The Montessori Method and

the Neurosequential Model in

Education (NME):
A comparative study
Bernadette Phillips, Maynooth University, Ireland

Keywords: Montessori Method, Neurosequential Model in Education (NME), sensitive periods in development, neuroscience
and Montessori
Abstract: The Neurosequential Model in Education (NME) is described as a developmentally sensitive and
biologically respectful approach to development and learning. This paper postulates that the NME shares many
commonalities with the Montessori Method in that it, too, is developmentally sensitive and adheres to biologically
respectful concepts. This paper compares some of the core principles and recommended practices of the NME with
those in the Montessori Method and argues that they are consistent in many ways. The paper also examines Dr.
Montessori’s unique use of “sensitive periods” in development for educational purposes, in particular her use of the
sensitive periods for movement, the social aspects of life, and the sensitive period for order respectively. It argues that
in doing this, she was actively promoting an approach to human development and education that appears to correlate
with what Dr. Bruce Perry calls a developmentally sensitive and biologically respectful approach to learning. The goal
of this study is to show the science behind why many of Dr. Montessori’s original practices worked and had such a
positive effect on children. This knowledge should empower Montessori educators and give them the confidence to
promote authentic Montessori practices in the knowledge that they are in line with current neuroscientific theories
that have been shown to be beneficial to children.

Is Montessori a genius? Is her book a real contribution to then turned her attention to education and human
educational thought? Has her method something in it vital development (Babini & Lama, 2000; De Stefano, 2022;
and universal? (Stevens, 1912, p. 78) Kramer, 1976; Standing, 1957). In the above quotation,
the book Stevens refers to is Dr. Montessori’s seminal
Maria Montessori (1870–1952) could well be publication, which has been known as “The Montessori
described as a brain scientist ahead of her time. She Method” since it was first translated into English in 1912.
became a medical doctor in 1896 and specialized in However, when Dr. Montessori first published this book
psychiatric conditions in children (Babini, 2000). She in Italian in 1909, she gave it the title, “Il Metodo della

Journal of Montessori Research The Montessori Method and the Neurosequential Model in Education 33
Fall 2022, Volume 8, Issue 2
Pedagogia Scientifica applicato all’educazione infantile Method
nelle Case dei Bambini,” which means in English, “The
Method of Scientific Pedagogy Applied to the Education This paper compares some of the neuroscientific
of Young Children in the Children’s Houses.” Historically, principles of the NME with practices in the Montessori
“Scientific Pedagogy” was what the Montessori Method Method to shed more light on the science behind Dr.
was all about. Montessori’s success with children. To do this, the author
The Neurosequential Model in Education conducted an analysis of available sources on the NME.
(NME) was developed by and is based on the work These sources comprised of books, articles, interviews,
of the neuroscientist and child psychiatrist Dr. Bruce seminars, YouTube webinars, and online courses relating
Perry. The NME is a non-therapeutic adaption of the to the NME. In addition, the author conducted an
Neurosequential Model of Therapeutics (NMT), analysis of four of Dr. Montessori’s seminal books—The
also developed by Perry. The NMT, which started out Montessori Method (1912/1964), The Secret of Childhood
as a purely clinical approach related to Perry’s work, (1936), The Absorbent Mind (1949/1967), and The
is an approach that incorporates key principles of Formation of Man, (1949/1975)—and her pamphlet, The
neurodevelopment into the clinical problem-solving Four Planes of Education (1971, from a lecture delivered
process. Perry describes it as “developmentally sensitive, in 1938). These five publications were selected because
neurobiology-guided practice” (Perry, 2009, p. 248). they are generally recognized as reliable sources of Dr.
The NME, on the other hand, is non-therapeutic. Montessori’s core concepts. Additionally, an analysis of
Perry describes it as “a developmentally sensitive Jean Marc Gaspard Itard’s (1802) book, An Historical
and biologically respectful approach to learning” Account of the Discovery and Education of a Savage Man,
(ThinkTVPBS, 2020a). The NME has universal and Édouard Séguin’s (1866) book, Idiocy and Its
application across the entire spectrum of children but Treatment by the Physiological Method, was also conducted
is especially beneficial to children with developmental because Dr. Montessori repeatedly stated that her work
problems. The NME is a “train the trainer” model in builds on the work of Itard and Séguin. These combined
which teachers (often school principals) are trained in sources yielded a large amount of data. Braun and
the NME and then pass that training on to other teachers Clarke’s analytical model on thematic analysis was used
in their school or district. The goal of the training is (Braun & Clarke, 2006, 2022). Specifically, the literature
not to turn teachers into therapists, neuroscientists, or was examined, coded, and categorized into themes.
psychologists; rather, the training guides teachers in Subsequently, the theoretical concepts (as outlined in the
identifying the child’s primary developmental problems theoretical framework below) shaped the final identified
and then aids them in developing a rehabilitative plan themes.
that helps to reduce difficult behaviors and increase the
child’s ability to engage successfully in developmentally Theoretical Framework
appropriate educational activities.
This paper compares some of the core principles This study is centered on the concept of offering
and recommended practices of the NME with those in children a developmentally sensitive and biologically
the Montessori Method and outlines the shared features respectful education as expounded by Bruce Perry in his
of the two models and shows how Dr. Montessori’s Neurosequential Model of Education. It is also centered
early work anticipated many current principles in on Dr. Montessori’s own original concept of providing
neuroscience. It also examines Dr. Montessori’s unique children with a developmentally sensitive and biologically
use of “sensitive periods” in development for educational respectful education, which includes her utilization of
purposes (in particular, her use of the sensitive periods “sensitive periods” in human development from the
for movement, the social aspects of life, and order, standpoint of education, as expounded in her seminal
respectively, and argues that, in utilizing the sensitive publications listed above.
periods for educational purposes, she was actively
promoting an approach to human development and Results
education that appears to correlate with what Perry calls
a “developmentally sensitive and biologically respectful The analysis identified three major themes: (a)
approach to learning” (ThinkTVPBS, 2020a). The 6 R’s of the NME, (b) How the 6 R’s of the NME

34 Journal of Montessori Research Fall 2022 Vol 8 Iss 2

align with the Montessori Method, and (c) How Dr. student’s need for success, knowing that the pleasure
Montessori utilized sensitive periods in development of learning something new will naturally lead to the
to provide children with an educational approach that desire to learn more (ThinkTVPBS, 2020e).
anticipates what Perry calls a “developmentally sensitive 6) Respectful (of the children, their culture, and
and biologically respectful approach to learning” their immediate and extended families). NME
(ThinkTVPBS, 2020a). We now review each theme. educators are trained to respect the diverse cultural
backgrounds of students and their families and to
The 6 R’s of the Neurosequential Model in Education use these backgrounds as a springboard to learning
The first theme identified from the analysis relates to (ThinkTVPBS, 2020a).
the “6 R’s” of the NME. In an NME classroom, there is an
adherence to 6 R’s. This means that the classes try to be How the 6 R’s of the NME compare with the
the following: Montessori Method
The second theme identified from the analysis of
1) Relational (promoting a sense of kinship and the literature relates to how the 6 R’s of the NME align
safety). NME educators are trained to build quality with the Montessori Method. As stated above, in an
human relationships with their students, especially NME classroom, the 6 R’s mean that the classes need to
with the students who present the most challenges, be relational, rhythmic, repetitive, relevant, rewarding,
because “Positive relational interactions” have and respectful. In this regard, there is much commonality
been shown to promote “healthy development” in between the NME and the Montessori Method.
children (Ludy-Dobson & Perry, 2010, p. 27). For Firstly, an analysis of the literature selected and
children who have been emotionally damaged, Perry scrutinized for the purposes of this study shows that there
and Szalavitz (2017) argue that “The more healthy is a strong commonality between the “relational” aspect
relationships a child has, the more likely he will be of an NME classroom and the “relational” approach
to recover from trauma and thrive. Relationships advocated by Dr. Montessori in her method. As early as
are the agents of change, and the most powerful 1897, when Dr. Montessori began to work with mentally
therapy is human love” (p. 258). Perry emphasizes challenged children, she realized the importance of
“the primacy of human connectedness,” the power positive, relational interactions between teachers and
of “connectedness and belonging” (Perry & children. When describing her work with these children,
Winfrey, 2021, pp. 270, 249), and the importance of she wrote,
community (ThinkTVPBS, 2020c).
2) Rhythmic (resonant with neural patterns). NME When these children from the streets and from the
educators are trained to utilize rhythm in their classes asylum entered my school they were greeted with
(e.g., walking, music and movement sessions, dancing, hearty manifestations of welcome and with genuine
balancing exercises, yoga, drumming sessions, and cordiality. For the first time they were made to feel
group singing), because such activities “would be that they were wanted and desired. (Montessori,
organizing and regulating input that would likely 2008, p. 264)
diminish anxiety, impulsivity” (Perry, 2009, p. 243).
3) Repetitive (having repeating patterns). NME She went on to describe how these children flourished
educators are taught that the brain only changes emotionally, socially, and cognitively, even managing to
through “patterned, repetitive activation” (Perry, pass the Italian State exams, much to the amazement of
2009, p. 244). Educational content, therefore, should the public. Moreover, as early as 1904 in her lectures at
be offered as creatively as possible keeping this core the University of Rome (which later became the main
concept of repetition in mind. content of Dr. Montessori’s 1913 publication Pedagogical
4) Relevant (developmentally matched to the child). Anthropology), Dr. Montessori stated, “What really makes
NME educators are trained to be aware of the varying a teacher is love for the human child” (Montessori, 1913,
developmental levels of their students so they can p. 34). She also recognized the power of love as a force
offer content that is appropriate to the students’ level for human flourishing. She wrote: “This force that we call
of comprehension (ThinkTVPBS, 2020e). love is the greatest energy of the universe” (Montessori,
5) Rewarding (giving pleasure). NME educators are 1967, p. 290). She asks: “Why should it not always be
trained to keep at the forefront of their minds their a subject for study and analysis, so that its power can

The Montessori Method and the Neurosequential Model in Education 35

become beneficent?” (Montessori, 1967, p. 290). She at length on the rhythmic aspect of the curriculum (see
writes: “Every contribution able to bring out the latent Phillips et al., 2022).
power of love, and to throw light upon love itself, should Thirdly, regarding the need for schools to make
be welcomed with avidity and considered of paramount use of repetition in their exercises and activities, Dr.
importance” (Montessori, 1967, p. 290). Montessori, from early on in her work, expressed her
Dr. Montessori also recognized the fundamental observations about the role of repetition in children’s
importance of community and having a sense of development and learning which are similar to ideas later
belonging. In a rare Montessori article based on a lecture emphasized in the NME. For example, in 1907, when
she delivered in Kodaikanal, India, in 1944, she stated, recording her initial observations in the very first Casa
“In English, there is the famous sentimental expression dei Bambini, Dr. Montessori states that “the very first
‘Home! Sweet home!’ For the adult, the idea of home phenomenon that awoke my attention” was the young
rings with similar satisfactory notes. But where is the child’s natural tendency to repeat exercises and activities
child to find an answer to his need? In the ‘House of (Montessori, 1936, p. 126). She describes her incredulity
Children’, we endeavor to give to the child the relief of when observing a young child repeating a cylinder
feeling, for once, ‘at home’” (Montessori, 2013, p. 11). block 42 times. She later observed this phenomenon
In another publication, she repeatedly stated that her in children’s other activities such as hand washing
schools were not houses of children but rather homes for (Montessori, 1936, p. 128). She further observed that
children with all the warmth, love, and sense of belonging following this “repetition of the exercise…the children
that a good home signifies (Montessori, 1967). She made emerged as rested, full of life, with the look of those who
her schools into little communities where children felt have experienced some great joy” (Montessori, 1936, p.
they were useful, welcomed, and loved members of a 127). From this moment on, she encouraged her teachers
social group (Montessori, 2008, p. 264), and they showed to allow children to repeat an exercise as many times as
evidence in their social, emotional, and behavioral growth they wished because she recognized that repetition had
that they were flourishing as human beings (Montessori, psychological significance and seemed to meet an “inner
1964, 1936). These statements by Dr. Montessori (and need” in the child (Montessori, 1936, p. 128).
there are many more) resonate strongly with what Perry Fourthly, Montessori and Perry both argue that
has discovered about the healing power of love and the schools need to be relevant—that is, developmentally
need for schools to be relational. Also, Perry, in agreement matched to the child. Very early on in her work in
with Dr. Montessori, states that “the most powerful the Casa dei Bambini, Dr. Montessori recognized
therapy is human love” (Perry & Szalavitz, 2017, p. 258). the necessity of giving children free choice in their
Secondly, Montessori and Perry express similar selection of activities to ensure that the activities were
views about the need for schools to make use of rhythmic developmentally matched to the child. She wrote: “The
exercises and activities. As far back as 1897, when she children had their special preferences and chose their own
first worked with mentally challenged children, Dr. occupations. To enable them to do so, we later provided
Montessori recognized the importance of rhythmic low, pretty cupboards in which the apparatus was placed
activities to calm the brain. Following and surpassing at the disposition of the children, who could choose what
her predecessor Séguin, she made use of what Perry calls corresponded to their inner needs. Thus, the Principle of
“patterned repetitive rhythmic activities” (Perry, 2009, free choice accompanied that of Repetition of the exercise”
p. 243). These take the form of rhythmic practical life (Montessori, 1936, p. 129).
activities (such as sweeping, scrubbing, dusting, pouring, Fifthly, regarding the need for schools to be
spooning, buttoning), sensorial activities (cylinder rewarding—that is, to give pleasure and a feeling of
blocks), cultural activities (movement to rhythmic success producing good chemical responses in the child,
music), prewriting activities (the rhythmic movements Dr. Montessori and Perry share a commonality. Dr.
involved in the insets for design and “metal insets”), Montessori repeatedly observed that the children, having
mathematical activities (the rhythmic movements engaged in activities of their own choice which allowed
involved in feeling sandpaper numbers and the patterned them the possibility of success, and having been allowed
movements involved in matching cards and counters), to repeat these activities for as long as they wished
and language activities (the rhythmic movements without interruption, became happy and joyful, “their
involved in feeling the shapes of sandpaper letters). Many faces alert and joyous” (Montessori, 1936, p. 153).
early eyewitnesses to Montessori schools commented Sixthly, regarding the need for schools to be

36 Journal of Montessori Research Fall 2022 Vol 8 Iss 2

respectful of the children, their culture, and their them to focus their attention on areas that are vital to
immediate and extended families, Dr. Montessori and their normal development at a specific point in time; (b)
Perry appear to be of the same mind. Regarding the child, temporary phases which wane and ultimately fizzle out
Dr. Montessori wrote: “The child is truly a miraculous when children have been given enough time to master
being, and this should be felt deeply by the educator” the area necessary for their optimal development; and (c)
(Montessori, 1967, p. 121). Very early on in her work windows of opportunity for learning and development
with the children in the first Casa dei Bambini in 1907, because, during each of the sensitive periods, children
Dr. Montessori became aware of the young child’s acute experience an intense and extraordinary interest in the
sense of dignity and need for respect when she noticed area that nature directs them to focus on, which causes
how they were continuously reprimanded by adults for them to repeat an activity until they have mastered it.
having “runny” noses and so decided to give them what Regarding sensitive periods, she wrote:
she thought was a “humorous lesson” on how to blow
one’s nose discreetly. Following the lesson, the children It was the Dutch scientist Hugo de Vries, who
reacted with a burst of applause (Montessori, 1936, p. discovered the existence of sensitive periods in
134). Dr. Montessori stated that “afterwards, through long animal life, but we ourselves, in our schools and
experience, I discovered that children have a profound by observing the life of children in their families,
feeling of personal dignity…. I had indeed touched these were the first to discover the sensitive periods of
poor little children in their social dignity” (Montessori, infancy, and to respond to them from the standpoint
1936, p. 135). Dr. Montessori extended this respect to of education. These periods correspond to special
the children’s immediate and extended families by such sensibilities to be found in creatures in process of
simple things as “chatting” directly with the mothers of development; they are transitory and confined to
these children (something unheard of in her day) and the acquisition of a determined characteristic. Once
instructing her teachers to have weekly meetings with the this characteristic has evolved, the corresponding
mothers so that they could discuss their children together sensibility disappears. (Montessori, 1936, pp.
(Montessori, 1964). 34–35)

How Dr. Montessori utilized “sensitive periods” in Dr. Montessori identified several sensitive periods in
development to provide children with an educational development during the first six years of life (Montessori,
approach that anticipates what Perry calls a 1936). She saw the importance of making use of the
“developmentally sensitive and biologically respectful sensitive periods “from the standpoint of education”
approach to learning” (ThinkTVPBS, 2020a) (Montessori, 1936, p. 34) because she believed that
The third and final theme identified from the analysis children would never again experience a level of
of the literature relates to how Dr. Montessori utilized interest, concentration, or devotion to a specific area
“sensitive periods” to support a developmental approach that they experienced while under the influence of its
that anticipates what Perry calls a “developmentally corresponding sensitive period.
sensitive and biologically respectful approach to learning”
(ThinkTVPBS, 2020a). Dr. Montessori’s concept of a sensitive period for
The concept of sensitive periods in development movement
was first postulated in biology with regard to animal Édouard Séguin (1812–1880), a French physician who
life. However, Dr. Montessori had a deep insight into developed what he called the “Physiological Method”
the existence and importance of sensitive periods in the of education, greatly influenced Dr. Montessori. She
development of the human being. She wrote, “Man’s translated word for word the lengthy French volume of
mind does not spring from nothing; it is built up on the his work (Séguin, 1866). For Séguin, the importance
foundations laid by the child in his sensitive periods” of movement and physiological exercises as a means
and claimed to be the first to discover “the sensitive of reaching the brain was fundamental. In explicating
periods of infancy” (Montessori, 1936, pp. 55, 34). She Séguin’s understanding of the importance of movement
regarded sensitive periods as protective factors designed and muscular education, one of Dr. Montessori’s
by nature to aid the optimal development of the human contemporaries wrote,
being. She defined sensitive periods as (a) critical periods
or blocks of time in children’s lives when nature directs

The Montessori Method and the Neurosequential Model in Education 37

 The brain, the organ of the mind, is a part of the exercises involving small and gross motor movements.
nervous system, and through this system alone can These activities and exercises feature prominently in
the mind of the pupil be reached. And in its turn the practical life, sensorial, and cultural areas of the
the nervous system can be reached only through the Montessori curriculum. They also feature in the language
muscles and senses; so that the education of the child and math areas of the curriculum, especially in activities
must begin with the training and development of his that utilize procedural or muscle memory—that is, a type
muscular and sensorial powers. (Fynne, 1924, p. of memory that involves committing a specific motor task
145) into memory through repetition; for example, children
learn to feel sounds/numerals by repeatedly feeling
Séguin’s views on the importance of movement and sandpaper letters/numbers and so developing a muscle
muscular education were in accord with best twentieth- memory of their shapes. In all these activities, repetition
century thought. For example, in 1904, Professor Herman is paramount, because, as neuroscience now shows
Horne, the American educational philosopher, wrote: us, “interventions that provide patterned, repetitive,
neural input to the brainstem…would be organizing
All appeals to the mind, educational and otherwise, and regulating input that would likely diminish anxiety”
must be made through the agency of the nervous (Perry, 2009, p. 243).
system. The senses on the one hand and the muscles To onlookers who knew of Dr. Montessori’s years of
on the other are the two first gateways through research, the science behind the genius was evident. One
which educational influences must proceed. The witness wrote:
educator who would climb up into the mind by
some other way is unaware of the nature of the child When one visits these schools the life of the children
with whom he has to deal. The training of the senses seems so normal, so natural, and their activities at
and the doing of things well that require delicacy first glance so undirected, that it is easy to overlook
of muscular adjustment are the two beginnings the fact that behind all this, making it possible,
of physical education, and only a sound physical lie years of preparation, of scientific training,
education can support a sound mental education. of extensive experimentation, deep and earnest
(Horne, 1904, pp. 61–62) thought, reverent, unprejudiced observation. Perhaps
no educator has ever approached a pedagogical
This paper argues that Dr. Montessori took Séguin’s experiment through such broad and remarkable
principles a step further when she added to them the training. It is characteristic of Maria Montessori’s
power of the sensitive periods in development which peculiar genius that her gifts as a scientist, a
promote “repetition of the exercise” (Montessori, physician and a psychologist have always been but
1936, p. 126). By utilizing the sensitive periods, with means through which she might help more vitally
their inbuilt compulsion towards repetition, as an the lives of those about her. (George, 1912, p. 28)
aid to the development of the body and the mind,
Dr. Montessori was clearly promoting an educational Another eyewitness, the highly respected American
approach that shares features similar to what Perry calls Kindergarten expert Ellen Yale Stevens, wrote that Dr.
a “developmentally sensitive and biologically respectful Montessori “realises the plasticity of the nervous system
approach to learning” (ThinkTVPBS, 2020a). and the importance of building into its tissues” (Stevens,
From her meticulous observations of young 1912, p. 81). Stevens appears to be using the word
children, Dr. Montessori became convinced that, from plasticity as we would today—to denote the quality of
birth to 6 years, all children experience a “Sensitive being easily shaped and molded. Solange Denervaud, a
Period for Movement” (Montessori, 1936) which is neuroscientist and former Montessori educator, whose
most acute between birth and 5 years. She noticed that work examines the impact of the Montessori pedagogy
during this period, children are intensely interested in on the neural development of the child, emphasizes the
and focused on perfecting their movements; therefore, importance of neuroplasticity in childhood. Denervaud
they repeat certain movements. Following these repetitive reportedly said, “brain plasticity lasts until our death. But
actions, they appear to become calm and “very happy” in reality, we build our foundations during childhood”
(Montessori, 1936, p. 127). To facilitate this sensitive (Galitch, 2021, p. 5). By utilizing the sensitive period for
period, Dr. Montessori designed many activities and movement as an educational aid, Dr. Montessori was, in

38 Journal of Montessori Research Fall 2022 Vol 8 Iss 2

effect, utilizing the brain’s capacity for neuroplasticity to closing the door quietly so as not to disturb others, we
the maximum. are, in effect, ingraining in the child’s procedural memory
the know-how of showing respect and kindness to others.
Dr. Montessori’s concept of a sensitive period for the The implications of this are immense.
social aspects of life It could be argued that we are laying the bedrock for
Édouard Séguin believed that social and emotional preventing bullying in childhood, adolescence, and in the
learning “affection” could be taught just as the refinement workplace in adulthood. It has already been shown that
of the senses was taught: Montessori schools have significantly less “ambiguous
rough play” than non-Montessori schools (Lillard
To develop their sense of affection … as were & Else-Quest, 2006). Moreover, early eyewitnesses
developed their senses of sight, hearing, and others, frequently commented on the lack of bullying in the
does not demand new instruments, or new teachers early Montessori schools (see Phillips et al., 2022). It
but the extension of the same action upon their is arguable that this was a direct result of the emphasis
feelings. To make the child feel that he is loved, and on the Exercises of Grace and Courtesy which took
to make him eager to love in his turn, is the end of place daily in authentic Montessori schools and enabled
our teaching as it has been its beginning. If we have children to embody respect, kindness, and empathy
loved our pupils, they felt it and communicated the towards others.
same feeling to each other; if they have been loved, This approach is very different from that used
they are loving…. For our pupils…. love alone can in many playschools where children are constantly
truly socialize them; those alone who love them are admonished to “share,” “play nice,” etc. Although
their true rescuers. (Séguin, 1866, pp. 244–245) these admonitions are well intentioned, they are often
ineffective. The Montessori Exercises of Grace and
Dr. Montessori took Séguin ’s ideas about social Courtesy differ significantly in that these exercises, being
and emotional learning and built on them. From made into physical actions rather than just admonitions,
her meticulous observations of young children, Dr. become part of the child’s procedural memory. When
Montessori became convinced that all children (from children are exposed daily to patterned, repetitive
approximately 2 to 6 years) experience a “Sensitive Period exercises that embody kindness during this sensitive
for the Social Aspects of Life” (Montessori, 1936, p. 33). period when they are most open to learning empathy,
During this period, children are intensely interested in the physical learning of empathy becomes hardwired
and focused on how we interact with and treat other into the child’s psyche; it is difficult to eradicate because
people. procedural memories are hard to unlearn (Grigsby
This paper postulates that Dr. Montessori was (and & Stevens, 2001). This concept is important because
still is) unique among educators in that she used this research on memory suggests that procedural memory
sensitive period in children’s lives to teach them how to actually forms a person’s character; these behaviors
show qualities like kindness, respect, and empathy by become “who we are” (Grigsby & Stevens, 2001, p. 102).
having children repeatedly act out kindness, respect, Denervaud and colleagues make some important
and empathy. She named these activities the Exercises observations on how school systems shape children’s
of Grace and Courtesy. She also utilized specific knowledge and creative abilities, which may have bearing
collaborative activities, especially ones that involve on the topic under discussion. They write: “Children in a
movement, therefore combining the power of the Montessori pedagogy are immersed in a more enriched
sensitive period for movement with this sensitive period. and diverse school environment. They explore concepts
For example, she encouraged and facilitated collaborative through real life activities and interactions with their
activities such as the carrying of tables, chairs, or large peers” (Denervaud et al., 2022, p. 1). She goes on to state
teaching materials out to the garden or preparing long that: “Children, by perceiving concepts and understand-
tables for communal meals (Montessori, 1936). Similarly, ing more flexibly, may be more open to others” (Dener-
through the Exercises of Grace and Courtesy, children vaud et al., 2022, p. 1). Perhaps we should think of the
embody the qualities of love, respect, kindness, empathy, sensitive period for the social aspects of life as a period
and so on. For example, by teaching children the physical for social and emotional development because that is
action of stepping aside to allow somebody to pass or of essentially what it is.

The Montessori Method and the Neurosequential Model in Education 39

Dr. Montessori’s concept of a sensitive period for of development, birth to 6 years, (Montessori, 1971),
order she constructed her Case dei Bambini (Children’s
The little child’s need for order is one of the most Houses) to cater for it by embedding order onto every
powerful incentives to dominate his early life. aspect of the environment, both indoors and outdoors.
(Montessori, 1967, p. 190) In practice, this means that the physical layout of the
prepared environments for children in this age range
Dr. Montessori was convinced that there was nothing is meticulously orderly. For example, the materials for
“haphazard” about the development of the human mind: each curriculum area (practical life, sensorial, language,
“If the whole universe is governed by fixed laws, is it mathematics, cultural) are laid out in an orderly fashion
possible that the human mind be formed haphazardly, on sets of shelves. Each set is arranged sequentially from
i.e., without any law at all?” (Montessori, 1975, p. 9). the most basic level of difficulty to the most complex.
She argued that “Nature gives small children an intrinsic Each child is shown from the outset how to carry the
sensibility to order” (Montessori, 1936, p. 55) as an materials carefully to a mat or a table to work with them
aid to their efforts to “construct” their own brains. It is and then how to replace them on the correct shelves
arguable that that Dr. Montessori was (and still is) unique when he or she is finished.
among educators in that she recognized and utilized the Many of Dr. Montessori’s contemporaries
power of the sensitive period for order which promotes understood the groundbreaking significance of what
the repetition of orderly exercises and activities to aid she was doing. The assistant editor of the London
children in the optimal construction of their brains, Times Educational Supplement, having had talks with
because in the larger, biologically driven picture, healthy Dr. Montessori over the course of several months in
brain development is needed for the continuation of a 1919 about her method, wrote: “This is not merely a
healthy species. She aided the development of children’s new way of amusing children—it is the beginning of a
sequential memory by designing curricular activities re-organization of the human mind” (Radice, 1920, p.
that involve order and sequencing and by laying out the 11). Order and sequence are to be found everywhere
prepared environment in an orderly way. The following in an authentic Montessori environment. More
paragraphs elaborate on these points. importantly, this practice of sequencing is essential for
Dr. Montessori’s meticulous observations of the development of sequential memory, which is a vital
children convinced her that all children experience a element of healthy brain development and is particularly
“sensitive period for order” (Montessori, 1936, p. 55; necessary for the development of literacy and numeracy
1967, p. 190). This sensitive period begins at birth but skills.
is most noticeable between 2 to 4 years, often because Sequential Memory—What It Is and Why
of the distress its infringement causes to the child. It is it is Impaired in Some Children. Craig (1992)
arguably the most important of the sensitive periods explains the importance of sequential memory, a type
and, regrettably, the least recognized or understood by of memory which can remember visual and auditory
parents and teachers alike. Dr. Montessori was convinced input in sequence, in the learning process: “A child’s
from her observations of young children that, during successful completion of many academic tasks depends
the sensitive period for order, nature programs young on the ability to ‘bring linear order to the chaos of daily
children to focus on patterns, routines, and sequences in experience’” (p. 67). She explains that in the first few
their daily life to help them in their brain construction. years of life, sequential memory is not yet developed, and
Since children construct their brains from what they find the brain records events “much like a series of snapshots
in their immediate environment, it follows that if that that capture the essence of experience but may lack a
environment is chaotic, children’s brain development linear sequence” (p. 67). The cognitive process that crafts
may not be optimal. On the other hand, if children’s these “snapshots” and into a linear sequence is sequential
immediate environments are well ordered and there memory. Sequential memory is clearly not something we
are no other endangering factors (such as genetic are born with. It is something that must be developed.
predispositions to abnormal brain development or other Craig argues that there is a crucial need for stable,
adverse conditions), children stand an excellent chance of predictable, ordered environments and equally stable
having optimal brain development. caregiving for the successful development of sequential
Once Dr. Montessori recognized this sensitive memory: “The transition to sequential semantic
period for order, which only exists during the first plane memory is most easily made in environments marked

40 Journal of Montessori Research Fall 2022 Vol 8 Iss 2

by consistent, predictable routines and familiar, reliable Montessori Method with some of the core principles and
caregivers” (p. 67). She emphasizes that when these recommended activities of the now-acclaimed NME.
conditions are not available, sequential memory does The author is unaware of any other study that does this.
not develop properly: “In the absence of these factors, The paper also examines Dr. Montessori’s unique use
children may continue to encode new information of sensitive periods in development for educational
episodically or not at all” (p. 67). purposes (in particular, her use of the sensitive periods
As we know, many children do not grow up in for movement, the social aspects of life, and the sensitive
stable environments. This is particularly true of children period for order respectively) and argues that, in
brought up in the care system and homes where there utilizing the sensitive periods for educational purposes,
is substance misuse or mental health issues. In these she was actively promoting an approach to human
circumstances, the threats to the development of development that appears to anticipate what Perry calls
sequential memory are serious. Craig (1992) also argues a developmentally sensitive and biologically respectful
that children who grow up in homes where rules can vary model of education.
according to the transient inclination of the caregiver In many countries, there has been a move away from
will have difficulty developing sequential memory: authentic Montessori practices, including the facilitation
“Children raised in households in which rules and of sensitive periods. This, it could be argued, is resulting
routines are subject to the whim of the parent may lack in poorer outcomes for children. Often, this is because
the consistency and predictability required to move easily of national policies relating to early years curricula. For
into a more sequential ordering of the world” (p. 67). This example, many teachers feel they are under growing
impacts both children’s ability to learn and especially their pressure to apply curricula that (a) take no heed of the
struggles to learn within a school environment that relies sensitive periods in development or (b) trample over
on sequential ordering. Craig argues that many children’s the sensitive periods in development—in particular the
difficulties in school relate to their having what she refers sensitive period for order, which is most vulnerable to
to as “a learning style that is unresponsive to school being ignored by teachers and parents alike. Frequently,
environments that rely on sequential ordering” (p. 68). Montessori teachers feel that they have no choice here.
How the Montessori Method Aids the A country’s early years curriculum is often designed
Development of Sequential Memory. The emphasis on by people who have no knowledge of Dr. Montessori’s
order in authentic Montessori schools, which necessarily discoveries, especially in relation to sensitive periods and
involves carrying out activities in a sequence, leads to the the sensitive period for order in particular.
development of sequential memory. For children whose In addition, Montessori teachers often report that
exposure to a chaotic home environment has impeded parents are often suspicious, or even afraid, of classrooms
the building of sequential memory, the Montessori school that look too structured or too tidy. Also, there may be
could be a significant aid to their development. Every a perception among parents that a structured classroom
activity the child engages in—whether it is scrubbing a will not support a play-based curriculum, and so teachers
table, washing a window, or polishing a mirror—involves are nervous of making their classrooms look too tidy
a meticulously planned sequence of steps to enable not or structured. Because of this, many teachers (some
just the completion of the activity but, in the long term, interviewed by the present author) state categorically but
to aid the development of a healthy brain. Therefore, in wistfully that they can no longer prioritize the sensitive
an authentic Montessori school, the disadvantages a child periods, especially the sensitive period for order, when
suffers from exposure to a chaotic home environment laying out their environments.
can be compensated for, daily, by the multitude of If the sensitive periods in development, and in
“sequencing” opportunities made available to the child particular the sensitive period for order, are a vital
through the Montessori materials and exercises. developmental need in children under 6 years, then it
follows that failure to recognize and support sensitive
Discussion periods may be a failure to meet children’s developmental
needs and therefore may be harmful to children. It is
This paper offers a unique contribution to the vital to make teachers and the public aware of the power
field of Montessori research by comparing some of of sensitive periods in development for all children,
the core principles and recommended activities of the especially for those with developmental problems, in a

The Montessori Method and the Neurosequential Model in Education 41

similar way to that by which Perry is making teachers woman: The scientific feminism of Maria Montes-
and the general public aware of the basics of brain sori]. Franco Angeli.
development in children. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in
In conclusion, the findings of this study suggest psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2),
that the NME and the Montessori Method share many 77–101.
commonalities. Specifically, Perry’s findings in relation https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
to the vital importance of positive relational interactions Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Thematic analysis: A
between adults and children to promote healthy human practical guide. SAGE Publications Ltd.
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emphasis on the necessity for the teacher to feel and living with violence. Phi Delta Kappan, 74(1), 67–68,
demonstrate, in daily practice, a genuine love for the 70–71.
human child. The 6 R’s recommended by the NME align Denervaud, S., Christensen, A., Kenett, Y., & Beaty,
with original Montessori principles which emphasize that R. (2022). How school systems shape children’s
the children’s houses were relational, the activities were knowledge and creative abilities.
rhythmic, repetitive, relevant, and rewarding, and every https://npjscilearncommunity.nature.com
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Acknowledgements whose discovery is revolutionizing educational
methods. Good Housekeeping, 55(1), 24–29.
This research was funded by the Irish Research Coun- Grigsby, J., & Stevens, D. W. (2001). Neurodynamics of
cil under Grant Number: IRC GOIPG /2020/1500. personality. The Guilford Publications.
Many thanks to the editor, copy editors, and Horne, H. (1904). The philosophy of education. Macmillan
reviewers who enable the publication of Montessori Press.
research. Itard, J. (1802). An historical account of the discovery and
A special thanks to Stephen Phillips for his assistance education of a savage man. Richard Phillips.
with technical issues. Kramer, R. (1976). Maria Montessori: A biography. Basil
Blackwell.
Author Information Lillard, A., & Else-Quest, N. (2006). Evaluating
Montessori education. Science, 313(5795), 1893–
Bernadette Phillips is a PhD candidate at Maynooth 1894. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1132362
University, Ireland. She can be reached at Ludy-Dobson, C. R., & Perry, B. D. (2010). The role of
bernadettemmphillips@gmail.com. healthy relational interactions in buffering the impact
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9582-6678 of childhood trauma. In E. Gil (Ed.), Working with
children to heal interpersonal trauma: The power of play.
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