a DTIC. © NWC TP 6575 « AD-A247 666 AGA A Parachute Recovery Systems Design Manual by TheoW. Knacke Contractor for the Recovery Systems Division ‘Aerosyateme Department MARCH 1991 NAVAL WEAPONS CENTER CHINA LAKE, CA 935: )01 a ‘Approved for public release; dittibution ‘sunimited U.S. Navy Edition ‘This manual maybe dates e@ ‘only fo U8. Goverment persona DEFENSE TECHNICA. IrQRMAT LON CENTER gz x 048 WOM 287158INTIAL DISTRIBUTION 9 Naval Air systeas Command aineoy a} ‘AtR-05_ (1 ‘AIR-OSTA (1) AIR-42 (2) AIR-u2A (1) ‘atR-421 (Q) ‘AIR+5008 (2) Pu-2u8 (1) Chief of Naval Operations ‘oP-9413 (1) oP-984C (1) 0P-953F (1) 0F-983C (1) Naval Sea Systems Command PMS-422-2 (1) Technical Library (2) 1 Naval Telecommunications Command (Code 124) C. 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Sharp (1) Yuna Proving Ground (STEYP-MIS, Frnch) Ast SOcoM, Fort Bragg (AFVS-Cch) XVIII Airbome Corpes Fort Bragg AP2A-DPT-DI (4) (Natdck Ln0) (2) USAP/NoKeh, Ey Edwards (1) ade Force Syitosa Command, Andrews Aix Force Base farse/co,'F. anrenburs’ (1), ASCISOR, Capes Ry saith (1) ‘Sise/Eme, He Eiare (3) Syntene Commins, Space Division, Los Angeles (S0/DC, Maj. wurphy) sition Logistics center, Pope Ale Force Bato. (USAPALCOE/TE) fafonauticas syetens Division, Belin Ale Force Base, (ASD/TBES, Capt. Rouse ASeettng Laoratoriae,selshtfattceon Air force bas (A/GPA, 8: Malle) Gryprotogte Support Calter, "Relly Air Force Base ‘AVCSCVEPED, Le. Santece’ (1) APesc/Eres, Lt: Evernham (2) Sreseneds, "ps iewitt Ch) 1 air Force Fispie Tost Canter, Efvarde Air Force Bate (AFFIC/DNC, ¢. Weléreth) 1 ALE Sesee Intelligence Agency, Bolling Air Force Base (AFIA/INTAK, Maj. He Eeau) 2 his Force Military Aisiite Coahoe Opetatione: Staffy Sestt Ale Force Base (WAC/IN2, er hatne 1 Air Fores Munitions Systeas Division, Eglin Air Force Base (§4S0/D00, J. Fagen) 4 Air Force Special Missions Operational Test and Evaluatien Center, furibert Field (shoTec/Pw, SHSge. Folek)Parachute Recovery Systems Design Manual T.W. Knacke Para Publishing, Santa Barbara, CaliforniaParachute Recovery Systems Design Manual by Theo W. Knacke Published by == va = Para Publishing Post Office Box 4232 Santa Barbara, CA 93140-4232, USA Published by permission of the U.S. Navy (NWC TP 6575) at the Naval Weapons Center, China Lake, CA 93555-6001. Right to publish granted to Para Publishing by the U.S. Navy. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system without written permission from the author, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review. Design copyright © 1992 by Para Publishing First edition 1992 Library of Congress Cataloging-In-Publication Data Knacke, T. W. Parachute Recovery Systems Design Manual / by Theo W. Knacke. -- Ist ed. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Parachutes--Handbooks, Manuals, etc. I Title ISBN 0-915516-85-3: $49.95 ‘TL752.K53 1992 629,134'386--de20 91-43883 CIP Printed in the United States of AmericaNWe TP 6575 CONTENTS Chapter 1 Introduction : M Chapter2 Parachute Recovery System Definitions and Description 24 2.1 Parachute Recovery System Definition 24 2.2 Parachute Recovery System Applications 23 213 Parachute Recovery System Boundaries 24 2.4 Parachute Recovery System Design Criteria : 25 2.5 Reference Material 28 25.1 U.S Air Force Reports 28 252 AIAA Papers 29 253 SAFE Symposia 29 25.4 University of Minnesota Extension Courses 210 25.5 Miscellaneous References 240 Chapter3_ Units of Measurement, Technical Tables, and Symbols 34 3.1 Units of Measurement 31 B11 Basic Units . : a4 312 Derived Units 3 3.1.3 Engineering Units of Measurement 32 3.2. Conversion Tables 4 3.3. Technical Tables a4 @ 33.1 Earth's Atmosphere 34 33.2 Dynainie Pressure 34 3.4. List of Symbols 3:16 3.5. Reference Material 320 Chapter 4 Aerodynamics as Related to Parachutes 41 4.1 Properties of the Atmosphere a 411 Specific Weight of Air 41 41.2 Static Pressure be AB 41.3 Temperature ve 42 4.1.4 Mass Density of Air 42 415 Gravity 42 41.6 Kinematic Viscosity 43 4.1.7 Reynolds Number : 44 41.8 Mach Number 44 4.2. Continuity Law and Bernoulli Equation : 45 421° Continuity Law 45 422 Bernoulli Equation ..... 46 4.3. Newton's Three Laws of Motion 47 4.4 Forces Acting on a Body Moving Through Air 49 44.1 Symmetrical Body 49 442 Airflow Around an Asymmetrical Body ‘ Airfoil) 410 4.5. Equilibrium of Forces in Steady Descent ur Flight 414 45.1 Parachute in Steady Descent ais 45.2 Gliding Parachutes 417 e@ 45.3. Parasite Dragand Induced Drag 418 4.5.4 Aircraft in Horizontal Flight 4:2046 an Chapter 5 Parachute Charaeteris 5.1 52 53 54 85 56 87 58 59 NWC TP 6575 Wind-Tunnel Testing of Parechutes 46.1 Blowers 462 Open-Throat, No-Return Wind Tunnels 46.3 Closed-Throat, Full-Return Wind Tunnel 46.4 General Comments for Wind-Tunnel Testing of Parachutes Reference Material jes and Performance Parachute Decelerator Types Parachute Drag and Wake Effects 5.2.1 Canopy Shape and Suspension Line Length Eifeets 5.22 Forebody Wake Effect 5.2.3 Measured Drag Coefficients of Various Types of Parachutes 5.2.4 Effect of Reynolds Number on Parachutes Stability of Parachute Systems 5.3.1 General Definition 5.3.2 Parachute Stability 5.3.3 Stability of e Parachute Body System Parachute Inflation Process 5.4.1 Opening Force Investigations 5.4.2 Parachute Canopy Inflation 5.4.3 Canopy Inflation Time 5.4.4 Parachute Drag-Ares Increase During Canopy Filling Process 5.45 Effect of Canopy Loading, W/(CpSip, on Parachute Opening Forces, 5.4.6 Methods for Calculating Parachute Opening Forces 547 | Typical Parachute Opening Foree and Opening-Time Diagrams Altitude and Canopy-Porosity Effects 5.5.1 Altitude Effects 5.5.2 Porosity Effects Parachute Reefing 5.6.1 General Description and Application 56 Skirt Reefing 563 Skirt Reefing with Control Line 5.64 Vent Reefing 565 Slider Reefing 5.6.6 Continuous Disreefing 5.6.7 Drag-Area (Reefing) Ratio Versus Reefing-Line-Length R 5.6.8 Forces in Reefing Lines 5.6.9 Fixed Pocketband Reefing 56.10 Reefing of Small-Diameter Parachutes ‘Canopy Shape and Canopy Pressure Distribution 5.71 Parachute Canopy Shape 57.2 Pressure Distribution in Parachute Canopies Supersonic Inflatable Decelerators 5.81 Characteristics of Supersonic Flow 5.8.2 Supersonic Parachutes 5.8.3 Balloon-Type Inflatable Decelerators 5.8.4 Miscellaneous Decelerators Maneuverable (Gliding) Parachutes 59.1 Parachute Types 4.20 4.21 4.21 4-22 4.22 4-23 5-1 5-1 5-14 5.16 5-21 5:24 5:29 5:30 5:30 5.32 5-38 5.38 5-38 5-41 5-42 5-45 5.49 5-53 5-62 5-67 5.67 5-71 5-74 5.74 5-75 8-77 5-78 5-79 5-79 5-80 5-84 5-87 5.91 5-91 5-91 5-93 5.97 5-97 5-98 5.106 5-109 5-110 5-10NWC TP 6575 5.93 Opening Forces of Hi-Glide Parachutes 5-120 5.10 Clustering of Parachutes 5-121 5.10.1 General 5-121 5.10.2 Loss of Drag in Cluster Applications 5-122 5.10.3 Operational Cluster Experience 5-124 5.11 Frequently Used Formulas in Parachute Design 5-128 5.12 Reference Material 5131 Chapter 6 Design of Parachute Assembly and Components, 61 6.1 Parachute Deployment and Installation 61 6.11 Parachute Deployment. i 61 612 Uncontrolled Deployment 63 613 Semicontrolled Deployment 63 6.1.4 Static Line Deployment 64 615 Controlled Deployment 65 616 Canopy-First Deployment 66 617 Drogue Gun Deployment 66 618 Parachute Mortar Deployment 68 6.1.9 Deployment by Rocket Extraction 6-10 6.1.10 Cross-Wind Deployment 6-10 6.1.11 Parachute Assembly Installation et 62 Parachute Design 13 62.1 Parachute Assembly Configuration 613 622 Parachute and Component Defiaition 614 e 623 Designof Solid Material Parachutes 617 624 Designof Slotted Parachutes 6-28 6.3. Design of Parachute Assemblies and Components 638 63.1 Parachute Clusters 638 63.1.1 Cluster Configurations 6-38 6.3.1.2 Effective Suspension-Line Riser Length 6-40 6.3.1.3 Pormanently Attached Pilot Chutes 6-40 6.3.1.4 Canopy Ties ron 6.3.15 Canopy Vent Si 6-41 6.3.1.6 Cluster Parachute Deployment Bags 641 6.9.1.7 Cluster Parechute Literature 641 63.2 Pocket Bands 642 633 Pilot Chutes 6-43 63.4 Anti-Inversion Net 6-46 63.5 Parachute Deployment Concepts 6-47 6.3.5.1 Parachute Deployment Bags 6-48 6.3.52 Banana-Pee! Bag 6-50 6.3.5.3 Deployment Sleeve 651 6.3.5.4 Sacrifice Panel 652 63.5.5 Skirt Hesitator and Quarter Deployment Bag 652 6.3.5.6 General Coinments on Deployment 6.54 64 Parachute Stress Analysis 654 64.1 Stress Analysis uf Parachute Textile Components 654 64.2 Load and Design Factors 6-5565 66 67 68 NWC TP 6575 64.3 Preliminary Stress-Anulysis Method for Solid-Material Canopies 6.44 Stressing of Horizontal Ribbons in Ribbon Parachutes 645 Stress Relief in the Canopy Crown Area 646 _Dimensioning of Suspension Lines, Risers, and Canopy Vent and Skirt Tapes Reefing System Design 65.1 General 652 Reefing System Installation 65.3. Reefing System Components 653.1 Reefing Rings 65.32 Reefing Line Cutters 6.5.4 Special Reefing Concepts 65.4.1 Continuous Disreefing 65.42 Fixed Reefing by Pocket Bands 65.43 Overinflation-Control Line (OC Line) Designing and Fabricating in Textiles 661 Textile Materials 66.11 Natural Fibers 6.6.1.2 Man-Made Fibers 662 Spinning and Weaving of Textiles 662.1 Spinning 6622 Fabric Weaving 66.3 Parachute Fabric Specifications 66.3.1 Parachute Cloth 6632 Thread 66.33 Parachute Suspension Lines 66.3.4 Webbing and Tape 6.6.35 Related Specifications 6.64 Designing in Textiles 66.4.1 Measuring Textiles 66.42 Changes in Fabric Dimensions Caused by Sewing 66.43 Finished Versus Pattern Dimensions 6.6.44 Fullness 66.4.5 Tolerances 665 Designing in Kevlar 66.5.1 General Information 6.6.5.2 Kevlar Material 66.5.3 Kevlar Material Specifications 66.5.4 Design and Fabrication Parachute Recovery System Weight and Volume 67.1 Importance of Minimum Weight and Volume 672 The Preliminary Design Method 6.7.3 ‘The Drawing Method for Determination of Parachute Weight 67.4 The TWK Weight Determination Method 67.5 Pressure Packing of Parachute Assemblies 67.6 Investigation of Pressure Packing Landing Impact Attenuation Systems 68.1 Landing Analysis 682 Relationship of Deceleration Stroke, Rate of Descent, and Allowable Impact Deceleration 683 Selection and Description of impact Decelerators. 68.3.1 General 6.58 6-59 6-61 6-61 6-61 6-61 6-62 6-67 6-67 6-69 6-72 6.72 6-73 614 674 6-74 6-75 6-75 6-78 6-78 6-80 6-82 6-82 6-83 6-83 6-83 6-84 6.84 6-84 6.85 6-85 6-86 6-87 6-88 6-88 6-89 691 6-92 6-93 6-93 6.94 6-98 6.98 6-99 6-101 6-101 6-101 6-103 6-105 6-105NWC TP 6575 e 6.522 crushable pac Attenuators 68.3.3 Air Bags 6.8.3.4 Retrorocket Landing Attenuation System 6.8.3.5 Skirt Jet Retrorocket System 6.8.3.6 Special Impact Attenuators 69. Reference Material Chapter? Design of Parachute Recovery and Landing System 7.1 Requirements u TAA System Requirensents. 7 7.1.2 Requirements for Normal Operation 7 7.13 Requirements for Emergency Operation 2 714 Requirements Analysis, 72 7.2 Landing Analysis and Impact-Attenuation System 2 721 Landing Analysis 7 7.22 _ Impact Attenuator System 7 7.3. Main Parachute System 76 7.3.1 Main Parachute System Requirements 76 732 Parachute Assembly Selection 76 733° Perachute Diameter 14 734 Parachute Deployment System 78 735 Extraction Parachute Assembly 710 736 Pilot Parachute Assembly 712 737 Main Parachute Forces 715 7.3.7.1 Requirements 715 7.3.1.3 Force Calculation Methods 715 7.3.7.4 Reefed Opening Forces 716 7.3.1.5 Main Parachute Disreef Opening Forces 718 7.3.7.6 Comments on Calculated Opening Forces 721 73.77 Snateh Forces 723 738 Parachute Stress Analysis 724 7.3.8.1 Parachute Design Data : 724 7.24 73.83 Main Parachute Safety and Design Factors 724 7.3.8.4 Suspension-Line Selection and Strength 7:25 73.8.5 Canopy Stress 7.26 7.3.8.6 Canopy Reinforcing Tapes 12 7.3.8.7 Design of Radials 7:28 7.3.8.8 Check for Proper Gore Fullness 7.29 739 Canopy Gore Shape 723 73.8.1 Vent Arca 7.30 73.92 Vent Diameter 731 73.10 Pocket Bands 7:32 73.1 Parachute Reefing 7:33 73.111 Length of Parachute Reefing Line 7.33 73.11 2 Strength ofthe Reefing Line 7.34 74 High-Speed Drogue Chute Assembly 734 TAL Requirements 734 742 Drogue Chute Selection 136 e 7.4.3 Required Drogue Chute Diameter 7:36 744 Computer Analysis of Drogue Chute Performance 7.38NWC TP 6575 Flight Emergency Recovery Conditions Drogue Chute Opening Forces 7.4.6 | Drogue Chute Reefed Opening Forces 7.4.62 Drogue Chute Disreef Opening Force 747 Drogue Chute Stress Analysis and Design 7.4.71 Drogue Chute Safety, Load, Loss, and Design Factors 74.7.2 Number of Gores and Suspension-Line Strength 7.4.7.3 Design of Radiais, Vent und Skirt Tape, and Vent Lines 74.7.4 Drogue Chute Riser Design 748 Aerodynamic Design of Ribbon Parachute Canopies 7.48.1 Canopy Porosity 7.4.82 Vertical Ribbon Spacing 7.4.83 Drogue Chute Summary 7.4.9 Canopy Gore Design and Porosity Check 7.49.1 Canopy Gore Calculation 7.49.2 Preliminary Gore-Porosity Check 7.4.9.3 Recheck of Gore Dimensions with Vertical Ribbon Spacing, b, Equal to 11 Inches 7.4.9.4 Gore-Porosity Recheck 7.4.9.5 General Comments on Gore Design and Porosity Selee:ion 7.4.9.6 Computer Programs for Determining Gore Design and Porosity Calculation 7.4.10 Ribbon Parachute Canopies with Continuous Horizontal Ribbons 7.4.11 Use of Kevlar Fabries Chapter 8 Parachute Recovery System Applications 81 82 83 84 85 ‘Applications Analysis Air and Space Vehicle Recovery 8.21 AQM-127A Supersonic Low-Altitude Target (SLAT) 822 CL 289 Reconnaissance Drone 8253 Midair Retrieval of the USAF AGM-86B Air Launched Cruise Missile 824 Midair Retrieval System for the Navy AGM-109 Cruise Missile 825 Space Shuttle Solid Booster Rocket Parachute Recovery Aircrew Emergency Escape Parachute Systems 83.1 Escape System Concepts 832 Military Personnel Emergency Parachute Types, 833 Navy Aircrew Common Ejection Seat (NACES) 83.4 Aircrew Cliding Escape System (AGES) 83.5 Space Shuttle Crew Escape System 836 F-111 Crew Pscape Module Parachute Recovery System Airdrop of Cargo and Personnel 8.4.1 Scope of Airdrop Operations 842 Airdrop Aircraft and Procedures 3 Cargo Airdrop coves 4 Containers Used in Military Airdrop Operations 5 Airdrop Parachute Assemblies 6 Parachute Retrorocket Airdrop System 7 8 8 rc Cargo Point Delivery With Maneuverable Parachutes ropof Military Personnel Multiple Personnel Drop raft In. ight and Landing Deceleration by Parachute 1 General Application 2 Landing Deceleration Parachutes 85.2.1 Landing Roll Analysis. 85.2 2 Landing Deceleration Parachute Design 85.23 Aircraft Installation 288 Beene eee eweeee 886 87 NWC TP 6575, 85.3 Landing Approach Parachutes 85.4 Aircraft Spin and Deep Stall Recovery Parachutes 85.4.1 Aircraft Spin Characteristics 85.4.2 Aircraft Deep Stall Characteristics ions 8.5.4.4 Aircraft installation and Deployment Ordnance Stabilization and Retardation by Inflatable Decelerators 8.6.1 Scopeof Application ... 86.2 Stabilization and Retardation of Bombs, Mines, and Torpedoes 6.3 Bomb Retardation 863 . 8.6.4 Retardationof Aerial Mines S86 Siailiation and Retardation of Aer i Torpedoes 867 86.8 Retardation of EC Jammers 86.9 Shell Recovery 8.6.10 Submunition Retardation by Parachute .. 8.6.11 Radar Re‘lecting Target Parachutes Premeditated Parachute Jumping. 8.7.1 Scope of Application 872 Military Test Jumpe 873 Paratroopers 87-4 Smoke Jumper Parachuting 87.5 Sport Parachuting 8.8 Reference Material FIGURES, Chapter 2 21 System Integration and Components of a Purachute Recovery System 2-2 Schematic and Nomenclature of « Typical Ejection Seat Pat 23 Parachute Applications 2-4 — Parachute Performance Envelopes 2-5 Aerodynamic Decelerator Performance Range (1990) . 26 Parachute Design Criteria Chapter 3 3.1 Density Ratio, Temperature, and Speed of Sound Versus Altitude (Reference 3.4) 32 Dynamic Pressure Versus Aititude, Mach Number, and True Airspeed Chapter 4 ‘4:1 Typical Streamline 4-2 Pressure and Velocity Distribution in a Streamline Element 43° Rocket Principle 44 Stable Parachute in « Wind Tunnel 4-5 Airflow Around a Streamlined Body and an Open Ilemisphere 4-6 Wind-Tunnel Forces Acting on an Airfoil 4-7 Aerodynamic Forces Acting on an Airfoil 48 Forces Acting on a Parachute 49° Coefficients Cy, Cr, and Cy Versus Angle of Attack, a, for a Stable and Unstable Parachute 4:10 Effectof Airflow Around a Cylinder and an Airfoil 8-55 8.55 8-55 8.56 8.56 8.57 8-60 8.60 8.60 8.62 8-65 8.67 8.68 8-69 8-70 a7 871 8-73 878 874 8.74 8-78 8-80 8-854 412 413 41d 415 416 Chapter 5 Bl 52 53 54 BS 56 57 5-8 59 5-10 SL 512 513 514 515 5:16 517 5:18 SWC TP 6575, Forces Acting on a Parachute in Steady Descent Forces Acting on a Gliding Parachute Forces and Moments Acting on an Aircraft in Steady Flight, ‘Typical Air Blower Open-Throat, No-Return Wind Tunnel Closed-Throat, Full-Return Wind Tunnel ‘Twenty -Eight-Foot-Diameter Circular, Flat Personnel Parachute ‘Two-Hundred-Foot-Diameter Circular, Flat Cargo Parachute Army Paratrooper 35-Foot-Diameter Extended-Skirt Parachute ‘Twenty-Four-Foot Diameter Hemispherical Parachute Guide Surface Parachute Seventy-Two-Foot: Diameter Annular Parachute With 24-Foot- Diameter Engagement Parachute in Midair Retrieval Configuration Cross Parachute in Wind-Tunnel Test. ‘Thirty-Two-Foot-Diameter Ribbon, Landing Deceleration Parachute Ringslot Parachute Sixty-Four-Foot- Diameter Mercury Ringsail Main Parachute Rotofoil Parachute Vortex Ring Parachute (Only Two of Four Adjacent Gores Are Shown) ‘Thirty-Five-Foot-Diameter T-10 (MC1-1B) Paratrooper Parachute, Modified With Slots and Control Lines for Glide and Controllability Hi-Glide (Maneuverable) Parachutes : Ballute (Balloon-Type Decelerator) Variation of Drag Coefficient With Cone Angi for Solid Fabric Parachutes wove Variation of Drag Coefficient With Cone Angl. for 28-Foot-Diameter Solid-Textile Parachutes Drag Coefficient Versus Rate of Descent for Two Stable and Two Unstable | Parachutes Drag Coefficients, Cp, and Cp, ; Canopy Area Ratio, Sp/S,; and Diameter Ratio, Dp/Da; a8 & Function of Suspension-Line Ratio, L~/Do, for a One-Meter-Diameter Model Parachute Variation of Drag Coefficient With Suspension-Line Ratio for Several Parachute Types... vite Parachute Drag Loss Caused by Forebody Woke Drag Les ofthe Apllo16.5-Foo Diameter, Ribbon Drogue ‘Chute Caused by Different Forebodies Determination of Effective Forebody Diameter Drag Coefficient Versus Rate of Descent for Various Types of Solid Textile Parachutes Drag Coefficient Versus Rate of Descent for Various Extended-Skirt Parachutes Effect of Suspension-Line Ratio on an 1.8-Foot-Diameter Extended-Skirt Parachute Drag Coefficient Versus Rate of Descent for Various Cross Parachutes Drag Coefficient Versus Rate of Descent or Various Annular Parachutes Effect of Reynolds Number on Drag Coefficient for a Sphere and Various Parachutes Mlustration of Statie Stability Graphical Illustration of Dynamic Stability Relationship of Airflow and Stability for Various Parachutes 5-17 5-18 lg 5-20 5-22 5.23 5-24 5:25 5-26 5.27 5-28 5-28 5-30 5:31 5:32 5-33NWC TP 6575 Moment Coefficients Versus Angle of Attack for Guide Surface; Ribbon. and Flat, Circular Parachutes, and for Porous and Nonporous Hemispheres Various Configurations of Parachute Vehicle Attachments Angle and Force Relationships for a Deceleration System Moving in Space Parachute Canopy Inflation Process Filling Distance of a Parachute Canopy ‘Typical Drag-Area-Versus-Time Increase for Various Parachute Types ‘Typical Drag-Arca. Versus-Time Increase for Reefed Parachutes Drag-Area Ratio Versus Dimensiontess Filling Time Drag-Area-Versus-Time Diagram for the Mereury Space Capsule Drag-Area-Versus-Time Diagram for a Reefed 101-Foot- Diameter Triconical Parachute Parachute Force Versus Time for a Wind-Tunnel Test (Infinite Mass Condition) Force Versus Time for a Personnel Parachute Drop (Finite Mass Condition} 15.6-Foot-Diameter Ringslot B-47 Approach Parachute Opening Forces Opening Process and Opening Force Versus Time for a Guide Surface Personnel Parachute Tested at the El Centro Whirl Tower at 250 Knots, ‘With a 200-Pound Torso Dummy Rate of Descent Versus Canopy Loading and Parachute Applications Opening-Force-Reduction Factor Versus Canopy Loading Apollo Ribbon Drogue Chute Force Fluctuation Caused by Forebody ‘Wake (Inflated Parachute Diameter, Dp, is 10.7 feet) Opening-Force Factor Versus Mass Ratio Opening-Force Reduction Feetor, Xi, Versus Ballistic Parameter, A Drag. Area Profile for Parachute Inflation Sequence Opening Forees of Various Personnel Parachutes Snatch Force and Opening Force ofthe Air Force 28-Foot Diameter Personnel Parachute, With and Without Quarter Deployment Bag Ope-sing Time Comparison of Three Configurations of the 28-Foot- Diameter Personnel Parachute. Standard, Standard With Pull-Down Vent Line, and Standard With Spreader Gun Apollo Command Module, Block I, Reefed and Disreefed Opening Forces for a Single 88-Foot-Diameter Ringsail Parachute ‘Apollo Command Module Single Drogue Chute and Main Parachute Test Envelope Nomenclature for Parachute Inflation Sequence Opening Forces of Various Personnel Parachutes Tested at Altitudes from 7000 to 40,000 Feet at a Terminal Velocity of 102 KEAS Parachute Opening Forces as a Function of Altitude for Various Types of Parachutes 15.6-Foot- Diameter Ringslot B-47 Approach Parachute Opening Forces ‘as a Funetion of Altitude Effect of Canopy Porosity on Drag Coefficient for Various Parachutes Drag Coefficient and Oscillation as a Function of Total Porosity for 3.8-Foot Diameter Flat and Conical Ribbon Parachutes as Measured in Wind Tunnel Tests Opening-Force Coefficient asa Function of Total Porosity Opening-Force Coefficient asa Function of Cloth Permeability for Cross Parachutes as Measured by the Naval Surface Warfare Center Parachute Skirt Reefing Parachute Skirt Reefing With Control Line8-73 5-14 5-75 5-76 5.17 5-78 5.79 5:80 5-81 5:82 5-83 5-84 5-85 591 NWC TP 6575 Parachute Vent Reefing we Total Parachute Force, Suspension-Line Foree, and Vent-Line Farce. ‘as Functions of Vent-Line Retraction Slider Reefing Reefing Ratio Versus Reefing-Line Ratio for Various Parachutes Reefing Ratio Versus Reefing-Line Ratio for Circular Flat, Conical, Triconical, and Extended-Skirt Parachutes Reefing Ratio Versus Reefing-Line Ratio for 13.4.Foot: Parachute Tested in Aircraft Tow Test Force Relationship in ¢ Reefed Parachute Reefed Canopy Profiles for Two Parachute Canopies of 0% and 20% Porosity Ratio of Reefing-Line Force to Maximum Reefed Parachute Force Versus Reefing-Line Ratio Definition of Inflated Canopy Dimensions Canopy-Skirt Diameter as a Function of the Number of Gores for a Ribbon Parachute With Dp = 0.67 D, Canopy Cross Section of Two Ribbon Parachutes Side Profiles of Ribbon Parachute Canopies With Porosities From 15 to 30% Side Profiles of « Ribbon Parachute With Constant Canopy Porosity and Suspension-Line Ratios of 1.0, 1.5. and 2.0 Airflow and Pressure Distribution Around a Parachute Canopy External Pressure Coefficient Versus Mach Number for a Ribbon-Type Metal Hemisphere... : Inside, Outside, and Total Pressure Distribution Versus Mach Number for a Ribbon-Type Metal Hemisphere, Measured in Wind-Tunnel Tests Pressure Distribution of a Ribbon Parachute at Various Times After Canopy Deployment : Supersonic Flow Around a Bullet-Type Body Drag Coefficient, Cp, Versus Mach Number for an Ejectable Aircraft Nose Section Supersonic Flow Field Around a Parachute Canopy Supersonic Flow Arounda Vehicle-Parachute System Configurations of Three Supersonic Ribbon Parachutes Drag Coefficient of Several Ribbon Parachutes as Function of Mach Number (1962 Data) Demonstrated Mach Number/Altitude Range of Conical Ribbon Parachutes Drag Coefficient Versus Mach Number for Conical Ribbon Parachutes Demonstrated Altitude Versus Mach: Number Range of Hemisflo Ribbon Parachutes Drag Coefficient Versus Mach Number for Hemisflo Ribbon Parachute Drag Coefficient Versus Mach Number for Conical Ribbon and Hemisflo Parachutes (Recommended for Computerized Analysis of These Parachutes) Ballute-Type Inflatable Decelerator .... Drag Coefficient, Cp,, Versus Mach Number for Goodyear Ballute Force-Versus-Time Comparison Between a5 5-Foot-Diameter Parasonic Parachute and a 3-Foot-Diameter Ballute Tested at Mach 2.6 ameter Conical Ribbon Drag Coefficient, Cy, as Function of Mach Number for Various ‘Aerodynamic Decelerators Various Types of Decelerators MC1-1B Parachute, the Maneuverable Version of the T-10 Paratrooper Parachute 5-78 5-78 5.79 581 5-82 5-83 5-85 5-86 5.86 5:90 5:90 5.92 5-93 5-93 5:94 5.955-103 5-108 5-105 5-108 5-107 5-108 5-109 5-110 SL Siz Chapter 6 61 62 6-24 6-25 6-26 6.27 6-28 6.29 6-30 6.31 6.32 6-33 NWC TP 6575 ‘The Pioneer Paracommander Flying With a Gemini Spacecraft Model Three Types of Advanced Maneuverable Parachutes Forces Acting on a Ballistic and on a Maneuverable, Lifting Parachute CUCp Diagram and Glide Ratio L/D for Various Hi-Glide Parachutes and # Rigid Wing Parachute (Drag of Suspension Lines, Riser, and a Hypothetical Air Vehicle are Included) Flight Performance of Mancuverable Parachute-Vehicle Systems Increase in Vertical Velocity With Bank Angle ‘Typical Parachute Cluster Arrangement Drag Loss in Parachute Clusters Uniform Opening of a Cluster of Two 78-Foot: Diameter Extended-Skirt, Parachutes Y-Factor as Function of Drag Coefficient, Cp,, and Velocity Uncontrolled Deployment Pilot Chute Deployment Parachute Statie-Line Deployment Controlled Parachute Deployment Concept Canopy-First Deployment Method Used on the Landing: Deceleration Parachute of the B-47 Bomber Drogue Gun Deployment Mortar Arrangementoof the Apollo Command Module Mortar Assembly of the Apollo Drogue Chutes ‘Two Typical Rocket-Extraction Methods Cross-Wind Deployment Bag Ejection Methods ‘Typical Parachute Recovery System Components of a Parachute ‘Typical Design ofa Flat Circular Canopy Gore Design of Bias and Block Construction Cireular Flat and Circular Conical Canopy Designs Design of Extended Skirt Parachutes ‘Typical Triconical Canopy Design Compared to Quarter-Spherical Shape - ‘Typical Design of a Cross Parachute ‘Typical Design of Airfoil (Annular! Parachute Ribbed Guide Surface Parachute Design Ribless Guide Surface Parachute Design Typical Gore Design of a Flat or Conical Ribbon Parachute Recommended Total Canopy Porosity, Ar, for Ribbon Parachutes as a Function of Parachute Diameter and Application (see Table 6-3, for Applications) Change in Effective Porosity, Ae, asa Function of Canopy Loading, ‘WACpS)p and Vertical Ribbon Spacing, a ‘Typical Design of a Hemisflo Parachute ‘Typical Design of Ringslot Parachute Total Canopy Porosity, \r. Recommended for Ringslot Parachutes Typical Design of Ringsail Parachute ‘Typical Parachute Cluster Arrangements Pocket Band Design MA-1 Pilot Chute in Vertical Wind Tunnel Tests Box-Type Pilot Chute Canopy Gore With Anti-Inversion Net (Only One Gore Shown) S113 Sed 5-117 5-118 5-119 5-120 5-123, 5-124 5-12€ 5-130 6:30 6-32 6-34 6-356:34 6.35 6-36 6.37 6-38 6-39 640 6-41 6-42 6-43 6-44 645 6-46 6-47 6-48 6-49 6-50 651 6-52 6-53 671 6-72 6-73 6-74 6-75 6-76 6-77 6-78 6-79 6-80 6-81 6-82 NWC TP 6575 ‘Typical Deployment-Bag Details ‘Typical Shear-Knife Design Banana-Peel Bag Design ‘Typical Deployment Sleeve Sacrifice-Panel Design Skirt Hesitator Deploy:nent Bag Showing Suspension Lines in Stow Loops Boundary Curves for Horizontal Ribbon Strength Typical Skirt Reefing Installation Reefing Cutter Installation Three Methods of Reefing Cutter Installation Cutter Installation for Two-Step Reefing, Standard Circular Reefing Rings Dual Reefing Ring (Northrop Ventura Dwg. DR 8127) Typical Commercially Available Reefing-Line Cutter U.S, Army M21 Reefing Cutter ‘Sandia MC 3133 Reefing-Line-Cutter Installation Diagram of Fixed Reefing by Pocket Bands Tenacity in Grams Per Denier for Various Industrial Yarns Loss of Tenacity in Nylon Caused by Exposure to Temperature Melt-Spinning Process Examples of Z Twists and STwists in Filaments and Yarns ‘Typical Weave Patterns for Parachute Fat Changes in Fabric Length Caused by Sewing Tolerances for Manufactured Textile Parts, Apollo Program Tenacity of Four Kevlar Yarns as a Funetion of Yarn Twist Loss in Strength of Sia Different Kevlar Materials Caused by Weathering Parachute Recovery System Weight as Percentage of Air Vehicle Weight ‘Weight of Final Descent Parachutes Ribbon Parachute, Weight Versus Diameter and Horizontal Ribton Strength ‘Weight of Ringsail Parachute as a Function of Parachute Diameter Heavy Packing Presses Used for Packing the Apollo Main Parachutes Apollo Main Parachute Pressure: Packed in its Storage Form Pack Density as a Funetion of Pack Pressure and Packing, Application Interval Deceleration Stroke Versus Rate of Descent and Allowable Impact Deceleration Ideal Energy Absorption Diagram ‘Typical Energy Absorption Diagram for Crushable Material ‘Typical Honeycomb Structure ‘AMBB1 Armored Reconnaissance Assault Vehicle Loaded on a Cargo Platform Using Paper Honeycomb as Impact Attenuator Stress-Strain Diagram of Paper Honeycomb Pads Paper Honeycomb Impact Attenuator Effect of Density on Stress-Strain Curves for Polyurethane Foamed Plastic Poree-Stroke Efficiency of Various Crushable Materials Energy Absorption Per Pound of Material Weight Air Bag Pressure Versus Stroke Characteristics Air Bag Configurations for Various Air Vehicles USD-5 Air Bag Pressure Relief Valve With Blow-Out Diaphragm Pressure Relief Valves for the CL-289 Air Bags Using Stretch Fabric Sleeves, Details of Retrorocket Design and Installation 6-101 6-104 6-106 6-106 6.107 6.107 6.108 6-109 6.110 611 6.112 6.113 6.114 6.116 6-116 6.1186.83 NWC TP 6575 Weight Comparison of a Parachutc-Air Bag and « Parachute Retrorocket ‘System for a 7800-Pound Crew Module .. Design and Performance Details af the Skirt Jet Retrorocket System ‘Army CTU-2A High-Speed Aerial Delivery Container With Crushabl ‘Nose Cone and Impact Decelerating Force Versus Cone Deformation ‘Typical Nose Spike Impact Attenuator Reconnaissance-Drone and Air Bag Configurations Cluster of Two 72.7-Foot-Diameter Extended-Skirt Parachutes (Drawn to Scale) Parachute Assembly Installation and Extraction Concept Determination of Equivalent Forebody Diameter Extraction Parachute Assembly Pilot Chute Assembly Main Parachute Assembly, Cluster of Two Parachutes Velocity-Time Profile Drag-Area-Versus-Time Profile for a Single Parachute and the Total Drone Main Parachute Assembly Vent-Tape Geometry Bench Check on Gore Fullness Gore Layout for Gore Dimensions Vent Construction Final Gore Dimensions Pocket Band Arrangement Drone Flight Envelope Drogue Chute Arrangement Venetian-Blind Effect of Horizontal Ribbon in a Ribbon Canopy Canopy Gore Layout. . Preliminary Gore Dimensions Final Gore Dimensions Slat Drone Parachute Recovery Sequence Sequence of CL 289 Drone Recovery Impact Attenuation Bag Configuration Pressure Relief Valves for the CL-289 Airbags Using Stretch Fabric Sleeves. Midair Retrieval Parachute Assembly Deployment Sequence of the MARS Parachute System Parachute Deployment and Engagement Sequence AGM-109 Tandem Parachute Assembly Main Canopy Plan Plan Form of the 6.2-Meler Aeroconical ‘Assembly Components of the 6.2-Meter Aeroconical Opening Sequence of AGES Parachuie Assembly Side View of Escape Pole Deployed Through Side Hatch Crew Bailout Mode ~ Crew Escape Pole Navy Test Jumper Using Crew Escape Pole Parachute Extraction System for Cargo Platforms Standard Airdrop Method ‘The LAPES C-130 Platform Extraction System High Altitude Airdrop Resupply System (HAARS), First Stage Configuration 6-119 6-120 6-121 6-121 16 79 Blt 8.12 8.20 8-20 8:22 8.24 8.24 8.26 831 832 8.34 8.358.20 821 B22 a2a 824 8.25 8.26 827 8.29 8.30 3:31 8.32 8.33 8.34 8-35 8.36 Chapter 2 21 Chapter 3 31 3.2 33 Chapter 5 NWC TP 6575 Parachute Extraction Force and Extraction Speed vs. Time for a 35-Foot Perachute Extracting a 50,000-Pound Load T-10 Paratrooper Parachute MC1-1B Maneuverable Paratrooper Parachute With Glide and Control Slots and Anti-Inversion Net Aireraft Landing Roll as a Function of Parachute Diameter and Runway Conditions B.52 With 44-Poot-Diameter Landing Deceleration Parachute Typical Landing Deceleration Parachute Installation ‘Typical Spin/Stall Recovery Parachute Assembly and Deployment Concept Deployment Sequence of the F-18 Spin-Recovery Parachute Effect of Ratio Vehicle Weight, W, to Decelerator Drag Ares (CpS) on Down-Range Distance, Impact Angle, and Aircraft Separa!:on Distance Mark 83 Bomb With Ballute-Type Retarder Typical Mine Cross Parachute Assembly in Flight ‘Torpedo With Ribbon Parachute Retarder in Flight A Typical Sonar-Buoy-Parachute System in Stable Descent ‘Typical Configuration of an Extended Range Anti-Atmor Mine Radar Reflectivity of a 220-Degree Spherical Canopy, 36 Feet in Diameter Versus Aspect Angle Parachutist Landing Parafoil With “Full Brakes” Forest Service Smoke Jumper Ready toJump TABLES ‘Comparative Rating of Performance Characteristics for Various Parachute Recovery Systems Applications Conversion of English System to Metric System ‘Temperature Conversion Table Properties of Earth's Atmosphere Versus Altitude Solid Textile Parachutes Slotted Parachutes Rotating Parachutes janeuverable (Gliding) Parachutes Balloon-Type Decelerators Canopy Fill Constant, n, for Various Parachute Types Opening Forces and Canopy Loading of a 28-Foot: Diameter Parachute for Various Vehicle Applications Canopy Loedings Determination of Gore Dimensions for Various Types of Parachutes Roof Panel and Guide Surface Panel Pattern Dimensisas Recommended Porosity Range and Vertical Ribbon Spacing as a Function of Application and Velocity Pocket Band Dimensions 8.42 B44 845 850 851 851 8.58 8.59 861 8.64 8-66 8-68 8-70 872 8.73 8.77 8.80 27 3:10 B12 5:3 5-4 5-4 55 5-44 5-51 571 6-20 627 631 6-4369 6.10 e1l 6-12 Chapter 7 TW 72 Beaks Chapter 8 Bl NWC TP 6575 Pilot and Main Parachute Drag-Area Ratios 645, Pilot Chute-Drag and Opening-Foree Coefficients 546 Recommended Design Factors for Parachute Assemblies 6-56 Variation of Reefing Cutter Time as a Function of Temperature for a 10-Second Apollo Reefing Cutter 6.72 Dismensions for the Fixed Reefing of the 6.8-Foot-Diameter Conical Ribbon Parachute. (For nomenclature see Figures 6-51, 6-29, 6-30, and Section 3.4) 6-13 Characteristics of Various Materials soos 616 Allowable Impact Decelerations 6-104 ‘Air Bag System Data Related to Figure 6-78 ve 6115 Reefed Opening Force as a Function of Filling Time and Drag-Area Profile 118 Disreef Opening Force as a Function of Disreef Time and Drag-Area Profile 7-20 Comparison of Parachute Forces Caleulated by the Three Methods 122 Determination of Design Factors for the Main Parachute Assembly 7.25 Suspension-Line Selection . 125 Drogue Chute Candidates : 7-36 Determination of Design Factors for the Drogue Chute Tal Effect of Number of Suspension Lines/Gores on Required Suspension. Line ‘Strength, Gore Width, and Vent Diameter... : 742 Grid Porosity as Function of Horizontal Ribbon Distance, b 7-50 Parachute Criteria : 81 Drag Area/Weight EMficiency (Cp S)p/W for Several Oper a3 ‘avy Emergency Escape Parachute Information and Utilization 8.16 Air Force Personnel Emergency Parachutes, Man Mounted 818 Primary Aircraft Used in Military Airdrop Operations 8.29 Container Summary for Helicopter Airdrop ........... 8-29 Airdrop Containers 8-36 Military Cargo Parachutes : 8-38 Extraction Parachute Types B41 List of Military Premeditated Jump Parachutes 846 Basic'T-10 Assembly Dimensions 8-47 Aircraft Deceleration Parachutes 8-52 Spin and Deep Stal Recovery Parachutes 857 ‘Comparison of the 17-Foot: Diameter Nylon and the 24-Foot-Diameter Nylon/Kevlar Parachutes for the B-61 Nuclear Bomb 8.63 Military Maneuverable Parafoil Parachutes 8-76About the Author ‘Theodor W. Knacke is the parachute engineer's engineer. He has spent a lifetime working in all phases of parachute research, development and application in both Germany and the United States. He is the authority on escape systems, landing deceleration canopies, aerial delivery clusters, personnel parachutes and spacecraft recovery systems. Mr. Knacke has B.S. degrees in civil and aeronautical engineering and an M.S. degree in aeronautical engineering from the University of Stuttgart in 1939. After one year with Heinkel Aircraft, he joined the FIST Institute of the University of Stuttgart working primarily on the in-flight and landing deceleration of aircraft. This resulted in the creation of the ribbon canopy in 1938, of which he is a co-inventor. After coming to the United States in 1946, Mr. Knacke served as a research engineer at the USAF Parachute Branch at Wright Field; from 1952 to 1957 as Technical Director of the USAF 651th Test Group (Parachutes) at El Centro, California; from 1957-1961 as vice-president of engineering at Space Recovery Systems in El Segundo, California; and from 1962 through 1976 as Chief of the Technical Staff (Recovery Systems) at the Ventura Division of the Northrop Corporation in Newbury Park, California, His responsibilities during this time covered all areas of missile, drone, and spacecraft recovery, including the Mercury, Gemini and Apollo earth landing systems, ordinance retardation, aircraft escape and deceleration and related project Since retiring from Northrop in 1977, Mr. Knacke has been a consulting engineer to the US. Army, Navy, Air Force and industry. He holds numerous patents, has published more than 30 papers and reports, and lectures extensively. He is known worldwide for his lectures sponsored by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and hosted by the University of Minnesota. Mr. Knacke was given the Achievement Award by the National Association for Remotely Piloted Vehicles in 1975. He is a Fellow of the ALAA and was awarded the AIAA Aerodynamic Decelerator and Balloon Technology Award in 1981. ‘The photographs on the cover of this manual were specially selected to represent some of the major projects of the author.Naval Weapons Center FOREWORD This Parachute Recovery System Design Manual will provide parachute design engineers with up-to-date recovery system information and personnel entering the parachute design field with an all-inclusive training resouree. The manual was initiated by the Aerosystems Department of the Naval Weapons Center (NWC), China Lake, Calif. It is an extension of parachute recovery system engineering courses conducted by the suthor, Theo W Knacke, at NWC, the Naval Surface Warfare Center, White Oaks, Silver Spring, Md.; and at extension courses conducted by the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Don Goodrich and J. D. Johnson of the NWC Aerosystems Department served as project, engineers. ‘The following organizations provided technical data and reviewed parts of the manual: ‘The Aerosystems Department of NWC: The Army Natick Engineering, Development & Research Center at Natick, Mass.; The Air Force Crew Systems Division at Wright Patterson ABB, Ohio; and the Parachute Systems Division of the Sandia Natioral Laboratories at Albuquerque, N. Mex. Personnel of Irvin Industries, Pioneer Parachute Co., and Paraflite, Inc., provided technical information. Sandy Lane, Maggie Frazer, and Janice Kaspersen, of the NWC Technical Information Department, edited; and Susan Dunker, also of the Technical Information Department, provided graphic support for the manual ‘This report has been reviewed for technical accuracy by the Recovery Systems Division, Aerosystems Department of NWC. Approved by Under authority of M.K. BURFORD, Head D.W.COOK Aerosystems Department Capt., US. Navy 31 December 1990 Commander Released for publication by W.B. PORTER Technical Director NWC Technical Publication 6575, Published by Technical Information Department Collation Cover, 249 leaves First printing 500 copiesWarning-Disclaimer Whenever a person leaves the ground, he or she risks injury or even death. Whether to accept or reject this risk and its accompanying challenge must be a personal decision; one must weigh the risk and the reward. This book is designed to promote safety through education. This is not a do-it-yourself text. The information contained here is intended as an introduction to parachute engineering and design and as a source of reference. It is not the only source of information. ‘This book is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered, It is not the purpose of this manual to reprint all the information that is otherwise available, but to complement, amplify and supplement other courses and texts, For more information, see the many listed references, ‘The purpose of this manual is to educate and entertain, Every effort has been made to make this book as complete and as accurate as possible. However, there may be mistakes both typographical and in content. Therefore, this text should be used only as a general guide and not as the ultimate source of parachute information. Fur- thermore, this manual contains information only up to the printing date. Para Publishing warrants this book to be free of defects in materials and workmanship. This warranty shall be in lieu of any other warranty, express or implied. ‘The author and Para Publishing shall have neither liability for, nor responsibility to, any person or entity with respect to any loss or damage caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by the information contained in this book. If you do not agree with the above, you may return this book to the publisher for a full refund.NWC TP 6575 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION * ‘The purpose of this manual is to provide recovery system engineers in government and industry with tools to evaluate, analyze, select, and design parachute recovery systems. These systems range from simple, one-parachute assemblies to multiple-parachute systems, and may include equipment for impact attenuation, flotation, location, retrieval, and disposition. All system aspects are discussed, including the need for parachute recovery. the selection of the most suitable recovery system concept, concept analysis, parachute performance, force and stress analysis, material selection, parachute assembly and component design, and manufacturing. Experienced recovery system engineers will find this publication useful as a technical reference book; recent college graduates will find it useful as a textbook for learning about parachutes and parachute recovery systems; and technicians with extensive practical experience will find it useful as an engineering textbook that includes a chapter on parachute-related aerodynamics. In this manual, emphasis is placed on aiding government ‘employees in evaluating and supervising the design and application of parachute systems. ‘The parachute recovery system uses aerodynamic drag to decelerate people and equipment moving in air from a higher velocity to a lower velocity and to a safe landing. This lower velocity is known as rate of descent, landing velocity, or impact velocity, and is determined by the following requirements: (1) landing personnel uninjured and ready for action, (2) landing equipment and air vehicles undamaged and ready for use or refurbishment, and (3) impacting ordnance at a preselected angle and velocity. 25 4 Jaye ets arc et bee oh ey The recovery cycle may include use of impact attenuation, flotation, and locatidn equipment; retrieval by aircraft, boat, or ground vehicle; and delivery to an area for refurbishment and reuse. Parachute recovery systems are required for emergency escape of personnel from aircraft, airdrops of troops and supplies, stabilization and retardation of ordnance, recovery of targets, sport parachuting, and similar applications. Optional uses includ» in-flight and landing deceleration of aircraft; recovery of missiles, spacecraft, and rockets; stabilization of falling bodies; and many others. "CMe vam dhiaited. 4 i ~NWC TP 6575 CHAPTER 2 PARACHUTE RECOVERY SYSTEM DEFINITIONS AND DESCRIPTION 2.1 PARACHUTE RECOVERY SYSTEM DEFINITION Defining the components and terminology of a parachute recovery system will help to avoid misunderstandings between Government agencies, prime contractors, and sub- contractors. Although a parachute recovery system is a subsystem or even a subsystem of a prime system, as shown in Figure 2-1, common usage refers to all parachute recovery subsystems and assemblies as systems. Figure 2-1 also shows the typical breakdown structure ofa target drone recovery system containing—in addition to the parachute recovery system—sequencing, impact attenuation, flotation, location, retrieval, and docking equipment. vown naar] LY see ee mara HY sae faemere LY ens 6 LL cscs seem FIGURE 2-1. System Integration and Components of a Parachute Recovery System.NWC TP 6575 Many parachute recovery systems contain fewer components than are listed in Figure 241, For example, an aircraft landing deceleration parachute system consists of a ‘compartment in the aircraft with door actuators and the parachute disconnect mechanism, and, separately within the compartment, a parachute assembly comprising an ejectable pilot chute, pilot-chute bridle, brake parachute, brake-parachute deployment bag, and riser with disconnect clevis. Figure 2-2 sa schematic of a typical ejection seat parachute assembly with descriptive nomenclature. Many variations of the assembly are possible: independent main-parachute deployment, stabilized high-altitude descent on the drogue chute, seat stabilization by attitude sensors and reaction control system (RCS), velocity-altitude control of the parachute deployment sequence, and man-seat separation. The variations may result in more or fewer components and different component arrangements. Q wanes @ exeax como CH) ranacnute o1sconNeers (2 (@) Main paracnure oerLovmenT exc GS risers 12 GH) oeeLovment aac enicie G contnot tines 12 @ onocue cure ovsconnecrs GB) sumrension Lines @ onocve cnure emores Ce) canory G3 orocue cHure GH) Reering LINE AND AINGS ( Extaacrion gRiove RB) ering Live cutrens GD oRocve Gun siuG (3) esection sear © 10Q main eawacnure assewary @ 10 @orosve cwre assemary FIGURE 22 Schematic and Nomenclature of a Typical Ejection Seat Parachute Assembly. 22NWC TP 6575 2.2 PARACHUTE RECOVERY SYSTEM APPLICATIONS ‘The first recorded development and application of parachutestype devices involved the lowering of animals, and occasionally humans, during fairs and carnivals in 14th- and 15th-century Siam and China. Parachute development in Europe and the United States began in the 18th century for use in exhibits and shows. The first application of parachutes for saving. the lives of aviators occurred during World War I, Since that time, parachutes have been used for the rescue of aviators: for premeditated jumps of military and civilian personnel; and by sport parachutists, smoke jumpers, and paramedic jumpers. An airdrop of military personnel and equipment is the final phase of transport to a theater of operation. Personnel and equipment must land uninjured, undamaged, and ready for action or use. Aircraft in-flight and landing deceleration involves termination of dangerous fight maneuvers, such as spin, deep stall, and high-speed flutter. In these cases, the parachute is disconnected after the aircraft reaches a controlled flight attitude. Many miiitary and some civilian aircraft use parachutes as landing brakes to shorten the landing roll and save tires and brakes. Many ordnance devices, such as bombs, mines, torpedoes, and submunitions, are parachute-retarded to let the aircraft escape the effective range of the weapon, to stabilize and retard the weapon before water entry, to obtain antiricochet impact angles, and to obtain a desired splinter-distribution pattern after impact. Air vehicle recovery includes termination of flight, and recovery for reuse of targets, unmanned vehicle systems, booster rockets, and manned and unmanned spacecraft. Some of these are recovered by the Midair Retrieval System (MARS). Parachutes are also used to decelerate high-speed land vehicles, rescue speedboat crews, and decelerate ships. Figure 2-3 lists today's primary parachute applications. pengonne: ARCRATT veneue RECOVERY 1 PERGONNEL EMERGENCY COVERY FOR 2. Tracrom Rocker Escape sv STEM Reuse. cowmonenr ANALEs, 3 Camsuse ano execTion sear BNO AaNae BAreTY FABL ZATION aNO OECELEMATION 2 SOUNOMG ROCKETS AND RE-ENTRY VENRCLES 5 ManeorUwanneo SPACECRAFT 2. pooeren’ QRONANGE RETARDATION 1. BOMBMINE/TORFEDO RETARDATION 2 Foawee, 2. AMY COMBAT AND EwaNEERING EoUPMENT 3! BUBMUNITION 3. Aen neaurrcy 2 tonanauove 2. suawval equenenr 1. Eeraenson APCRAFT OLCELERATION sect 1, ABPROACH AND LANDNG. 1 ARLTOWAI RETREVAL 2. Gow anp erat RECOVERY 2. GRGUND-FO-ai RETRIEVAL, 3. Rrusnr oectuinanion 5. CAXgnvaven sume ace Vetecce RETARDATION FIGURE 2.3. Parachute ApplicationsNWC TP 6575 2.3 PARACHUTE RECOVERY SYSTEM BOUNDARIES ‘The application range of parachutes with regard to velocity and altitude was closely associated with the speed and altitude capability of aircraft until the 1950s. A research program conducted in the late 1940s and early 1950s established that parachutes could be used. at supersonic speeds; parachutes developed specifically for supersonic application followed. Parachutes have been used successfully at speeds in excess of Mach 40, at altitudes up tothe limits of the atmosphere, and at dynamic pressures to 15,000 psi. Parachutes have also been used to recover a rocket booster weighing 185,000 pounds. Figure 2-4 gives the required parachute performance envelopes for different applications. PLANETARY ENTRY (MARS LANDING? 120 reo-sz cata, ‘ f wok [Pnntey Val Mil Manno Heese anata » aerinunt, «#7 |ALLISTIC NOSE CONES ° 10 36 38 a 30 ach NUMER FIGURE 24. Parachute Performance Envelopes. Figure 2-5 shows the approximate velocity and altitude boundaries of parachute systems that are presently in service or have been tested experimentally. Boundary limits are moved upward and outward as new materials are introduced that shift the aerodynamic heating limit, tohigher temperatures and make possible the recovery of heavier vehicles. Successful landings. ‘on Mars have been made, and vehicle landings by parachute on Venus and Jupiter are in preparation,ORONANCE PARACHUTES MISSILE OROGUE CHUTES EXPERIMENTAL PARACHUTES PLANETARY PARACHUTES — ovenarionar MACH NUMBER FIGURE 25. Aerodynamic Decelerator Performance Range (1990). 2.4 PARACHUTE RECOVERY SYSTEM DESIGN CRITERIA Prerequisites for the design of a parachute recovery system are an understanding of the purpose of the system and its requirements, and a clear definition of the design criteria {governing system and coinponent selection. Figure 2-6 lists typical design criteria System reliability will always be of utmost importance. Parachute recovery systems have reached a high degree of reliability, as documented by the 31 consecutive, successful, manned spacecraft landings and the high reliability rate of paratrooper parachutes. In complex systems, itis mandatory to analyze and review all aspects and components of the total recovery system cycle. Failure to integrate the system totally can lead to the type of mishap experienced by Space Shuttle fight 7 in 1983, when a wrong sensor signal caused premature parachute disconnect, and the solid-fuel boosters were lost. Weight and volume are important considerations. Parachute assemblies constitute approximately 5% of total vehicle weight for lightweight vehicles, and 3 to 4% for vehicles weighing several thousand pounds. A complete recovery system, including flotation, location, and retrieval assemblies, will weigh 10 2% of the total vehicle weight, The 560-pound Apollo parachute assembly that was carried around the moon and back to Earth, where it was needed for landing, was a major expense in terms of weight, and much effort was dedicated to eliminating ounces to reduce overall spacecraft weight.NWC TP 6575 encunsry sow scaui ion cost ; stow ore sock "8 2° ‘SLOW WEIGHT ANO VOLUME ecost erriciency ee “REPEATABILITY OF PERFORMANCE 2 (Cp‘ Sly PARACHUTE DRAG AREA - FT’ “ENVIRONMENTAL ADAPTABILITY Wp PARACHUTE WEIGHT ~ Le sccnowrn PorewTiat Vp PARACHUTE VOLUME ~ 13 SINDIFFERENCE TO DAMAGE ost "LICITY OF DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING «SIMPLICITY OF MAINTENANCE AND SERVICE FIGURE 24. Parachute Design Criteria. For aerial targets, the recovery system is used only for recovery and retrieval in the last minutes of the mission. Each pound saved in the recovery system will either benefit the performance of the target or permit an increase in payload. ‘The selection of the parachute frequently begins with the stability requirement. Aircraft deceleration parachutes, first-stage drogue chutes, and most ordnance-retardation parachutes require ahigh evel of stability—a requirement that automatically eliminates many high drag parachutes A final descent parachute, the high-weight item in any recovery system, is usually selected from high drag, solid textile parachutes that result in the smallest diameters and, consequently, the lowest weights and volumes. Limited parachute oscillation (0 to 10 degrees) of large final descent parachutes may be acceptable or may be eliminated by use of cluster parachutes, ‘A high drag coefficient is important in selecting the final descent parachutes. However, a better evaluation criterion is the weight-efficiency ratio, (CpS)q/Wp, which shows how much parachute drag area, (CpS)q. is produced per pound of parachute or parachute assembly ‘weight, Wp, Where the cost of the parachute system may be higher than the cost of the payload (such as food or other low dollar-per-pound items), the deciding factor may be cost efficiency, (CoS)o/5. 26NWC TP 6575 Low opening shock is a valid selection criterion for unreefed parachutes, but loses its significance for large reefed parachutes where reefing controls the force-time history of the parachute opening process. Growth potential is important in design. Most air vehicles that are recovered by parachute grow in weight during the development cycle because of design changes; changes in requirements; or, when in service, added payloads. An undamaged landing requires maintaining the rate of descent. This may mean increasing the size of the final descent parachute(s) with the concurrent increase in weight and volume of the parachute assembly. ‘The parachute compartment size normally is fixed early in the design cycle of the vehicle and cannot be enlarged. The use of low-pressure packing at the start of the design for the parachute assembly allows storage of a larger parachute assembly later when higher-pressure packing can be incorporated. The use of high-pressure packing at the outset eliminates this possibility. Repeatability of parachute performance is important for aircraft landing deceleration parachutes that ate used 25 to 50 times. Repeatability is also a requirement for ordnance parachutes; parachutes manufactured to the same drawing must provide the same ballistic trajectory. Table 2-1 is a guide for rating performance characteristics for different applications. Each application and each designer may use different rating values based on the special requirements of the particular application. TABLE 2.1. Comparative Rating of Performance Characteristics, for Various Parachute Recovery Systems Applications. Performance characteristics AMT rs resupply TRehabilty of operation Repeatbliy of performance 3 2 else ° Low weight and volume 3 Stability aii High drag A Low opening forces 1 [Low mainienance/serice 1 Cost 1 * high importance du mporance ibe importance ot appealNWC TP 6575 2.5 REFERENCE MATERIAL The following reports and lecture and symposia papers and proceedings provide information on the analysis, design, testing, and use of parachute recovery systems. Several parachute handbooks (References 2.1 through 2.4) have been published by the US. Air Force. Reference 2.1 covers developments after 1970, and References 2.2 through 2.4 cover the 1950 to 1970 developments. ‘The Aerodynamic Decelerator Systems Committee of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) conducts technical symposia. Papers presented at these symposia (References 2.5 through 2.15) are available as conference proceedings or as. individual papers from ATAA headquarters in Washington, D.C. ‘Technical conferences of the Survival and Flight Equipment Organization (SAFE) are listed in Reference 2.16. These conferences cover the entire field of aircrew life-support equipment and aircrew escape. The University of Minnesota conducts extension courses in aerodynamic decelerator systems technology. References 2.17 to 2.20 list the mast recent lectures. Proceedings of these “tes are available from the Aerospace Department of the University of Minnesota in 2.5.1 US. Air Force Reports ‘The following unclassified publications are recommended for individuals who want to obtain a general knowledge of parachutes and parachute recovery system application, Performance, design, and components. 21 US. Air Force. Recovery Systems Design Guide, by H. W. Bixby, E. G. Ewing, and T. W. Knacke. USAF, December 1978. (USAF Report AFFDL-TR-78-151.) Available from the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va. 22161. 22 Performance of and Design Criteria for Deployable Aerodynamic Decelerators. USAR, December 1963, (USAF Report ASD-TR-61-579.) Available from the Defense ‘Technical Information Center, Cameron Station, Alexandria, Va. 22314, 23 USAF Parachute Handbook, Second Edition. WADC Technical Report 55-265, ASTIA Document AD 118036, December 1956. 24 - USAF Parachute Handbook, ATI No. 35532, March 1951,NWC TP 6575 e 2.5.2 AIAA Papers Proceedings and papers of AIAA conferences on aerodynamic decelerators and balloon technology are listed below. 25 Technical papers of the AIAA 10th Aerodynamic Decelerator Systems Technology Conference, Cocoa Beach, Florida, April 1989. Conference proceedings and individual papers are available from the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), 370 LEnfant Promenade, SW, Washington, DC 20024. 26 Various technical papers of the AIAA 9th Aerodynamic Decelerator and Balloon ‘Technology Conference, Albuquerque, N. Mex., October 1986. 27 Proceedings of the 8th Conference, Hyannis, Mass., April 1984; available in report form from ALAA. 28 Papers of the 7th Conference, San Diego, Calif., October 1981; available as individual paper reprints from ALAA. 29 Papers of the 6th Conference, Houston, Tex, March 1979; available in report form from AIAA. 2.10 Papers of the Sth Conference, Albuquerque, N. Mex, October 1976; available as e individual paper reprints from AIAA. 2.11 Papers of the 4th Conference, Palm Springs, Calif, May 1973; available as individual paper reprints from ALAA. 2.12 Papers of the 3rd Conference, Dayton, Ohio, September 1970; available as individual paper reprints frov- AAA. 2.13 Papers of the 2nd Conference, El Centro, Calif., September 1968; available as USAF Report FTC-TR-69-11, Volumes I and Il, from the Defense Technical Information Center, Cameron Station, Alexandria, Va. 22316. 2.14 Proceedings of the AIAA Aerodynamics Deceleration Systems Conference, Houston, ‘Texas; September 1968, available in report form from ALAA. 2.15 Proceedings of the Symposium on Parachute Technology and Evaluation, E! Centro, California, September 1964; available as USAF Report FTC-TR-64-12 from the Defense Technical Information Center, Cameron Station, Alexandria, Va. 22314 2.5.3 SAFE Symposia 2.16 Proceedings of the annual SAFE Symposia, covering all aspects of aircrew and cockpit bioengineering, aircrew escape, survival, and rescue. Yearly proceedings are available from the SAFE office, 15723 Van Owen St., Box 246, Van Nuys, Calif. 91406,NWC TP 6575 2.5.4 University of Minnesota Extension Courses 247 218 219 220 Lectures of the 1982 H. G. Heinrich Short Course on Parachute Systems Technology, University of Minnesota, Department of Aerospace Engineering, 110 Union St., S.E. Minneapolis, Minn. 55455. Lectures of the 1985 H. G. Heinrich Short Course on Decelerator Systems Engine July 1985, University of Minnesota, Department of Aerospace Engineering, 110 Union St, S.E. Minneapolis, Minn. $5455, Proceedings of the University of Minnesota/Carl Cranz Gesellschaft Course on Parachute Systems Technology, Fundamentals, Concepts, and Applications; Munich- Oberpfaffenhofen, June 1987, Available from the University of Minnesota, Department of Aerospace Engineering, 110 Union St., S.E. Minneapolis, Minn. 55455. Lectures of the 1990 Short Course on Parachute Systems Engineering, May 1990, Boston, Massachusetts. Proceedings are available from the Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. 55455. 2.5.5 Miscellaneous References 221 2.22 Proceedings of the 1986 and 1988 Parachute Manufacturing Seminars conducted by the Piedmont Community College, P. 0, Box 1197, Roxboro, N.C. 27573 D. Poynter, The Parachute Manual, published by Para-Publishing, P. O. Box 4232, Santa Barbara, Calif, 91340-4232,NWC TP 6575 CHAPTER 3 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT, TECHNICAL ‘TABLES, AND SYMBOLS Data presented in this chapter have been drawn from the U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976, the Metric Design Guide, the Ait Force Recovery Systems Design Guide (Reference 2.1), Navy manuals, and other sources as referenced in section 3.5. ‘The symbols and abbreviations used in parachute recovery system design and analysis ‘contained in section 3.4 agree with those listed in Navy manuals and the Air Force Recovery ‘Systems Design Guide. e 3.1 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 3.1 Basic Units ‘Name Toot " pound Time + | second # | sesone ‘Temperate K | Kewin R | Rankine Electric current A | ampere A | ampere 3.1.2 Derived Units Dimension igen? Nim? Nem us 31NWC TP 6575 ‘The metric units of measurement defined in sections 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 are used by physicists, but seldom by engineers who work with English units of measurement. 3.1.3 Engineering Units of Measurement Length ‘One statute mile (mi) = 1760 yards (yd) = 5280 feet (ft) One foot = 12 inches (in.) ‘One kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m) ‘One meter = 100 centimeters (cm) One centimeter = 10 millimeters (mm) ‘One millimeter = 10,000 microns ‘One meter = 10° millimeters = 107 microns = 10! angstroms Area ‘One square mile (mi2) = 640 acres = 3,097,600 square yards (yd?) ‘One square yard = 9 square feet (ft?) One square foot = 144 square inches (in?) ‘One square kilometer (km?) = 1,000,000 square meters (m2) ‘One square meter = 10,000 square centimeters (cm?) ‘One square centimeter = 100 square millimeters (mm?) Volume ‘One cubic yard (yd3) = 27 cubic feet (ft?) ‘One cubic foot = 7.48 gallons (gal) = 1728 cubic inches (in?) ‘One cubic meter (m*) = 1000 liters (L) One liter = 1000 cubic centimeters (cm?) = 1000 milliliters One cubic centimeter = 1000 cubic millimeters (mm) Weight ‘One English ton = 2000 pounds (Ib) ‘One pound = 16 ounces (oz) ‘One ounce = 437.5 grains (gr) One metric ton = 1000 kilograms (kg) ‘One kilogram = 1000 grams (g)NWC TP 6575 Force ‘One pound force = 4.44822 newtons (N) One kilogram force = 9,80665 newtons Pressure ‘One pound per square inch (psi) = 144 pounds per square foot (lb/ft?) One atmosphere (atm) = 14.696 psi = 29.921 inches of mercury (in, Hg) ‘One kilogram per square centimeter (kg/cm?) = one technical atmosphere ‘One pascal (Pa) = one newton per square meter (N/m?) ‘Tor, millibar, and psi are used to define atmospheric pressure. See tables in section 3.2 for conversion between units. Power One horsepower (HP) = 0.7457 kilowatt (kW) = 550 foot-pounds per second (ftlb/s) One metric horsepower = 75 kg-m/s = 0,9863 English horsepower Specific Weight ‘One pound per cubic inch (Ib/in’) = 1728 pounds per cubie foot (Ib/ft®) ‘One gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm®) = one kilogram per liter (Kg/L) = one metric ‘ton per cubic meter (ton/m?) Density.Y, is expressed in Ib/ft? Specific weight, w, is expressed in g/cm? Mass density, p, is expressed in slug/ft? or kgs?/m* ‘Temperature Absolute zero = zero degrees Kelvin (*K) = ~273.16 degrees Celsius (°C); or ~459,67 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) = zero degrees Rankine (*R) Velocity One knot = 1 nautical mile (nmi) per hour = 1852 meters per hour (m/h) ‘One mile per hour (mph) = 1.4667 feet per second (fvs) ‘One kilometer per hour (km/h) = 0.27778 meter per second (m/s) Acceleration Acceleration is measured as velocity change per second (ft/s?) Acceleration of gravity, g, (ft/s?, m/s2) is the acceleration of any free-falling body toward the center of the Earth (see section 4.15). 33NWC TP 6575 3.2 CONVERSION TABLES Conversion Table 3-1 is based on tables used in the aerospace industry and has been updated with information contained in References 3.1 to 3.4, Table 3-2 provides a convenient ‘method to convert temperature data from Fahrenheit to Celsius, or vice versa. 3.3 TECHNICAL TABLES 3.3.1 Earth's Atmosphere ‘The Earth is surrounded by a blanket of gas pressing statically against its surface and making up its atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure, density, temperature, and the speed of sound vary with altitude, ‘Table 3-3 lists, versus altitude, the static pressure, p, in Ib/ft; the mass density, p, in slugs/tt?; the temperature, T, in °F; and the speed of sound, C,, in fs. These data are taken from the U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976 (Reference 3.4), The altitude scale is represented by a vertical on the Earth’s surface extending through the center of the Earth. The data in Table 3-3 are averages, varying with seasonal weather changes and the fact that the Earth isnot a perfect sphere, The U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976, which contains a detailed discussion of these variations, includes data for higher altitudes. Pressure and mass density decrease gradually with altitude, At an altitude of approximately 275,000 feet, continuum flow gradually changes to molecular flow, and, subsequently, to atomic flow. Sustained Night of aircraft with air-breathing engines ceases to be practical at altitudes approaching 100,000 feet because of the low density of the atmosphere. ‘The temperature gradually decreases with altitude to 37,000 feet, remains constant to (65,000 feet, and then increases again. A second temperature reversal occurs at approximately 160,000 feet (Reference 3.4). Figure 3-1 shows the altitude dependency of temperature and speed of sound. The close relationship between temperature and speed of sound is discussed in Chapter 4. The value 1,/0/o permits the determination of rate of descent at any altitude. For ‘example, a parachute with a sea-level rate of descent, ve,. of 20/Us has a rate of descent, ve, at 40,000 feet of 20 x U/ /0/Po = 20 x 2.0118 = 40.24 fu. 33.2 Dynamic Pressure Chapter 4 contains an explanation of the importance of dynamic pressure, q, in all aerodynamic calculations. Figure 3-2 gives dynamic pressure in Ib/ft?in relation to altitude, Mach number, and true airspeed. These graphic values should be used only for preliminary calculations. Final dynamic pressure values should be calculated using the method shown in Chapter 4. 34NWC TP 6575 TABLE 31. Conversion of English System to Metric Stem. ‘Toconvert from atmosphere British thermal ‘unio (Bru) ‘centimeters centimeter of mercury cubic centimeters cubic feet eubic fet per minute enbic inches cubic meters cubic yards degrees (ar) to pounds per square inch ilograms per square ‘centimeter {echnical atmosphere rilimeters mercury inches mereury ‘newtons per square meter ‘ilograms per square centimeter inches of mercury pascal atmosphere foot-pounds kilogram-alories inches feet inches of water ‘pounds per square snch lien, ‘exbic inches ‘exbic inches ‘abi yards gallons livers cubic meter, cubic meters per minute cubic centimeters Tiers gallons cubic centimeters cubic feet cubic yards tallons eubic feet cubic meter, radians ‘prarns (mats x centimeters ‘er second squared Multiply by 1469001 10332 10332 10 9213 101.325 10197 ns 0 0869 m8 025198 0.39370 0.032808 53509 019337 0.001 0.06102 178 9 748052 2831685 0.07832 0.02832 1638706 001699 0.00433 we 3531s 130794 264.1716 0.76456 orsToconvert from fathoms feet feet per minute feet per second fo0t-pounds {foot-pounds per second gallons grams per cubic centimeter, honepower horsepower, metric inches inches of mercury NWC TP 6575 TABLE 3:1. (Contd) To feet inches yards ‘centimeters meters miles per hour kilometers per hour ‘meters per second ots miles per hour kilometers per hour meters per second koots ilogram-meters honepower cubic inches eubic feet inert imperiat gallons ‘pounds miligrams hilograms huilograms per cubic meter Pounds per cubic foot {fo0t-pounds per second ilogram-meters per second ‘metric horsepower kilowatts British thermal units per second ‘ilogram-meters per second honepower, English watts centimeters pounds per square inch atmosphere kilograms per square meter Maliply by 6 182880 2 3 908 03048 0.00987 109728 030880 059249 0.1386 ySS0 = ‘000182 2108 0.13368 3.78540 0.83268, 0.03528 0.00221 1000 o.oo 1000 6242833 550 760059 101387 07887 0.7068 15 0.98632 1849 254 049116 0.03342 0.03853,NWC TP 6575 TABLE 31. (Contd) “To conven from To Multiply by inches of water inches of mercury ou7s49 pounds per square inch 0.03609 joules newions x meters 1 ‘watt seconds 1 fo0t-pounds 0.73756 ilograms pounds 226462 gam 1000 bilogram-meters {foot-pounds ass kilograms per cubic meter | pounds per cubic foot 0.06243 ‘grams per cubic centimeter 001 Iilograms per square meter | pounds per square inch .oo1e2 Inches of mercury 0.002896 ‘grams per square centimeter on ‘pounds per square foot omer Kilometers feet 3230.89 statute miles 062137 nautical miles 053956 ‘ilometers per hour feet per second oss miles per hour 062137 know 053996 ‘meter per second ozs know ‘nautical miles per hour 1 feet per second 1.58781 miles per hour 1.15078 kilometers per hour 1882 ‘meter per second ostase Titers cubic centimeters 1000 ‘eb inches 6102376 ‘exbic feet 0.03532 wllons 0.26417 meters inches 3937008 feet 3.28086 yards 1.09361 ‘meters per second {feet per second 3.28084 ‘miles per hour 223093 Idlometen per hour 36 know 194384 37Tocomvertfrom miles per hour ils nautical miles (U.K.) nautical miles (USN, Int) newtons pounds pounds force ‘pounds per cubic inch pounds per square foot pounds per square inch quan rations radians per second spit? square centimeters square feet NWC TP 6575 TABLE 31. (Contd) To centimeter, know feet per second tlometers per hour ‘meter per second inches smillmeters feet meters feet statute miles Iilograms x meters per second squared ‘pounds force Seilogram force pounds ams ‘ewtons per square meter pounds per square foot kilograms per squase meter Yoilograms ewtons pounds per cubic foot fama per cubic centimeter inches of water kilograms per square meter inches of water atmosphere Jeilograms per square meter gallons cenbic inches degrees degrees pet second revolutions per second Be square inches square centimeters 0002 0.36898 146667 160934 0.44704 ‘o.oo oons4 080.20 1882 76.1155 115078 022081 0.10197 6 23895 0.02082 0.10197 048359 44822 178 nore 19242 4.98352 27.7085 0.06806 703 06687 srs 5129578 5129578 0.15916 s25se oss 929.0304‘Toconven from square inches square kilometers square meters square miles statue miles tons, long tons, shor tons, metric NWC TP 6575 TABLE 3.1. (Contd) square millimeters 45.16 038610 119599 258998 square miles square yards ‘square kilometers feet 5.280 ‘nautical miles 0.36898 Kilometers 1.60834 pounds 20 bilograms 1016087 pounds 2000 kilograms 907.1887 ‘ilograms 1009 Jong tons 0.98421 short tons 110231 millimeters of mercury ‘newions x meters per second centimeter metersNWC TP 6575 TABLE 32. Temperature Conversion Table. ‘Toconvert from Fahrenheit to Celsius, go from center column to left column. To ‘conver from Celsius to Fahrenheit, go from center column to right column. Conversion formulas: 5 9 C= 2@-32.F = 20 +32 3 5 woo 35 west 0 MME MME NAAN MANE MMC IWEW NI a a re a | 0 | so | 28 | a7 | 006 | om | fz |e | ci | 22 | a | ee | era | ss | -10 | -96 | 16 | 29 | 42 | uaz | 6s os | 0 | -15 | 11 | 30 | 860 | ana | 6 cs | so | ose | cos | on | are | aoa | or ao | 0 | 0 | oo | 22 | a6 | 199 | of cu | cw | cz | os | as | ore | 20a | o® Mea HAN aS AMSA aIN| HH 38i (eat I aes 2a MSSM ea AN eaTVAANeS HAN STAN =| ees esa AMAIA SINAN SHA 8 Aha L223 sma | ox | oa] ar | ot | me | azz | ss | 2 | 3861 33 | 36 | soos | 233 | 14 ssa | 9 | sta] ae | oe | tea2 | ans | 2s ass | «| a2] aa | 40 | soso | 244 | 76 aso | s | ao] a9 | a | s0ss | 250 | 77 cua | 6 | aaa} ss | a2 | tors | ass | 7 sno | 7 | as} 60 | a | s094 | 262 | a3 | a | wa] 66 | a | ama | ase | 00 sar | 9 | az] ora | as | aso | na | a2 | w | sol ar | a |e | 7] sus | ou | ste] a2 | a | ates | 282 | oo cua [oa | sae] ee | ae | ana | ane | aos | 3 | ssa] 93 | a | 1202 | 253 | ts soo | «| sz] 99 | so | 220 | 299 | 26 x4 | as | soo] soa | si | 12s | 304 | a7 sae | ue | oe] ana | s2 | sass | ato | oe | 6} us] so | 4 | ons | a9 oa | ow | ose] saa | se | 1292 | azn | 90 22 | w | oa] ie] ss | ano | x26 | om 6 | 0 | sso} 92] so | aszs | saa | oz va {om | oa] iar | sr | izes | as | 9 3s | 2 | ns] ua] se | ss64 | see | 90 so | 2 | me} ua] se | 902 | a | os aa | mu | 152] 156 | oo | 1400 | ass | 96 as | oas | no} ii] 6 wa | 97 3.10NWC TP 6575 TABLE 32 (Contd) 0510 5200970 980 1 1000 E E E c 7 ee MEM Meat Tele ses | 98 | 20a an | sz | 068 | sas | 000 sat | 99 | 202] 26 | 330 | 986 | 532 | 990 377 | 100 | 2120 | 22 | $40 | roo | 538 {1000 ge | too | 22 | 288 | sso | t022 4 | io | a0 | 293 | 560 | 1040 4% | 20 | 2s | 299 | 570 | 1058 54 | 130 | 266 | soe | 580° | 076 @ | wo | 24 | sto | 350° | i056 6 | aso | 302 | 3s | ooo | nz n | wo | 320 | 3a | eto | 130 1% | mo | ss | 326 | ao | ates 3 | wo | 356 | 332 | 60 | 1166NWC TP 6575 ‘TABLE 33. Properties of Earth's Atmosphere Versus Altitude. (ass imperaure, | of “var [ams "| eer |v me [Prep | a wo | iow | ame | iow | soc | sim mo | too | zoe | tam | aa | te wo | imo | me | sam | fon | cm cao | imo | um | saan | tom | nm wo | man | dar | tam | am | mm wo | sooo | mas | tom | am | ome wo | osm | ms | Swe | tow | a wow | totw | muse | ume | a0 | ime tam | sua | mom | tae | ian | to wow | som | tam | ‘tin | tw sam | stom | wm | tae | tow | ao | fun | ce | sem | “nm | te e wm | tam | inos | tam | en | on aim | dine | ome | som | oom | tna wom | cues] me | tase | ran | ma ao | Sos | imo | tm | So | mn sino | sum | aon | nm | “co | oma sro | ow | em | itm | aa | Sas sro | ue | em | ism | ow | Sie im | Sn] em | 2am | om | Sm co | sma | sus | aims | ow | Sam sim | oun | om | Sn | “om | Sm mo | som | com | iim | om | tm am | zn | mw | ino | om | ma jm | Soe] Sms | Some | tm | te san | a | som | a | mo | Sam cia | du | oom | Sen | ne | saa sim | ame | ma | ism | om | mm am | vis | doo | soo | om | sonNWC TP 6575 ‘TABLE 33.(Conid) 313ALTITUDE, KFT 200 NWC TP 6575 is N in N N ind i inal N TEMPERATURE, °C N +20 0 08 06 0.4 02 0 DENSITY RATIO Volo, | Pao NN <0 240) 0 +10 TEMPERATURE, °C 950 1000 1080 1100 1150 SPEED OF SOUND, FT/S FIGURE 3.1. Density Ratio, Temperature, and Speed ‘of Sound Versus Altitude (Reference 3.4) 314NWC TP 6575 paadssty any pur “saquiny ype ‘apmnyy snsiaA aunssaig 1MeUKG z-£ NNO 14 "D IUNSSIUS DINWNAD imsees ye BASNWC TP 6575 3.4 LIST OF SYMBOLS A Area AR Aspect ratio a Acceleration b Wingspan Cc Coefficient constant CrCp Aerodynamic force coefficients Cp Drag coefficient Co Drag coefficient of parachute cluster Coo Drag coeffictt related to canopy surface area (So) Cp, Drag coefficient related to inflated canopy area (S,) Cr Coefficient of friction CL Lift coefficient Cm Moment coefficient Cy Normal or side force coefficient Cp Pressure coefficient, specific heat CR Resultant or radial force coefficient Cz Opening force coefficient (infinite mass) e@ ¢ Dimension of wing chord, factor to suspension line convergence ¢ Velocity of sound CpA _Forebody drag area (CpSo Effective drag area of parachute related to canopy surface area (S.) (CpS)p Parachute drag area, general (CpS)x Parachute drag area, reefed D Drag, diameter Dp __ Diameter of forebody Dr Design factor Do Nominal diameter of parachute canopy = (4So/11)* Dp Projected diameter of parachute = (4Sp/1)* Dg Diameter of reefing/line circle Dy Diameter of canopy vent E Young's modulus of elasticity Ex Kinetic energy € Strength loss factor caused by abrasion, canopy gore width &% Gore width at skirt of canopy Gore width at vent of canopyNWC TP 6575, Force, structural load Constant force, steady-state drag force Normal force Parachute opening force Parachute maximum opening force Reefed opening force Parachute snatch force Ultimate load Unit stress, frequency, “a function of” Load factor = a/g ‘Acceleration of gravity Acceleration of gravity at sea level (MSL) Height (general), height of canopy gore at any point Height of canopy gore from vent to skirt Height of vent Impulse ‘Strength loss factor caused by vacuum ‘Constant (general) Dimensionless filling time parameter Strength loss factor caused by fatigue Lift Lift-to-drag ratio = glide ratio Length (general) Effective suspension-tine length Length of riser Length of reefing line (installed length) ‘Length of suspension line Distance between parachute canopy and forebody Mach number, moment, system mass Margin of safety Mass Canopy filling constant; strength loss factor caused by water absorption Any number ‘Number of canopy gores Number of risers Number of suspension lines ‘Number of parachutes in a cluster 347NWC TP 6575, Pressure, strength of material Pressure differential Dynamic pressure Reliability factor Reynolds number Mass ratio Weight ratio Radius Area (general) Safety factor Footprint area Area of canopy gore Surface area of parachute canopy including vent and slots Projected frontal canopy area ‘Total open area of slotted canopy Factor for asymmetrical canopy loading Deceleration distance ling distance of parachute ‘Temperature, thrust Time (general) Parachute canopy filling time Strength loss caused by seam connections Volume Velocity (general) Equilibrium velocity, rate of descent Sea-level rate of descent Horizontal velocity Vertical velocity ‘Velocity at line stretch (canopy stretch) Trajectory velocity ‘Weight (general) ‘Weight of parachute ‘Weight of parachute assembly ‘Weight of parachute recovery system Unit weight Opening-force-reduction factor 318NWC TP 6575 Greek and Mathematical Symbols et oMprm rrr pEyrxeosnon~ we & at Angle of attack as related to airflow Angle of yaw, gore vertex angle Ratio of specific heat, flat canopy gore angle Small increment of diffecence ‘Angle between radials and suspe Relative elongation, drag area ratio (CpS)p/CpS)p = reefing ratio fines Efficiency Angle of flight path from horizontal Spring constant Porosity or ait permeability of parachute canopy Geometric canopy porosity Porosity of canopy material ‘Total porosity of parachute canopy Viscosity, constructed angle between canopy radials and horizontal Kinematic viscosity Ratio of gravitational acceleration (¢/g0) Mass density of air Mass density of air at sea level Summation Air density ratio (p/P) Reefing-line ratio (Dp/Dg) Angle between suspension lines atid longitudinal axis (bank angle) Angle between individual parachutes and cluster axis Approximately Approximately equal to Identical toNWC TP 6575 3.5 REFERENCE MATERIAL 3.1 The International System of Units (S1), National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 330, issued December 1981, Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, ‘Washington D.C. 20404 3.2. Metric Practice Guide, March 1970, ASTM Designation E-380-70, American Society for ‘Testing and Materials, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19103. 33 Lionel S. Marks, Mechanical Engineers Handbook, McGraw Hill Book Co, 3.4 US. Standard Atmosphere, 1916, published by National Oceanic and Atmospheric ‘Administration, NASA, U.S. Air Force. Superintendent of Documents Stock No. (003-017-00323-0, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.NWC TP 6575 CHAPTER 4 AERODYNAMICS AS RELATED TO PARACHUTES. 4,1 PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE All forces acting on parachutes and all movements of parachutes are affected by the atmosphere, or air, surrounding the Earth. The air at the Earth's surface is approximately 78% nitrogen; 21% oxygen; and 1% a mixwure of gases such as argon, neon, helium, water vapor, and carbon dioxide. This chemical composition remains relatively constant to an altitude of about 160,000 feet (50 kilometers). The following air qualities are of major significance in the dynamics of bodies moving in the atmosphere: ovals & Dimensi Specific weight of air w Ib/ft3, kg/m? Static pressure Pe atm, Ib/ft?, Pa, bar, torr ‘Temperature T “R°C Mass density e slugs/ft3, kg s?/m* Gravity & fus?, m/s? Speed of sound Cc fs, mis Allof these qualities are altitude-dependent and may vary slightly on the Earth’s surface with geographic latitude because of variations of the Earth's radius caused by the centrifugal forces of the rotation of the Earth. All standard data used herein refer to a latitude of 45, degrees. Sea level is defined as mean sea level (MSL). To compare performance data on an equal basis, the United States Bureau of Standards has defined standard day conditions as, follows: ‘Temperature = 15 degrees Celcius (*C) or 59 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) Pressure = 760 millimeters (mm) of mercury (Hg) or 29.9213 inches (in.) Hg, 4.1.1 Specific Weight of Air For standard day conditions of $9°F temperature and a pressure of 29.9213 in. Hg, the specific weight of air, w, is 0.07648 Ib/ft? or 1.2250 kg/m®. The specific weight of air changes with pressure, temperature, and humidity. Further data can be found in References 3.4 and4.1, and in technical handbooks.NWC TP 6575 4.1.2 Static Pressure Static pressure depends on geographic latitude, weather conditions, and altitude. The static pressure at any altitude results from the weight of the air above that altitude. For MSL and standard day conditions, the pressure, po. is 29.9213 in. Hg = 760 mm Hg = 10 atmosphere (atm). For conversion to Pascal, torr, or bar, see the conversion tables in section 32. 4.1.3 Temperature ‘Temperatures are defined in the English and metric systems in the so-called absolute and engineering scales. The absolute temperature minimum at 0 degrees pressure is O°K = -273.16°C, and 0°R = -459.69°F. This is also written Degrees Kelvin = degrees Celsius + 273.16 Degrees Rankine = degrees Fahrenheit + 459.69 ‘The freezing point of water is 32°F or 0°C. The boiling point of water is 212°F or 100°C. 4 Mass Density of Air Mass density defines the amount of mass contained in a unit volume of air. The mass density, p, of air is of special importance in aerodynamic calculations. kgs? fic wer ° = specifi weight of ait. w I/O oie ws acceleration of gravity, g ” fi/s? weight tb lug = 7 S108 = ccceleration of gravity ~ ft/s’ Frequently the density ratio, 0, is used g = ambient air density, P Standard sea-level density. Po The factor 1/ /P/Po determines the increase in parachute rate of descent with altitude. ‘The density at 40,000 feet is % of the MSL density, and the density at 100,000 fect is 1/75 of the MSL density. Therefore, the parachute rate of descent is about twice as high at 40,000 feet and about nine times as high at 100,000 feet. MSL density is 000237689 slugs/ft3, or 0.1249 kg s?/m¢, 4.1.5 Gravity ‘Any mass attracts another mass with a force called gravity, Ifthe Earth were surrounded by a vacuum, a body suspended above the Earth and released would fall toward the center ofNWC TP 6575 the Earth with increasing velocity caused by the acceleration of gravity, g. In reality, the falling body is decelerated by its air drag until the air drag, D, equals the weight of the body, W, and an equilibrium velocity is reached; for parachutes, this is called the steady-state rate of descent, ‘The acceleration of gravi g.at sea level is = 32.174 fus? of 9.80665 mus?, The value g = 9.08665 m/s is standardized internationally but is accurate only for a latitude of 45 degrees. ‘With increasing altitude above the Earth's surface, the acceleration of gravity decreases in accordance with the equation sree) where 8 = acceleration of gravity at any altitude, fs? $= acceleration of gravity at sea level, fs? 1 = average Earth radius = 2.08556 x 107 ft h = altitude above sea level, ft For other planets and heavenly bodies, the acceleration of gravity varies with the mass of the body. For example, the acceleration of gravity on Mars is about 1/3 of the acceleration of gravity on Earth. For more details on planets and heavenly bodies, see page XII of Reference 2.1 4.1.6 Kinematie Viscosity ‘The coefficient of viscosity, 1, defines the shecring stresses in a gas or liquid and is sometimes called the resistance to continuous deformation. In aerodynamics, the coefficient of viscosity is combined with the mass density to form the kinematic viscosity, v, where y= Soetficient of viscosity, . 2 mass density, p 0.001576 ft/s at sea level ‘The kinematic viscosity, v, is altitude dependent and is used to calculate the Reynolds number, Re.NWC TP 6575 4.1.7 Reynolds Number ‘The Reynolds number, Re, defines the relationship of mass forces to viscous friction is calculated as V1 _ velocity (l/s) characteristic length (ft) y Kinematic viscosity (f7/s) Reynolds number is an important criterion in subsonic, noncompressible flow, and allows comparison of model tests with full-scale flight tests. A Reynolds number effect on parachutes working in separated, turbulent flow has not yet been established, as shown in section 5.2. The following chart shows the Reynolds numbers for various air vehicles. rogue = Main. © WIT Re 610% 25-105 24-10% 100-106 50-10 = 20-10) 2-108 4.1.8 Mach Number Mach number is an important parameter of supersonic flight than the speed of sound the air vehicle travels. flight veloci speed of sound, c Mach number, M = ‘The speed of sound is the velocity at which a pressure disturbance, such as the sound of the human voice, travels in any medium. The speed of sound varies considerably in different ‘gases, liquids, and metals. ‘Speed of sound in air at MSL ¢ = 1116.46 ft/s = 340.38 m/s ‘Speed of sound in water cy = 4749 ft/s = 1461.21 m/s ‘Speed of sound in iron = 16,410 fs = 5710.7 mis ‘The speed of sound depends on temperature and the chemical composition of the medium. A widely used equation for speed of sound in air is Go ay T where y= speed of sound in dry air, fs ¥. = ratio of specific heat, equal to 14 for dry air, dimensionless T = temperature in Fahrenheit absolute, equal to 459.67 + "F