfulness and cognitive flexibility levels and children’s respondents’ dispositional mindfulness, with higher scores indicating
grades, age, and gender were controlled at the between-person level. higher dispositional mindfulness levels. Some changes in the wording of
Results of bootstrapping showed that the relationship between mind­ these items were made to make the questions more understandable to
fulness and stress (indirect effect = -0.07, 95% CI = -0.122 ~ -0.025), as elementary school children. The Cronbach’s alpha of the MAAS in the
well as the relationship between mindfulness and anxiety, were medi­ present sample was 0.886.
ated by cognitive flexibility (indirect effect = -0.11, 95% CI = -0.181 ~
-0.041), indicating that at the within-person level, higher levels of state Self-awareness
mindfulness was associated with higher levels of cognitive flexibility, The Self-esteem Scale (SES; Rosenberg, 2015) and the Adolescence
which reduced stress and anxiety among elementary school students. Ego Identity Crisis Scale (AEICS; Zhang & Zheng, 2002) were used to
The results of the mediating analyses are exhibited in table 2. measure self-esteem levels self-identity, respectively. The SES has 10
items (e.g., “I feel that I am a valuable person, at least on a par level with
others”) rated on a 4-point scale (1 = not at all; 4 = very much). A
Discussion of Study 1
combined score of the 10 items was used to represent the level of
self-esteem. The AEICS contains 28 items (e.g., “I feel inferior to others
Study 1 explored the mediating role of cognitive flexibility on
in many aspects”) rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5
mindfulness’s association to stress and anxiety at the within-person level
(very much). An average score was calculated to indicate the
using the daily diary method. In line with our hypothesis, cognitive
self-identity level. For both scales, higher scores indicate higher levels of
flexibility mediated the relationship between mindfulness and stress and
the assessed construct. In the present sample, the α of the SES was 0.786,
the relationship between mindfulness and anxiety in elementary school
and of the AEICS was 0.857.
students. This finding indicated cognitive flexibility as the proximal
mechanism of mindfulness in reducing stress and anxiety in real-life
Social environment
situations.
The Student-teacher Relationship Questionnaire (STRQ; Pianta,
1996) and the Peer Relationship Scale for Children and Adolescents
Study 2: The Longitudinal Relationship of Mindfulness to Stress
(PRSCA; Guo & Zhang, 2003) were used to measure students’ relation­
and Anxiety and the Mediating Effect of Self-awareness and
ship with their teachers and peers. Each of these two scales contains 22
Social Environment
items. The items of the STRQ (e.g., “I care a lot about my teacher”) were
rated from 1(not at all) to 5 (exactly). The items of the PRSCA (e.g., “I
Methods
care about how the other students think of me”) were rated from 1
(never) to 4 (always). Average scores were calculated for each scale to
Participants and Procedure
indicate respondents’ relationships with their teachers and peers. In the
The Biomedical Research Ethics Committee approved this study of
present study, the α of the STRQ was 0.891, and of the PRSCA was 0.862.
the first author’s University. Participants of study 1 were invited to
participate in this study by completing a series of questionnaires at
Stress and anxiety
three-time points: questionnaires assessing mindfulness at baseline (T0),
Stress and anxiety were assessed using the stress and anxiety sub­
assessing self-awareness (i.e., self-esteem and self-identity), and social
scales of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS; Lovibond & Lovi­
environment (i.e., relationship with teachers and peers) one month after
bond, 1995). Each of these two subscales comprises 7 items (e.g., stress:
baseline (T1), and assessing stress and anxiety six months after baseline
“I found it difficult to relax”; anxiety: “I felt scared without any good
(T2). The surveys at T0 and T1 were administrated by the same
reason”) rated on a 4-point scale (1 = not at all; 4 = very much), with
higher scores indicating higher levels of the assessed emotion. In the
Table 1 present sample, the α of stress and anxiety was 0.857 and 0.874,
The correlations between studied variables in Study 1
respectively.
M SD 1 2 3

1. state mindfulness 3.62 0.81 1 Data analysis


2. cognitive flexibility 3.20 0.62 0.22*** 1 Descriptive statistics were performed using SPSS 22.0. Bootstrapping
3. stress 2.13 1.73 -0.05 -0.12*** 1 was performed using Mplus 7.0 to test the hypothetical mediating
4. anxiety 2.04 1.70 -0.23** -0.55*** 0.39***
models.

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X. Wen et al. Journal of Affective Disorders 293 (2021) 197–204

Table 2
The results of the mediating analyses in Study 1
dependent variable Mediating model β SE t p indirect effect
independent variable dependent variable β 95% CI

stress mindfulness cognitive flexibility 0.21 0.05 4.66 <0.001 -0.07 [-0.122, -0.025]
cognitive flexibility stress -0.35 0.09 -3.88 <0.001
mindfulness stress 0.06 0.09 0.61 0.539
anxiety mindfulness cognitive flexibility 0.21 0.05 4.67 <0.001 -0.11 [-0.181, -0.041]
cognitive flexibility anxiety -0.53 0.11 -4.85 <0.001
mindfulness anxiety -0.08 0.08 -0.89 0.372

Results children in grades 3 - 6, especially the younger ones, are at the very early
stage of this process (Hurlock, 2001). Therefore, their self-identity might
The corrections between dispositional mindfulness, self-awareness still have relatively small effects on their emotional states and mental
(i.e., self-esteem and self-identity), social environment (i.e., relation­ health. It would be interesting to explore the role of self-identity in the
ship with teachers and peers), stress, and anxiety are displayed in benefits of mindfulness among adolescents in older age groups in future
Table 3. As shown in Table 3, dispositional mindfulness was negatively research.
correlated with stress and anxiety and positively correlated with self-
esteem and perceived relationship with teachers and peers. Indirect
General discussion
analyses were further conducted to examine the mediating role of self-
esteem and relationship with teachers and peers on mindfulness’s rela­
The two studies reported in this paper systematically examined the
tionship to stress and anxiety. Results of bootstrapping showed that the
relationship of mindfulness to stress and anxiety of elementary school
relationship between mindfulness at T0 and stress at T2 was mediated by
students from dynamic and longitudinal perspectives. In study 1, higher
participants’ relationship with their peers at T1 (indirect effect = -0.05,
state mindfulness levels were found to predict lower momentary
95% CI = -0.101 ~ -0.001), and the relationship between mindfulness at
emotional distress in real-life situations. In study 2, higher levels of
T0 and anxiety at T2 was mediated by students’ self-esteem (indirect
dispositional mindfulness at baseline showed to predict lower negative
effect = -0.03, 95% CI = -0.060 ~ -0.004) and relationship with peers
emotions six months later. Taken together, these findings provide sup­
(indirect effect = -0.04, 95% CI = -0.089 ~ -0.008) at T1. The results of
ports for the effects of mindfulness, as a state and a trait, on reducing
the mediating models of study 2 are shown in table 4.
stress and anxiety of elementary school students.
We also investigated the potential mechanisms of the state and
Discussion of Study 2 dispositional mindfulness in reducing stress and anxiety of elementary
school students. At the within-person level, the associations of mind­
Study 2 explored the mediating role of self-awareness and social fulness to stress and anxiety were mediated by children’s cognitive
environment in the longitudinal association of dispositional mindfulness flexibility, indicating the increased cognitive flexibility as a proximal
to stress and anxiety among elementary school children. Results showed mechanism of mindfulness. A mindfulness state encourages individuals
that self-esteem, as an essential component of self-awareness, mediated to intentionally pay attention to the present moments while disengaging
the relationship between mindfulness and anxiety. Children’s perceived from automatic cognitive processing (Garland et al., 2009). Therefore, a
peer relationship mediated the relationship of mindfulness to stress and state of mindfulness could enable elementary school children to shift
anxiety. These findings supported our study hypothesis. cognitive sets more flexibly in response to the changing external and
However, the children’s perceived student-teacher relationship did internal stimuli, resulting in less negative emotional reactivity to or
not mediate mindfulness’s relationship to stress and anxiety, which is more adaptive emotion regulation in stressful and anxiety-provoking
inconsistent with our hypothesis. It might be because at the elementary situations (Moore & Malinowski, 2009; Napoli et al., 2005; Schoner­
school level, students rely less on their relationship with teachers to get t-Reichl et al., 2015).
support and care than depending on their relationship with peers From the longitudinal perspective, children’s self-awareness and
(Dubow & Ullman, 1989). The result is in line with previous studies social environment both mediated the association of mindfulness to
showing that teachers’ support was less associated with trait anxiety stress and anxiety, indicating the improved self-awareness and social
than peers’ support in school children (Bokhorst, Sumter, & Westenberg, environment as a potential distal mechanism of mindfulness. The
2010; Varni, Katz, Colegrove, & Dolgin, 1994). Another inconsistency receptive stance of mindfulness appears to allow individuals to be less
with our expectation is that self-identity did not mediate the relationship consumed by negative thoughts and cognitive biases about the self, and
of students’ mindfulness levels to the levels of stress and anxiety. One therefore is supposed to act as a buffer to low self-esteem (Pepping,
possible reason is that although the development of self-identity is seen O’Donovan, & Davis, 2013) and, in turn, reduce related negative
as a significant task in pre- and early adolescence, primary school emotional experiences (Leary & MacDonald, 2003). Elementary school

Table 3
The correlations between studied variables in Study 2
Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6

T0 1. dispositional mindfulness 4.30 0.88 1


T1 2. self-esteem 3.09 0.46 0.23** 1
3. self-identity 2.48 0.54 -0.08 -0.17* 1
4. relationship with teachers 3.99 0.63 0.47** -0.33** 0.57** 1
5. relationship with peers 3.09 0.47 0.59** 0.22** -0.05 0.53** 1
T2 6. stress 1.33 0.48 -0.17* -0.01 -0.002 -0.19** -0.25** 1
7. anxiety 1.22 0.40 -0.16* -0.15* -0.02 -0.20** -0.20** 0.85**

Note:
*
p < 0.05;
**
p < 0.01.

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X. Wen et al. Journal of Affective Disorders 293 (2021) 197–204

Table 4
The results of the mediating analyses in Study 2
dependent variable Mediating model β SE t p indirect effect
independent variable dependent variable β 95% CI

stress mindfulness self-esteem 0.17 0.06 2.83 0.01 -0.004 [-0.037, 0.017]
self-esteem stress -0.03 0.07 -0.39 0.70
mindfulness stress -0.04 0.04 -0.86 0.39
anxiety mindfulness self-esteem 0.17 0.06 2.83 0.01 -0.03 [-0.060, -0.004]
self-esteem anxiety -0.15 0.07 -2.23 0.03
mindfulness anxiety -0.04 0.04 -0.86 0.39
stress mindfulness self-identity -0.09 0.07 -1.27 0.21 0.00 [-0.015, 0.016]
self-identity stress 0.00 0.06 0.02 0.98
mindfulness stress -0.04 0.04 -0.95 0.35
anxiety mindfulness self-identity -0.09 0.07 -1.27 0.21 -0.01 [-0.025, 0.008]
self-identity anxiety 0.06 0.06 0.95 0.35
mindfulness anxiety -0.06 0.04 -1.42 0.16
stress mindfulness relationship with teachers 0.29 0.10 2.80 0.01 -0.01 [-0.053, 0.022]
relationship with teachers stress -0.02 0.06 -0.36 0.72
mindfulness stress -0.04 0.04 -0.90 0.37
anxiety mindfulness relationship with teachers 0.29 0.10 2.80 0.01 -0.02 [-0.079, 0.011]
relationship with teachers anxiety -0.06 0.06 -0.88 0.38
mindfulness anxiety -0.05 0.05 -1.03 0.30
stress mindfulness relationship with classmates 0.29 0.06 5.07 <0.001 -0.05 [-0.101, -0.001]
relationship with classmates stress -0.17 0.08 -1.97 0.05
mindfulness stress 0.01 0.05 0.16 0.87
anxiety mindfulness relationship with classmates 0.29 0.06 5.07 <0.001 -0.04 [-0.089, -0.008]
relationship with classmates anxiety -0.15 0.06 -2.28 0.02
mindfulness anxiety -0.02 0.04 -0.51 0.61

students who are naturally higher in mindfulness might also be more Author statement
attentive and receptive to their peers’ feelings during social interactions,
thus may maintain a better peer relationship and gain more social Role of funding source
support, which could serve as coping assistance (Abela et al., 2004;
Ekornås et al., 2011). The funding provided the financial support for the study.
The results indicate the vital role of mindfulness in reducing
elementary school students’ stress and anxiety at momentary and long- Contributors
term levels (Greco et al., 2011). Elementary school students who have a
low level of cognitive flexibility might be more vulnerable to stressful Miss. WEN Xue: To conception or design; collection, analysis or
and anxiety-provoking events, and daily brief mindfulness induction/­ interpretation of data; drafted the article or revised it critically for
practice that can induce a state of mindfulness could be beneficial for important intellectual.
them to deal with these situations and better regulate their emotions Dr. ZHANG Qian: Revised it critically for important intellectual
(Kiken, Garland, Bluth, Palsson, & Gaylord, 2015; Tan & Macrae, 2014). content.
Besides, to protect students from mental distress in a long-term Dr. LIU Xiaoyan: Undertook the statistical analysis and wrote the first
perspective, interventions can promote students’ self-esteem and draft of the manuscript.
harmonious peer relationship by improving their dispositional mind­ Miss. DU Jiaxuan: Revised it critically for important intellectual
fulness (Napoli et al., 2005; Saltzman & Goldin, 2008). Taken together, content.
these findings provided implications for school teachers, researchers, XU Wei (Corresponding ): Organized the study; Drafted the article.
and policymakers in designing and launching school-based programs for
elementary school children’s mental health (Napoli et al., 2005). Conflict of Interest
The studies have some limitations. Firstly, the participants in both
studies were elementary school students in grades 3 - 6 in China. Re­ The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
searchers should be cautious when generalizing the results of this study
to children of different ages and ethnic groups. Secondly, the sample size Data Availability Statement
of the study was small. Future studies should increase the sample size to
make the results more persuasive. Thirdly, the daily diary approach used The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
in study 1 entails repeated measures over ten days, which could cause corresponding author upon reasonable request.
participant burden and response bias. Forth, to reduce the measurement The submission was supported by the National Natura Science
error of boredom caused by the repeated measurement, the measure­ Foundation of China [grant numbers: 31800929]; and Fundamental
ment of study 1 was shortened as much as possible, which might reduce Research Funds for Central Universities [grant numbers: 2020NTSS42].
the validity of the measures. Fifth, we did not contain avoidance expe­
rience as a potential mediator in mindfulness’s relationships with stress Conflict of Interest
and anxiety in study 1, which may make the study less comprehensive.
Moreover, both studies employed self-report assessments in young The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
children, which could not avoid the subjectivity of the participants.
Finally, we did not investigate the short-term and long-term effects of Informed Consent
mindfulness-based interventions on improving elementary school stu­
dents’ mindfulness levels. Future studies should explore the effects and The study got informed consent from all the subjects.
potential mechanisms of mindfulness-based interventions for this
population.

202
X. Wen et al. Journal of Affective Disorders 293 (2021) 197–204

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