DIPLOMA IN

SHIP SUPERINTENDENCY

2007 / 2008

MODULE 2

The Ship Superintendent as

Part of the Management Team

AUTHOR

Paul Russell, MSc BA (Hons) MIMarEST

Head of School
National Sea Training Centre
UK

Lloyd’s and the Lloyd’s crest are the registered trademarks of the society incorporated by the Lloyd’s Act 1871 by the name of Lloyd’s.
 CONTENTS

Page No.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 4

1. FINANCE BUDGETS AND ACCOUNTS FROM A MARINE

SUPERINTENDENT’S PERSPECTIVE 5

1.1 The Financial Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

1.2 Credits and Debits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
1.3 Accruals System of Accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
1.4 Income and Expenditure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
1.5 Cash Flow Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
1.6 The Balance Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
1.7 Budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
1.8 The Theory of Costing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
1.9 Cash Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
1.10 Management Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

2. WORKING AS A TEAM AND MANAGING PEOPLE 22

2.1 Team Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

2.2 Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
2.3 Motivating Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
2.4 Communicating with Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
2.5 Time Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
2.6 Development of Your Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

3. REPORT WRITING AND TECHNICAL PRESENTATIONS 44

3.1 Gathering Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

3.2 Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
3.3 Research Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
3.4 Analysing Documentary Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

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3.5 Interview Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

3.6 Sources of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
3.7 Writing Technical Reports and Contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

4. THE USE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY 57

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

4.2 Word-processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
4.3 Spreadsheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
4.4 Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.5 E-mail and the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.6 Broadband . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
4.7 Web Page Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
4.8 Digital Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.9 Scanners and Photographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.10 Digital Cameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.11 Uses and Advantages of Digital Cameras over Traditional Equipment . . . . .70
4.12 The Use of PowerPoint for Presentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.13 Basic Hardware Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
4.14 Motherboards and the Central Processing Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.15 Hard Disks or Hard Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.16 Other Storage Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
4.17 Computer Configuration for Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

5. PLANNING AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT 78

5.1 Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78

5.2 The Project Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
5.3 Target Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
5.4 Resource Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
5.5 Progress Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85

6. HANDLING THE MEDIA 88

6.1 Preparing for the Unexpected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88

6.2 Crisis Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
6.3 Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89

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Module 2 Contents

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91

Tutor Marked Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92

Appendix 1 – Financial Information for Year 2002/2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94

Appendix 2 – Monthly Expenditure for 2002/2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95

Appendix 3 – Monthly Financial Statements for Par Shipping . . . . . . . . . . .96

PLEASE NOTE

● Self-Assessment Questions have been provided periodically

throughout this module. These questions are designed to help
you with your study. The questions are for your personal study
only; do not send in your answers to these questions as they will
not be assessed.

● For candidates taking the Diploma option, your Tutor Marked

Assignment is at the rear of this module. Your worked
Assignment should be sent to the TMA Administrator (details are
given at the end of the Tutor Marked Assignment) for processing.

© Copyright Informa UK Limited, 2007. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, scanning, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without the prior written
permission of Informa UK Limited.

Diploma in Ship Superintendency 2007 / 2008 (LM1928) 2-3

 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

This general introduction gives the student some brief information about the reasoning
behind the structure and content of this module.

The ship’s superintendent will be expected to understand the detailed operation of the
company that they are working for, operate as part of a team, build his or her own team
and interface with customers on a regular basis.

As such, the superintendent will need many different qualifications, skills and qualities other
than just the technical skills that he or she has learnt before excepting the new job role.

The profitability of the company is so important and, therefore, it is also important that the
superintendent understands what is happening within the company. This is the reasoning
behind starting this module with an overview of how a formal accounting structure is set
up and the reasons for the strict systems and procedures required during its proper
function.

Working within a team and nurturing his or her own team is so important for the modern
shipping company with its flat management structures. This might be different to the
superintendent’s experience to date, especially as the management structures at sea
are so hierarchical.

Finally, communicating your ideas to the team, to the senior management and to the
outside world is a very good way to ensure that your goals and that of your team and the
company are heard and well received. People will learn more from a well presented
document or presentation than they will from just being told verbally about a situation.

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1. FINANCE BUDGETS AND ACCOUNTS FROM A
MARINE SUPERINTENDENT’S PERSPECTIVE

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

● describe the difference between financial accounts and

management accounts;

● state the difference between credits and debits; and

● describe the accruals system of accounting.

2-001 Many people within an organisation have responsibility for the management of a
budget. The ship’s master and chief engineer, for example, will have had this
responsibility during their working life.

2-002 However, the official accounts of a company must be structured, recorded and
presented in specific ways, which will introduce complications that a budget-
holder has not encountered before. This chapter will endeavour to explain those
differences so the ship’s superintendent will then be able to appreciate the
formal restraints and obligations that the company is placed under.

2-003 Most authors of textbooks about financial management offer a definition of

accountancy and if you look at the definitions most will include statements about
the accurate record keeping enabling the company management to make
decisions based on sound financial information.

2-004 This presents an interesting challenge for the finance director of any
organisation. The official accounts must be structured and transactions recorded
in a specific way to fulfil the legal obligations placed on the company. However,
the information that comes from the analysis of the accounts must be presented
in a format that the operational managers can understand, bearing in mind that
they may not necessarily have financial expertise.

1.1 THE FINANCIAL ACCOUNTS

2-005 The aim of the financial accounting system is to produce a formal record of the
company’s business, in the words of the 1844 Companies Act “to keep proper
books of account” (Broadbent & Cullen (1993)). The information is used to
produce reports that are published in accordance with current legislation for the
use by outside parties to see how well the company is performing financially.

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2-006 The reports are produced to a common format that means one company can be
compared to another.The major parties interested in this concept are the company’s
shareholders as well as the tax man and a number of other organisations such as
competitors.

2-007 Formal accounting systems follow the principles of double entry accounting.
These accounts are self-checking because there are always two sides to the
account which, as we shall see, will agree. There is never a debit entry without
a corresponding credit entry. Therefore, the list of the entries on the debit side
should equal the list of entries on the credit side.

1.1.1 Income

2-008 Recording income and sending out the invoice as quickly as possible is very
important for any business. The quicker that this is done the quicker the cash will
be collected. It is, therefore, essential that internal communications and systems,
for this activity, are efficient.

2-009 The accounts department will produce the official invoice and ensure that its
production is recorded in the correct manner. The accounting staff, however, will
probably not be familiar with the details of the invoice to be produced, therefore, this
information will have to be passed to them from the business managers. There will
be an internal process or system for this to happen, such as a sales invoice request
form. If the superintendent is part of a shipping company making its money from
directly trading its ships in the market place, it is possible that the superintendent will
not be involved with the income side of the business. But as a manager of a
business he or she should become familiar with how the company makes its money.
However, a ship management company is making its income from the contract work
that is being carried out on a regular basis, therefore, sales invoices may have to be
produced at regular intervals, based on the activity of the department.

2-010 It is very important that all managers understand the primary activity of the
company that produces the income. If this is supplying manpower, carrying
cargo or repairing ship’s machinery, it should be understood that all other
activities are in place to support this primary function.

1.1.2 Expenditure

2-011 An internal system will also be required for the purchase of supplies and
equipment. The accounts department need to produce the official company
order because the organisation has to satisfy itself that it is only paying costs
that are attributable to its own operation. I have heard of people who make
money by sending false invoices to large organisations. Some find their way
through the systems and end up getting paid!

2-012 The superintendent will need to give the correct information to the accounts
department and only when an official order number has been generated can the
purchase become official and a debt to the organisation.

2-013 This may well cause operational problems for the superintendent due to the time
lag before the official order number is produced. The normal system would be
that the superintendent raises an internal request, which includes all the details
of the intended transaction. The accounts staff enter the details on the
accounting system and produce an official purchase order. This is then posted

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Module 2 Finance Budgets and Accounts from a Marine Superintendent’s Perspective

to the supplier who will then carry out the transaction knowing that they have a
contract to do so. The official order number should then be quoted on the
supplier’s invoice when it is sent to the superintendent’s company.

2-014 If time is of the essence, there is action that the superintendent can take to allow
the supplier to deliver the goods or service at very short notice. The
superintendent could fax or e-mail the information to the accounts department
and they could enter the details and allow the superintendent to progress the
transaction by quoting the order number over the phone.

2-015 After discussion with the accounts department the superintendent could also
draw purchase order numbers in advance of a transaction and to a
predetermined value. The superintendent could then purchase items in an
emergency and at very short notice.

2-016 The disadvantage to this is that the value of the amount agreed may be taken
from the superintendent’s budget at the time of drawing the purchase order. If an
emergency does not arise, the money will not be paid and the superintendent
will have to negotiate the outstanding amount back to his or her budget.

2-017 Exact systems will differ from company to company but the important lesson here is
that the superintendent should discuss operational problems with the financial
director or accountant on a regular basis and he or she should not initiate a
transaction without official sanction from the company via the purchase order system.

2-018 Some companies give the budget-holders the power to issue their own purchase
orders up to the limit of their own budget. Other companies are making good use
of company credit cards. These can be used by the budget-holder to purchase
the items necessary to carry out their duties.

1.2 CREDITS AND DEBITS

2-019 People who are new to formal accounting systems have difficulty in visualising
when an item is credited and where it is debited from the accounts. Usually the
left hand side of the account is the debit side and the right hand the credit. But
what do they both mean?

2-020 When business is agreed between two parties, an exchange of goods and/or
cash will need to take place. This is known as a transaction and transactions
happen all the time. There are “cash transactions” where you would pay cash in
a shop for clothing or food for example.

2-021 Another form of transaction such as where a company might order a new ship or a
replacement generator, which will not be paid for by cash at the time the goods are
delivered. This is known as a credit transaction because there will be a time lag
between the contract for the goods being issued and the payment being transferred.

2-022 The common theme for all transactions is that there is “a giver” and “a receiver”
on both the customer’s side and the supplier’s side and the one transaction is
recorded in two different places within a company’s accounting system. This
principle is the basis of the “double entry” bookkeeping system.

2-023 The rule is that you always “debit the account that has received goods, services
or money” and you always “credit the account that has given goods, services or
money”. Let us look at some simple transactions to illustrate this principle.

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Finance Budgets and Accounts from a Marine Superintendent’s Perspective Module 2

2-024 Bill Spinnaker has decided to start his own boat building company and has
£10,000 of his own money to invest in the company. The first thing to state here
is that Bill’s personal account and the company accounts are separate.
Therefore, when the company is started with £10,000 of Bill’s money he
becomes a creditor of the company because he has given it value.

2-025 The first entry in the accounts will be to debit the bank account because it has
received £10,000. Therefore, the entries would look like that shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1

2-026 On 10 April 2005, Bill buys a small second-hand boat for £5,000 and £1,000 worth
of spares for the engine. The accounts start to build and would look as shown in
Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2

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Module 2 Finance Budgets and Accounts from a Marine Superintendent’s Perspective

2-027 It can be seen from the accounts shown above that the two columns of debits
and credits for all the accounts add up to the same value. As such the accounts
balance, which means that they are, therefore, less prone to administration
errors as a balance is achieved.

2-028 The full recording system will be a series of documents such as sales invoices
produced for customers, purchase invoices from suppliers, petty cash receipts
and bank statements. The values of these documents are recorded in a main
document called “a ledger” and in other documents such as the cashbook and
the petty cash account. The modern ledgers will of course be computerised
and the need of a separate cashbook and purchase ledger will become clear
after the section on the accruals system of accounting.

2-029 At the end of the accounting period, usually one year, all the values taken from
these documents of prime sources of information will be listed in two columns of
debits and credits. This is known as the trial balance and the system must check
itself by the two columns agreeing. The system can be seen illustrated in Figure 1.3
below.

Figure 1.3

2-030 Following on from the trial balance the company will now want to know how
much profit has been made within the accounting period and which parts of the
business has been the most profitable. The profit and loss (p&l) accounts are
produced, as well as the management reports, and then finally the balance
sheet can be constructed which is a statement about the total worth of
the business at a moment in time. However, before we get that far it will be
necessary to review an important technicality of the accounting process.

1.3 ACCRUALS SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTING

2-031 To keep proper accounts it is important that certain conventions and systems are
used so that when there is a need to compare accounts we are comparing like

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with like. The accounts may be compared from one year to the next or, if
necessary, they could be compared from one month to the next. The profit and
loss statement covers the expenditure and the income for the accounting period,
which is usually one year.

2-032 When we manage personal transactions invariably we would do so by paying

with cash at the time of the sale. The recording of this would be easy because
we have already earned the money, taken it from our bank account and then
paid the cash for the transaction. There is no time lag during this transaction as
the money changes hands at the same time as the goods. If we use a credit card
to pay, a time lag occurs between the time that we collect the purchased items
and the time that payment is made usually by cheque to the credit card company
who has already paid the vendor on our behalf.

2-033 Large organisations carrying out multiple transactions on a daily basis will have
long time delays between the supplies being delivered and payment being
made. Therefore, we need a system or convention for everyone to work to. The
accruals system of accounting uses the convention that income and expenditure
is recorded at the time that a transaction takes place and not when the cash
transfer takes place.

2-034 For example, the company superintendent might order spare equipment, for a
pump, from a regular supplier, at the beginning of February 2005. The
equipment might be delivered to the ship at the beginning of March 2005 and
the cash paid from the company’s bank account at the start of April 2005.

2-035 This example illustrates the need for an accounting principle or concept that is
common to all companies. If in our illustration the company accounting year-end
coincides with the financial year, we need a system to state just how to treat the
expenditure for our pump. The accruals system tells us that the expenditure should
be officially recorded in the accounts for 2004/2005, when the spares were
ordered, and not recorded in the accounts for 2005/2006 when the cash is paid.

2-036 Expenses that have been incurred but not yet paid are known as accruals,
examples of this are items that are due to be paid at the end of the month or
even the following month other than the month of the records. It is more normal
for income to be accrued because the service or goods will be delivered or made
before the invoice is produced and the cash collected.

2-037 Expenses that have been paid for in advance, such as insurance payments,
rents and rates etc are called pre-payments.

2-038 The accounting system will have to be adjusted for accruals and pre-payments
before the final balances are printed to give a true and fair reflection of the
business at the month end or the year end.

1.4 INCOME AND EXPENDITURE

1.4.1 Profit and Loss Account

2-039 The profit and loss account brings together the information from the data
collection documents, such as the purchase ledger or the cash sales information,

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Module 2 Finance Budgets and Accounts from a Marine Superintendent’s Perspective

this information is then used to inform the organisation about whether or not the
income is higher than the expenditure over a specific time period. It is important
that the full amount of expenses and income, for the time period given, are
matched against each other (see Section 1.3 above, on accruals). The timescale
for the profit and loss account is usually one year but can be altered to suit
the management and the legal system. For example, it might be necessary to
change the accounting year from a calendar year to match the financial year,
therefore, one accounting period could be 15 months long.

2-040 However, the official profit and loss account will not identify which parts of the
operation raise the income or which parts are costly. This will be left to the
management accounts.

2-041 It is important to remember that income must be recorded separately from the
expenditure. For example, if F Rosty Refrigeration System Supplies, earns
£10,000 for supplying and fitting an air conditioning system, but is then buying
back £2,000 worth of equipment, from the same company, then the accounts must
reflect the full amounts, it is not acceptable to record just the £8,000 received. The
accounts must show the £10,000 in full and the £2,000 worth of expenditure.

2-042 The format for the profit and loss account that is shown in the year-end accounts
is determined by the Companies Act, in the UK, and the law of the land where
the accounts are being prepared. The most common form used is shown in
Figure 1.4 below. The format determines exactly where in the order that the
taxation is taken and where the shareholders are paid.

Figure 1.4

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1.5 CASH FLOW STATEMENT

2-043 It is important for an organisation to track its cash balance on a continual basis.
There is only so long that a healthy company can survive on credit from its
suppliers. If credit is extended to its customers for too long this too will limit the
amount of cash coming into the business.

2-044 Managing the delicate balance of cash in and out of the business is known as
managing the “cash flow”. This is one of the biggest problems for small- to
medium-sized businesses to overcome. These companies do not have the
reserves to withstand not being paid for long periods of time.

2-045 Increasing stock produces a substantial outflow of cash, which is not off set until
stock is sold and any credit term has expired. During this time the business could
be making a reasonable profit but that will not be enough nor will it be helpful if
the cash reserves are not available to pay the bills. It can now be appreciated
that carrying too much stock has an adverse affect on the business as a whole.

2-046 The estimation of the cash available is not easy because it requires the company
to think about the future and come to some prediction about what is likely to
happen.

2-047 Some things are easier than others to predict, for example, rents and rates on
buildings are usually a straight monthly payment. Payments such as energy
costs will be higher during the winter months, but by how much? Severe or mild
weather will cause differences in payments from year to year.

2-048 It is possible with experience to increase the accuracy of the cash flow into and
out of the business but the problem comes with the unforeseen or overlooked
emergency items. These need to be paid for and, therefore, it is important to
build in a contingency element into the cashflow analysis.

2-049 From the statements in Appendix 1 and Appendix 2, the analysis of cash flow is
as follows:

Figure 1.5

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Module 2 Finance Budgets and Accounts from a Marine Superintendent’s Perspective

2-050 These figures are taken from the statement shown in Appendix 1 and Appendix 2
for 2002/2003 with the assumption that the cash in the bank at the start of the
year is £150,000. We can see that the cash in hand slowly increases until August
where the cash balance starts to diminish again.

2-051 The great benefit of checking cash flow is that the financial controller can see
where the cash is generated and where it is consumed. The efficient
management of these events can, therefore, prove very beneficial. If the
business events can be arranged so that the cash can be collected before it is
spent, the business will have its own cash to spend on its expenses. It will not
have to rely on the bank or its own reserves to pay off its debts. The cashflow
budget for the following year can be built from this year’s actual outturn.

1.6 THE BALANCE SHEET

2-052 The balance sheet is a snapshot of the position of the business at one point in
time. This is why the statement is headed by a single date at the top, which is
the date that the sheet was prepared.

2-053 As its name suggests, the balance sheet will always balance; this is because of
the double entry bookkeeping and the fact that the balance sheet is designed to
show both the assets of the company and the claims against those assets. The
investor in the company can then see the total worth of the business.

2-054 For a company having no borrowings or liabilities to creditors, the balance sheet
would be simple.

Total assets  equity capital

2-055 However, if the company has borrowed money or has purchased equipment that
it has not yet paid for, the company owes money to people or organisations other
than its shareholders. These responsibilities to pay are known as liabilities and
these start to make the balance sheet more complicated.

Total assets  equity capital  liabilities

2-056 A simple balance sheet for a newly-formed boat repair company would then be
shown as Figure 1.6 on the following page.

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Finance Budgets and Accounts from a Marine Superintendent’s Perspective Module 2

Figure 1.6

2-057 We can now see that if the company buys extra spare parts for say £4,000, two
things happen:

● the stock increases from £25,000 to £29,000; and

● the cash at the bank falls to £5,000.

Thus the balance sheet still balances.

2-058 If the company had built up credit with the supplier and the spare parts
purchased on credit, the cash would be unaffected and an additional line called
creditors would appear under liabilities which would then show the £4,000 owed
to the supplier.

2-059 As you can see there is a picture building up about the make-up of the balance
sheet. It would not be desirable to produce a new balance sheet after every
transaction, therefore, the snapshot is only taken at a set date usually at the
same time each year. It shows the source of money, equity capital or liabilities to
creditors, where money has been borrowed from and where it is owed. It also
shows what the business owns, its assets, at any one point in time.

2-060 The assets are usually divided again into fixed and current assets. The fixed
assets are those that remain in the business for more than a year, usually items
such as land, property, plant and machinery. The current assets are those assets
that are continually changing and remain with the company for less than one
year. The current assets comprise:

● debtors;

● stock;

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● cash; and

● short-term investments such as stock market investments.

2-061 Current assets are sometimes referred to as circulating assets because of their
continually changing nature, which is in turn called the turnover of the business.

2-062 Figure 1.7 below gives a pictorial view of the turnover of a business.

Figure 1.7

2-063 Just as the assets are sub-divided into fixed and current, so are the liabilities
divided in the same way. Current liabilities, which will be paid within the next
year, are things such as trade creditors or bank overdrafts. The long-term
liabilities are usually things such as long-term loans or mortgages where special
arrangements have been made to pay back the debt in a longer timescale than
one year.

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Finance Budgets and Accounts from a Marine Superintendent’s Perspective Module 2

1.7 BUDGETS

1.7.1 Controlling Budgets

2-064 The setting and use of budgets is part of the strategic planning process carried
out by the management of the company. This involves setting objectives for the
business before any figures can be added and a budget set.

2-065 Module 1 sets out some basic guidelines for strategic planning and marketing
from the company’s perspective. This will involve the operational business
managers of the company in the planning for, and the setting of, both long and
short-term objectives to meet the business plan.

2-066 This is not a process that should be undertaken at the last minute and the process
will always take longer than you think or longer than the time that has been
allowed. Time and time again business managers have been asked for information
and meaningful figures at the last minute, or there are business managers not
taking time to plan budgets, hoping that the issue will go away for another year.

2-067 Budgets are a necessary part of keeping track of the business and a very
important tool for all managers. The information, whether good or bad, means
that more accurate “informed” decisions can be made, therefore, all managers
should be ready for the budgeting process when it comes around.

2-068 From the business planning will come the financial planning in the form of the
annual budget that is required to meet the strategic plan for that year. Certain
assumptions will need to be added to the plan and the company will require the
ship’s superintendent to contribute to the process.

2-069 This will involve the superintendent making assumptions about the amount and
sequencing of work that has to be done for the forthcoming budget year. The
superintendent must obtain clear information from the senior managers about
any constraints or differences for the coming year. It is not good to put together
a budget that you consider to be realistic only to have it returned with figures that
are totally different from the ones that you constructed, and then to find that the
budget’s total allocation was different from the year before.

2-070 It will be very important to look at last year’s budget and the assumptions for this
year to compare them with the actual outturn for the previous year. This will enable
the superintendent to evaluate his or her forecasting techniques and systems.

2-071 Historical data is always useful, however, the budget must be set before the
year-end, which means that the most recent data is not available. It will still be
necessary to check last year’s conclusion when it does become available and
also to check that there has been no additional problems between the time that
the budget was set and the time that it is to be used.

2-072 It is important to remember that there is a natural tendency for managers to

procure the best resources that they can, to enable them to meet their
objectives. Senior managers must realise that if the resource allocation is tight,
then there is an increased risk of the managers not meeting their objectives, due
to the inability to overcome small unforeseen events.

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1.7.2 Profiling Budgets

2-073 The expenditure of a department or a cost centre will not normally be equal over
the 12-month period. Therefore, it will not be appropriate just to divide the annual
budget equally by 12 to arrive at the monthly allocation.

2-074 An illustration of this might be the company’s ships on a regular operation between
Canada/USA and northern Europe. If the round trip is eight weeks it will be
recognised that the ship’s superintendent will have a high expenditure every other
month. This is because it will be more expensive to send all the spares, stores etc
across the Atlantic. The expenditure will need to be timed to enable the stores,
spare gear or bunkers to be delivered to the most appropriate port on the run.

2-075 If the centre of the company’s administration is in the USA, this will be a port in
Canada/USA and if the costs are less in Europe, the preferred port will be on that
side of the Atlantic. Therefore, the expenditure will be at the end of each round trip.

2-076 The hit on the ship superintendent’s budget will be before the ship arrives
because, as we have discussed the hit on the accounts and the budget is when
the order is placed and not when the exchange of money takes place. The orders
will need to be placed before the ship arrives in the allotted port to overcome the
time lag involved.

2-077 This means that the superintendent needs to work closely with the finance
department to ensure that his or her profile is correct for the business that the
superintendent is responsible for.

1.7.3 Reporting Budgets

2-078 Another area where the superintendent can help the company budget controller is
with the published monthly budget reports. These reports must be understandable
by the people that are managing the business and, therefore, they will not need the
detail of the financial accounts. If the reports turn out to be overly complicated, then
it is up to the superintendent to point this out and work with the budget controller to
produce reports that are useful and understandable to the superintendent.

2-079 The superintendent will need be able to check the accuracy of the individual
transactions that have been posted to his or her budget and will, therefore, need
to know the exact amounts together with the supplier’s name.

2-080 Some accounts departments produce reports containing information such as

the company’s purchase ledger code instead of the actual name of the supplier.
This will not be helpful to the superintendent because even with a separate
listing matching the code to the name, considerable time will be lost by the
manager when checking their budgets.

2-081 The budget will also need to be checked against the actual expenditure and this
is where the budget reports might link in with a full set of management accounts.
The reason for this is that the management accounts includes income and
expenditure for a given cost centre. The management accounts would also show
variance against budget as well as showing profitability. A more detailed
explanation of management accounts appears later in this section.

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2-082 Budget reports that indicate a variance will have to be explained by the budget
holder and the reasons discussed with the relevant senior managers. There are
many reasons for variances, some of which are:

● items not included in the original budget;

● items included in the budget but set at a different price or volume;

● allocated expenditure that is now not required;

● expenditure intended for one month that will now not be spent until some
time in the future;

● expenditure that has been allocated to a budget without the budget

holder’s permission either deliberately by someone else or because of a
missposting;

● an administrative hold up to the orders; and

● accounting problems with accruals or pre-payments.

2-083 It will always be the case that unforeseen events will occur. Machinery breakdowns
and errors leading to damage cannot be predicted exactly but they should still be
planned for and, therefore, contingency plans should be built into the budget.

1.8 THE THEORY OF COSTING

2-084 It is necessary for an organisation to monitor the full cost of providing a service
or manufacturing a product. Some of these costs are easily attributable to a
particular service or component but others are not so easy to deal with. The
different costs are described below.

1.8.1 Direct Costs

2-085 These are the costs incurred as a direct response to providing the activity of the
business. If, for example, a transportation company operated a road haulage
service as well as a shipping service, the cost of diesel to run the vehicles will
be a direct cost to that side of the business, while the cost of fuel oil for the ships
will be a direct cost to the shipping side of the business. The message to
understand with direct costs is that if the activity does not exist, neither does the
cost. A major direct cost of operating a ship, for example, is the cost of the crew.

2-086 These direct costs might also be a variable cost. For example, if the ship’s
activity increases, due to extra voyages and more trade, the overall cost of the
fuel will also rise. However, the cost of the crew will be a fixed cost because the
cost is constant, independent of the earning capacity at any given time.

1.8.2 Indirect Costs

2-087 These are costs not identified as being attached to any one activity but are used
for the benefit of all activities within a cost centre.

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1.8.3 Fixed Costs

2-088 These are costs that stay at a constant level and do not vary with the level of
activity. The best example of this being the crew cost as we have mentioned.
Another would be the cost of the food for the crew. These are fixed costs and are
independent of the amount of cargo.

1.8.4 Overheads

2-089 There are areas within the organisation that are used by each of the different
income generating activities. For example, the cost of the finance department,
the marketing department and the costs associated with the office space will all
need to be shared as fairly as possible.

2-090 Therefore, for example, the cost of the finance department should not be
allocated to any one part of the business because it serves each part, and if
we are to ascertain the true cost of each part of the business, then each part
must also carry its fair share of this and every other overhead.

2-091 The biggest headache is how to allocate the overheads fairly. Let us consider,
as an illustration, the costs associated with operating a business from a building.
Any income generating activity that is carried out inside the rooms will have
direct costs attached. However, the cost of the rent and rates will be charged to
the building as a whole. This cost must be passed on to the income generating
activity in such a way that reflects the true cost to that activity. The way to
allocate this cost at first seems easy. If we measure the floor space the cost per
sq mtr can be calculated by dividing the total cost by the floor space. Each
income generating activity can then be allocated a cost depending upon the size
of room that the activity requires. However, this would leave a shortfall because
not all areas are income generating areas, corridors, toilets, storage rooms and
general offices are not all spaces that generate income directly.

2-092 So even this simple exercise has to become more sophisticated. The allocation
of overheads is not an exact science and will be subject to certain assumptions,
for example the cost of the accounting system could be allocated by the number
of transactions made by any one department or cost centre. Departments may
feel that they have been allocated overheads unfairly for certain areas but other
areas will be more favourable.

1.8.5 Depreciation

2-093 The equipment, buildings and grounds that are owned by a company are
collectively known as the company’s assets. A company is allowed to record a
value for its assets in its accounting system.

2-094 However, it can be seen that, although a company might pay the full cash
price for an item, the full amount should not be recorded in the accounts for
the one period because the company will still have some value at the end
of the accounting period. Therefore, some value should be shown in the
accounts.

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2-095 Let us say, for example, that the company purchases some computer equipment
that cost £3,000. The company must obviously pay for the equipment, which will
reduce the bank balance by £3,000. However, computer equipment is regarded
as having a life of three years, therefore, after the first year the company will
have two-thirds of the value still in its possession.

2-096 The £1,000 charge made against the profit is known as “depreciation” and
£2,000, that is still the value of the asset, is then held in a balance sheet account.

2-097 The prices for products are initially set to cover all the production costs as well
as the overheads and indirect costs. This will, after adding a suitable profit
margin, naturally determine the selling price. It must also be recognised that the
selling price is also determined by the market that the product is being sold into.
For example, a basic small compact car will be sold to a different type of
customer than will a luxury limousine.

2-098 With this in mind the company may take the decision to sell the product below
its full cost price. Therefore, as long as the selling price covers the direct costs,
the surplus will be contributing toward the overheads of the overall business.
This method of costing is called marginal costing, and is very useful especially
if the organisation has spare capacity or is regarding a product as a loss leader.

1.9 CASH FLOW

2-099 Cash flow is exactly as the name implies. It is the recording of the cash coming
into and going out of the business. This is also known as the liquid assets of the
business. A company that has the ability to generate cash to meet its liabilities
will be said to have good liquid assets.

2-100 The management of cashflow is an important part of the accounting service

within an organisation. The timing of when the cash will come into the business
and when it is required to pay the bills is the central part of the management of
cashflow.

2-101 Companies that have been trading well and profitably have found themselves in
difficulty due to cashflow problems. If you cannot pay your suppliers because
you are waiting to be paid yourself then problems occur and your reputation will
suffer.

1.10 MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTS

2-102 Management accounts are constructed for the benefit of the company and are
not subject to the same regulations, relating to format and structure, as the
financial accounts. The management accounts are not the same as budget
reports although the two could be combined. The financial director must work
closely with the business directors and managers to produce reports in the
format that is required to show the operations staff just how well or bad the
business is progressing.

2-103 One of the first things to do is ensure that the report is clear. Unlike the report
about expenditure against the budget, the management reports need to give the

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operational managers information about the profit or loss within their department
or cost centre.

2-104 It is more usual these days to produce management reports for cost centres
showing all the information about income, pay expenditure and non-pay
expenditure. However, if managers are to be accountable for the income as well
as the expenditure, they must also have the power to influence change within the
organisation when systems are having an adverse effect on their area of
responsibility.

2-105 It might be that individual ships are divided into cost centres. If so, the managers
would need to know the operating profit on a monthly basis and against budget.
Therefore, the statements would show the information given in Appendix 3.

2-106 Note that unlike the statements for budgets the management accounts do not
need to be drawn up to the nearest penny or even £. The trick is to make them
as clear as possible for the person who needs the information.

2-107 The reports need to be on time. Operations managers need to take decisions
based on the most up-to-date information available. If the information is due
each month then it is not good if the operations managers do not receive the
information until halfway through the month.

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2. WORKING AS A TEAM AND MANAGING
PEOPLE

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

● identify four key elements for building a successful team;

● state five qualities of a leader; and

● describe how to carry out a skills audit.

2.1 TEAM BUILDING

2-108 The first key element of team building is being clear about the task to be
undertaken. For the ship’s superintendent, information about this first element
should come from the strategic planning carried out within the company (see
Chapter 10 of Module 1).

2-109 If you are putting together a new team, selecting your team will be extremely
important. The same point will apply to replacing members of an existing team
when positions become vacant. Making an audit of the skills available and
matching them to the tasks required of the team, would help this second stage
in the process.

2-110 Having identified all the requirements and procedures that need to be carried out
over a complete project or work cycle and after determining priority factors,
evaluating the work content and identifying the skill level required can then be
accomplished. The workload can now also be analysed to indicate the staff
requirements for each skill group.

2-111 By using targeted staff development and retraining personnel to produce multi-
skill groups in appropriate areas would create a more flexible and manageable
situation overall. The staff can be used where the requirement arises and the
overall numbers can be reduced while keeping existing staff fully employed.

2-112 From all this data, a number of key factors can be identified:

1. It will be apparent where the skills are readily available.

2. Where the work volume will be sufficient to support full-time staff.

3. Where the specialist skills are required.

4. Where there are skills gaps in the workforce.

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5. The importance of each maintenance function to the smooth operation of

the business.

6. What specialist equipment will be required.

7. The statutory, safety or security implications of each function.

2.1.1 The Skills Audit

2-113 Thomson and Mabey (1994) suggest that the following information is needed for
a staffing resource audit:

● relevant training and development already undertaken or in progress;

● occupational experience; and

● associated skills and abilities.

2-114 The skills audit should not, however, be an isolated function of management but
a tool which would be at the heart of human resource planning or as Hendry
(1995) suggests the skill supply strategy. Hendry goes on to say that this
strategy consists of two things:

1. Understanding and monitoring the existing and emerging knowledge and

skill base of the organisation, in broad terms.

2. Specific initiatives to remedy “skill gaps”.

2-115 If the suggestions from the two parties are combined, a structure for a skills
strategy starts to emerge. Thomson and Mabey point to the criteria that could
be used and Hendry indicates that the process should be on-going. Initiatives
then to remedy the skill gaps might possibly be, additional staff or the
development of current staff. The process must be followed up with a
check or “feedback” link to keep it supportive of the changing needs of the
organisation.

2-116 Drucker (1990) states that a given organisation cannot reasonably expect to
recruit and hold staff that is significantly better than the general labour
available. Therefore, no organisation can do better than the people it has. It
is the effective management and resultant performance from the staff
that determines the effectiveness of the organisation. This makes a
powerful argument when stressing the need for staff development and
accurately matching that development to the requirement to carry out the
strategic plan.

2-117 Where an existing comprehensive direct labour force is in place, revising

working practice and skill demarcation to accommodate the introduction of a
more highly-regulated system can be difficult. As productivity increases, or it
becomes obvious that in some areas there is insufficient work in a
particular skill, then additional staff development and training can be offered
to increase utilisation, particularly where redundancy would be the only
alternative.

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2.1.2 Purpose and Vision

2-118 With the skill matched to the tasks as well as can be expected, then the
team must be encouraged to work effectively. It is necessary for the leader
to ensure that the team feels part of the decision-making process.
Therefore, it is necessary to agree as a team the tasks that are to be
undertaken. Agree the timescale and agree the process for measuring
progress or performance.

2-119 Each member of the team must be allowed to progress his or her part of the plan
to the best of their ability with minimum interference. Members of the team must
then continue to ask questions about their interaction with other team members,
such as:

● working to our common goal, how do I help or obstruct other people?

2-120 Each member should also ask of the others:

● this is what other people do to obstruct my progress, how can we change

procedures to make life easier?

2-121 According to Drucker (1990) the individuals that go through this process every
six months will find that a lot of problems disappear. The company pay people to
do a job who have also been chosen because they have the skill to do that job,
then they must be allowed to complete that job. The company, managing director
or team leader must give people the tools to complete the job that is required or
the information they need. It is also important to remove the things that trip them
up, obstruct them or slow them down. The most important thing is not for the
leaders to guess what these things are, but they should:

GO AND ASK

2.1.3 Open Communication

2-122 It is very important within an organisation that members of the organisation keep
each other informed about what is going on and how they themselves are
performing. This open communication then leads to the trust upon which all
organisations are built. This is another key element in building a successful team.

2-123 Another major reason for open communication is the resolution of conflict within
the team. Conflict is an inevitable part of working together especially when highly
qualified people are being asked to work on complex systems and tasks.

2-124 One of the things that I try to insist on is that people are polite to each other
because I maintain that politeness oils the wheels of successful resolution of
conflict. If people are abusive toward each other, then they stop communicating
and can even start doing things to put obstacles in the other person’s way. If this
happens, both members are not working for the good of the team.

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2-125 It is not good to try to prevent disagreement, on the contrary if disagreement is

encouraged then the arguments for and against decisions or strategy are out in
the open. The leader’s job is to have the persuasive power to win the day and in
this way resolve conflict.

2-126 In the end, it might be necessary to meet with the two parties and resolve the
issue by trying to first find “common ground” and then encouraging each side to
compromise, or split the difference.

2-127 Therefore, to build the kind of team you want, there are a few key elements to
consider that are crucial:

● creating trust amongst team members;

● allowing differences;

● recognising individual strengths, styles and skills;

● keeping lines of communication flexible;

● being tolerant and allowing mistakes; and

● encouraging brainstorming sessions and off the cuff ideas.

2-128 There are very good reasons to include these elements when building your
team. They strengthen the whole team while developing the individual, steering
away from blame and creating a climate of loyalty and support. People will feel
able to voice their opinions and ideas without fear of criticism or humiliation. You
will have a stronger, more versatile and productive team if you carry out these
simple activities.

2-129 It is most important to recognise that a team is a collection of related but

disparate individuals. There may be common goals and purpose, but each team
member will see things differently because no two people see the world in
exactly the same way. Team members do not always have to agree. However,
they do need to negotiate and accommodate all the different views and ways of
working that people have.

2-130 Good team building means creating a whole, which is greater than the sum of
its various parts, while still maintaining the integrity of each individual.

2.2 LEADERSHIP

2-131 Charles Handy, in his book Understanding Organisations (1974 and 1993),
starts his chapter on leadership by describing how the thinking about leadership
has changed. Prior to the Second World War it was accepted in the UK at least
that leadership was inherent from birth or instilled from an early age. This
thinking influenced the development of the UK’s education system up to the
1940s. During wartime, however, it became apparent that all manner of people
from all sorts of backgrounds could become leaders and since then the
approaches to the problems of leadership have fallen under one of three general
headings:

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● trait theories;

● style or situational theories; and

● contingency theories.

2-132 Each of these seems to contain some elements of truth but have, according to
Marsh (1992), in the long term failed to explain enough of the difference between
effective and ineffective leadership to be useful as a complete indicator of good
leadership. However, these theories do give a useful insight to leadership as a
whole.

2.2.1 Trait Theories

2-133 Trait adjectives are common in everyday life. We describe people as:

● “shy”;

● “timid”;

● “anxious”;

● “conscientious”;

● “conceited”;

● “careless”; and

● “punctual”.

2-134 If we describe a person as “punctual” we mean that he or she has a consistent

tendency to be at a certain place on time when he or she has arranged or given
an undertaking to be at that place and time. We do not change our mind
dramatically if on the odd occasion that person is held up for some reason and
is, therefore, not on time on that occasion.

2-135 Therefore, we can see that a trait is a description of a regular situation

response but it is not cast in stone, it is a description of what is most likely to
happen.

2-136 The first studies into leadership concentrated on the study of a leader’s
personality hoping to find the “magic” ingredients that go to make up a leader.
Set against the background of a belief that leaders were born, D Marsh (1992)
states that as late as 1974 research had been carried out attempting to
demonstrate that the following traits, shown in Figure 2.1 on the following page,
were the perceived qualities of a leader.

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Figure 2.1

2-137 Possession of all these traits by one person, however, would be very unusual if
not impossible and the following questions were not considered, or were
overlooked when considering leaders and/or their training:

● Can these qualities be identified?

● How do we measure them?

● Do effective leaders need all of these qualities?

● Can training develop the required qualities?

2-138 The biggest departure from that traditional thinking came when the question was
asked:

● Are the “core” traits the same for all situations?

2-139 Since the 1950s over one hundred studies have taken place but the number of
traits identified by researchers as being common to leaders was only 5% of the
total and it has proved impossible to identify the traits of leaders from
non-leaders. The traits that appear more frequently than others are intelligence,
energy and resourcefulness. These studies and a change in attitudes led to the
development of the situational or style theory of leadership.

2.2.2 The Style Theory

2-140 This theory is based upon the findings that different circumstances require
different characteristics, approaches and interactions. Indeed a group, free from
the constraints of having an appointed leader, may have different leaders
emerge under different circumstances.

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2-141 Therefore, in a group or organisation that has an appointed leader, it follows that
flexibility of response by the leader according to situation should be the leader’s
approach. This is the emphasis of the style or situational theory.

2-142 The leader’s style changes from the authoritarian/autocratic to achieve results at
the one extreme, to the total delegation of responsibility and authority to the
group in order to achieve results at the other extreme.

2-143 The basic problem with situational theory is that most people work within a
narrow band of behaviours. Very few people can use a wide repertoire of
behaviour and we normally have a preferred “best set” of behaviours, which
makes it difficult to change because the preferred “best set” of behaviour is due
to a person’s personality, e.g. some people are basically “task” orientated and
others “people” orientated.

2-144 The identification of these problems led to the development of the contingency
theory, which is centred on the approach that the appropriate behaviour is
determined by the situation (this is discussed below).

2-145 D Marsh states that effective leadership is probably a function of four variables:

1. The personality cluster of the leader and his or her learned behaviour.

2. The predispositions, expectations, skills and personality clusters of the fol-

lowers.

3. The organisation, its structure, function, tasks, and the situation it faces
(leadership in a matrix organisation, for example, might be different from
that in a hierarchical structure, or the leadership required at the growth
stage is different from that of a decline stage in the institution).

4. The milieu (environment and social surroundings (Oxford Dictionary)), that

is the climate, ethos, and values expressed within the institution.

2.2.3 The Contingency Theory

2-146 This theory centres not only on leadership style but also upon the situation in
which the leader finds himself or herself. The site or situation is referred to as the
structure. Examples of a highly structured site would be a production line and an
unstructured site would be the research laboratory.

2-147 Charles Handy (1974 and 1993) has his “best fit” approach in which the four
areas of leader personality, subordinates, task and environment are brought
together in the most effective and efficient way. Given that all four are held within
a narrow band of established characteristics he describes how a given task is
best accomplished by the four variables coming together in the most efficient
manner.

2-148 He goes on to suggest different factors that would influence the structured or
unstructured nature of each of the four areas such as the leader’s value system
and/or his or her confidence in subordinates or the subordinates’ estimate of
their own confidence.

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2-149 This highlights the complex nature of the role of the leader. He has to assess
factors such as his own value system, to what degree he or she is prepared to
involve subordinates in the planning, decision-making and controlling processes
of running a task/business. He or she must also assess the subordinates
preferred styles of leadership and how this “fits” in with his or her own style.

2-150 The efficient leader must assess the movement toward the most suitable styles
of both himself or herself and subordinates related to the task and the
environment. How many times have we heard for instance that an interview
panel is looking not for the most qualified person but for the person who will “fit”
in with an established team.

2-151 Leadership should be to do with lifting vision, raising performance and building
personality, motivating the group to accomplish tasks it would not otherwise
accomplish.

2-152 The broad qualities needed to carry out this feat and the method of achievement
have been summarised in Figure 2.2 by Hickman and Silva in 1986 and detailed
by D Marsh (1992):

Figure 2.2

2-153 Leadership must be seen in terms of the performance of the group that is being
led. The leader must accept responsibility for the interaction of the group’s
members and for the ability of the group to complete the task that it is required
to undertake. The leader who automatically thinks “we the group” and not “I the
leader” will have the advantage of being part of the group and not standing
outside. The most effective leaders seem to be the people who concentrate on
the members of the group more than on the tasks that have to be completed.

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2-154 The leader should be building a structure that can handle the tasks required. If
the leader is removed for a short time, the operation should carry on as if nothing
had changed. The worst situation is if the system collapses because the leader
is removed for a short period. This does not mean that the leader becomes
redundant. On the contrary, the leader should be concentrating on the overview
of the group’s activities or on the next task still to be undertaken and not on the
day-to-day details of individuals’ activities.

2-155 I think that the success of the leader can be judged by the success of his or her
team. How well does the team cope with conflict, how well do the team
communicate with each other and how well does the team understand its goals.
All these functions of the team are a reflection of the leader’s ability to have the
team working together toward a common aim. It must be remembered that a
team working well together will perform better than both individuals and teams
that are not working together.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION

● Think about the members of a team that you are a member of

and make a list of the qualities that each member brings to
that team.

2.3 MOTIVATING STAFF

2.3.1 The Art of Delegation

2-156 Humans work together in teams, groups and organisations to accomplish all
manner of activities. The team will accomplish more than individuals if they all
work for the common goal and are directed in the appropriate way. When the
size of the task or tasks becomes too much for one person, the workload and
responsibility has to be distributed in some way. Delegation is more than a useful
tool it is essential to the success of an organisation.

2-157 With the development of flatter “matrix” style management structures it is now
more common to delegate authority to employee teams than it has been in the
past. This can lead to employees having more input into the management
and running of an organisation by virtue of taking responsibility for
delegated tasks.

2-158 The manager must choose carefully, the person who is to have the work or task
delegated to them. The manager is delegating part of his or her responsibility to
subordinates/team members but the overall responsibility for the wider
project/business remains with the manager. Therefore, the manager must be
able to trust their team. There must be clear guidelines for each party as to the
nature and extent of the task. Discussions should take place beforehand to
ensure that the person taking on the task is conversant with the task and has the
necessary qualifications and experience to undertake such a project. If this is
not the case, some staff development might be required.

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2-159 Delegation with empowerment, it is important that you delegate not only the
work but also the authority to get the work done. Try also to delegate the good
and the bad do not just push your dirty work down to subordinates they will soon
become fed up and demoralised.

2-160 I have given tasks and sometimes whole projects to colleagues, they have the
day-to-day responsibility and they use their own resourcefulness to overcome
difficulties. However, there should also be some perks that go with the work. For
example, they might be given the freedom to set their own meeting structure,
determine their own agendas and timescales within overall constraints. This
work might be away from their normal place of work, which will require resources
if the staff are to visit customers on their own site.

2-161 Do not delegate and then overrule. Give your staff chance to progress and
flourish they will not do this is if they think they are to be taken off the job for the
least little mistake. The worst thing that I have come across is where you are
asked to carry out a job or task and are then chastised because it is not done
the same way as the supervisor even though the end result is satisfactory. There
is nothing more demoralising than receiving negative comments because your
way of working is different. A manager/leader can certainly point out different
ways of operation but this should come after the praise for completing a
successful job.

2-162 Where organisations have to respond to customer’s needs and react rapidly,
then delegation of appropriate responsibility and authority to people that are
nearer the day-to-day operation of the business is highly beneficial. Decisions
can then be taken when and where they matter most without reference to more
senior managers that will undoubtedly be further from the operation.

2.3.2 Motivating Factors

2-163 Motivation is a term that we hear often but it is generally not incorporated into
formal training courses. The word is associated with human behaviour, meaning,
conscious thought that moves us to action. It is one of those characteristics of
life that seems to fit the old adage:

“I know it when I see it”

2-164 For educationalists it is at the very heart of their craft. It is very difficult for a
group or class to be self-motivated if they cannot see the relevance of the
subject being taught, e.g. electrical work to mechanical engineers and
engineering appreciation to navigators. These are necessary parts of the
course but not always appreciated by the student. Therefore, it is the job of the
teacher to impart the vision that enables students to see the reasons for their
tuition.

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2-165 As we move toward more matrix styles of management and the use of employee
teams continues to grow, one question that is taking on greater importance is
how to keep the team motivated over the longer term.

● What is the nature of teams that seem to sustain high levels of motivation?

2-166 First let us take a look at some of the things that motivate individuals:

● What makes us do anything?

● Why did we join the maritime industry?

● Why did some people choose navigation and others engineering?

2-167 Within our daily lives each day brings with it an endless list of decisions to be
made. The process of making those decisions is driven, in large part, by the
hope of a benefit or the fear of a consequence.

2-168 For example, many of us enjoy chocolate but we pay for the benefit of enjoying
the taste. Therefore, it is prudent to limit our intake for fear of the consequences
of too much sugar and fat in my diet, or the thought of the extra time on the
running machine to burn off the calories.

2-169 Psychologists have taken this further by defining these consequences as needs.
Our needs for sustenance, safety, security, belonging, recognition, and a sense
of growth and achievement become strong drivers (motivators) of behaviour.

2-170 So in an attempt to explain motivation, we need to appreciate the subtleties that

exist in human behaviour, and focus our attention on general principles of
motivation that have wider application. At least if we can understand some of
these principles, we might be better prepared as managers or team leaders to
lead a highly professional team in the long-term.

2-171 Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic to the individuals concerned. Intrinsic

motivation has been familiar to common sense long before being confirmed by
more precise investigation by psychologists. The intrinsic motivational factors
include the desire to find out things and explore the environment, the desire to
manipulate things, the sense of competence and the achievement motive. If
these motivational factors can be channelled in the right direction, they can be
very powerful in helping people to perform to the best of their ability for the good
of the organisation.

2-172 We would not be able to introduce the concept of motivation without a mention
of the work of important researchers in this field. The most famous of whom is
of course Maslow.

2-173 Maslow’s studies into motivation have influenced the theories of management
development for years partly due to the identification of the higher-level needs of
people, which will have an influence on their performance in the workplace.

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2-174 Cole (1996) describes Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as in Figure 2.3 below.

Figure 2.3

2-175 The needs break down as follows:

● Physiological needs – food, sex, sleep.

● Safety needs – the need for an environment relatively free from threats.

● Love needs – the needs relating to affection and relationships within a

group.

● Esteem needs – self-respect, self-esteem.

● Self-actualisation needs – the need for self-fulfilment.

2-176 Thomson and Mabye (1994), in their book Developing Human Resources, talk
about a committed workforce being a highly motivated workforce which shows
characteristics such as:

● loyalty;

● conscientiousness;

● responsibility; and

● reliability.

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2-177 This ideal can only be approached if the workforce has a sense of identification
with the organisation and a feeling of ownership of the decision-making process
within the company. Cole (1996) goes on to say that it has been argued that the
strength of Japanese industrial organisations has been due in part to the mutual
trust and loyalty between management and employees, as well as decision-
making being shared at all levels. It is much better to be open with staff and
involve them in the making of decisions by asking their opinion from the start of
the process.

2-178 The most common extrinsic motivator is financial, increased pay through a
bonus scheme or the incentive of earning commission. Some companies offer
preferential share options to employees. This has the effect of linking the
profitability of the company with the efforts of individuals’ work practices. Other
extrinsic motivators could be enhanced status within an organisation or
enhanced status outside the organisation and within the wider industry or
community. Pleasant working conditions and other fringe benefits are also
examples of motivational factors that can be used as incentives in return for
commitment to work from the staff.

2-179 Being part of a team may be voluntary. For example, when you decide to take
up a new position within a company you will invariably be expected to become
part of a team working for the common goals of the organisation. Sometimes
participation in a team will not be open to discussion. If the ship’s superintendent
is to be the owner’s representative at the dry docking of a ship, or at the new
build stage, then he or she will become part of the team that has responsibility
to work toward the successful completion of the work, to the correct timescale
and within the budget constraints. Whether being part of the team is voluntary or
not, successful performance will depend upon many different factors.

2-180 In the first instance becoming or intending to become part of a team will
inevitably start you to ask questions such as:

● What is the purpose of the team?

● Is it a topic that interests me?

● Who will be on the team with me?

● What kind of authority will we have?

● Is it important to management?

● What is the reward for participating?

● What is the risk (perceived as punishment) for not participating?

● How long will it run?

● Will I be better off as a result of my participation?

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2.3.3 Important Aspects of Team Motivation

2-181 Earlier in this chapter, we outlined the importance of clear direction for the team
to focus upon. This is not only a need for the team to be able to complete the
tasks before them; it is also necessary to motivate the team members to perform
well. Studies into team behaviour and motivation put at the top of almost
everyone’s list a clear purpose, focus, or mission. However, for the longer term,
people must ensure that the purpose or mission of the team or organisation
aligns with their personal wants and needs. Where a team is brought together
for a specific task if the mission is clear and the subject of sufficient importance,
then he or she might be able to sustain motivation for the duration. However, if it
is a topic that is not in line with the person’s wants and needs, motivation to
continue may diminish as time goes on.

2-182 One strategy with a lethargic team might be to stop the process, revisit the
team’s purpose or mission, and see if there is alignment on it. Even with a team
that seems well motivated, it still is a good strategy to recheck once in a while.

2-183 The second important aspect of team motivation is for the members to feel
stretched. Many people will say that their most rewarding team experiences
resulted from some sort of challenge. However, in the workplace, these
challenges occur infrequently and teams are not presented with stimulating
challenges every day. So the question for the team leader becomes how to
provide challenges for the team at frequent intervals.

2-184 If a challenge has a motivating effect, then there are caveats. If the challenge is
too difficult, perhaps perceived as impossible, then team members may give up
before they start. However, the same result may occur if the members perceive
the challenge as too easy. Little energy is required to accomplish something so
easily obtained.

2-185 So, for ongoing teams, periodic stimulation in the form of a worthy challenge is
a method of maintaining motivation.

2-186 A shipping company building a team of managers to oversee the successful

commercial operation and technical maintenance of its ships, will require more
than just attending to the professional requirements of the task. The importance
of building the interpersonal relationships is just as important. Teams that get on
well and like each other consistently perform better than those teams that do not
have good interpersonal relationships.

2-187 There are times when companies have appointed staff to a particular post more
for the fact that they will “fit in” better with the existing team than for their
technical qualifications and skills. This is one reason why industry sometimes
recruits graduates that have a degree in an unrelated subject to the job that they
are expected to carry out. The company wishes an employee educated to a
certain standard, that they can mould into the corporate way.

2-188 It follows that if members of a team genuinely like each other and there is a spirit of
camaraderie, meaning comradeship, fellowship, and loyalty, then the people on
these teams work hard to develop and maintain their relationships. They carry out
activities instinctively that lead to effective teamwork, which is open and direct
communication, frequent praising of each others’ contributions, and mutual support.

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2-189 If you have an existing team that needs building and does not have the
camaraderie that you would like then you will have to arrange for there to be a
better understanding between the team members. For most of the time, our like
or dislike of someone is related, in the main, to how well we understand them.
Since our formal training has not addressed this, most of us enter adulthood
ill-equipped to deal with the myriad of personalities, temperaments, cultures,
values, beliefs, ideologies, religions, and idiosyncratic behaviours of those we
meet and work with.

2-190 Do not overlook simple solutions to this problem such as designing an off-site
activity for the team. This is the reason for the increase in corporate adventure
weekend breaks, but sometimes it is beneficial just to have strategic planning
days away from the office as a way of building camaraderie.

2-191 As stated earlier in this chapter people are motivated by having responsibility for
carrying out and completing a task. Having ownership of an identifiable block of
work is also recognised as providing motivation for teams. Implied in this
concept is the understanding that the responsibility comes along with authority
to make the necessary changes. Teams that have both the responsibility and
authority tend to maintain motivation over longer periods of time.

2-192 Responsibility can be demotivating if the consequences of error or failure are too
great. If the organisation, for example, has a history of punishing mistakes, then
the giving of responsibility is viewed more as a negative. The short-term
performance may be good (remember fear is only a short term motivator), but
long-term motivation will suffer. It is difficult to sustain high performance when
energy is being sapped by fear.

2-193 Personal and team growth can provide another basis for long-term motivation.
When people feel they are moving forward, learning new concepts, adding to
their skill base, and stretching their minds, motivation tends to remain high.
Personal growth adds value to the individual, enhancing self-esteem and
self-worth. Appraisal systems are a good opportunity to focus on the development
of individuals in the context of the organisation’s own goals and strategic plans.

2.3.4 Objectives or Goals

2-194 Some motivational theorists suggest that staff are motivated by working toward
goals or objectives and that this, in itself, is a motivational condition. It is certainly
true that the best way to tackle large projects is to work toward smaller objectives.
However, if staff have too many objectives or work to carry out this will be a big
demotivator. Cole (1996) states that the researcher, Locke, found that people’s
performance improved when they were set specific but demanding objectives.

2-195 Motivation was also enhanced when individuals received feedback on their
performance. Politeness oils the wheels of conflict. The objective approach can
have a detrimental effect on business especially if the objectives are imposed
instead of being negotiated.

2-196 It can be seen from this brief description of motivation that the appraisal system,
if used well, can be such an important tool for the manager in the motivation of
his or her staff.

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2.4 COMMUNICATING WITH STAFF

2.4.1 Meetings

2-197 Meetings can be one of the most time consuming and costly activities that an
organisation can undertake. If you add up the hourly rate of the people involved
then the cost of meetings become apparent. It is up to individual managers to
ensure that the meetings within their control are focused and to the point.

2-198 However, most organisations need meetings. They are good for communication
between teams, making group decisions and are good for pooling knowledge
and skills. However, if they are not focused or the meetings are too frequent then
frustration, tension, hostility and conflict can be the result.

2-199 This is particularly true in a modern company where time is of the essence and people
need to be focused or they will not complete the work for which they are responsible.

2-200 The composition of the meeting is also critical. If people are requested to sit through
meetings that are not relevant to them, then a negative effect will be the result.

● So how can we ensure that meetings are an asset to the company instead
of being a liability?

2-201 The first thing to consider is why meetings are needed and is it necessary to
hold a meeting under the circumstances given. Meetings are usually required to
solve a problem or accomplish a goal or purpose by bringing together a group
of people who have the relevant mix of knowledge and skills to bring about a
successful outcome.

2-202 Given this purpose the priority should be to choose the composition and set the
time and venue to ensure that the members can attend. They should be informed
well in advance and there really should be a good reason for calling a meeting
at short notice if it is not just going to be a waste of time.

2-203 The agenda is the primary source of information and this together with any
supporting documentation should be circulated within a timescale that allows the
members to read and digest the information. It is important to allow time for people
to gather any additional information that may be required as a consequence of
seeing the agenda and any supporting documentation.

2-204 The job of the chair is most important if the meeting is to run smoothly and on
time. The chair must be firm and even if necessary set the end time for the
meeting and not allow it to overrun.

2-205 The area most likely to cause problems is “Any Other Business” (AOB) usually
placed at the end of the meeting. This has the effect of being a dumping ground
or a talking shop for all the different issues that may or may not be relevant.

2-206 One of the ways to limit the effect of over-running due to AOB is to take the items
that are proposed under AOB and set them as agenda items for the next meeting.
Another way to focus the activity of the group is to have items on the agenda that
are for information only and not to allow any discussion under this section. The next
section can then be limited and discussion only takes place under these items.

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2.4.2 Communicating with Others Especially in Multi-Cultural Situations

2-207 The formal forms of communication in businesses and organisations can be

divided in three ways:

● The first is the mechanics of communication, memos, telephones, e-mails

and other computer systems such as intranets.

● The second is the interpersonal skill of communication such as giving

instructions, conducting interviews and holding meetings.

● The third form is the organisation of the lines of communication, management

structures, committee structures and project teams.

2-208 There is also the informal system of communication the so-called jungle/galley
telegraph and rumours spread quickly. It is very important that, if there is
information to give to your team, you tell them. It is demoralising for members of
your team to here important information from sources other than their leader.

2-209 One of the worse habits of leaders is to receive information and then assume
everyone else knows the same information to the same level. Another important
factor when setting up lines of information is to have a positive reporting system.
For example:

● “you must report project progress at regular intervals”; and not

● “you will report when you have made progress”.

2-210 As I wrote the original script, the national news was carrying the story of a
company that had just sacked 2,500 employees by using a text message on
mobile phones. This struck me as appalling and must have a demotivating affect
on the staff that were left working for the organisation.

2-211 People will have to decide which form of communication is preferable in different
circumstances. Writing things down will have the added bonus of accuracy.

2-212 Language is not only different in linguistic terms, but must also be understood
by sub-groups.

2-213 Remember what is normal in one culture could be offensive in another.

2.5 TIME MANAGEMENT

“There are never enough hours in the day”

2-214 This is a familiar statement that is becoming more and more common these
days. The truth is that we all have the same amount of time and, therefore, it is
the way in which we manage that time that is important because once it is used
it is gone forever we cannot get it back.

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2-215 Some people will be more successful than others at the management of their time.
It helps if we try to analyse what we spend our time doing. Look at the big picture
to give an overview. The pie chart in Figure 2.4 below gives a good overview of the
time taken on typical activities that a working person carries out during a week.

Figure 2.4

2-216 The total number of hours available during the week is 168, of which about
89 hours will be spent on personal activities such as eating, sleeping and
travelling to and from work. Around 40 hours will be spent at work and the
remainder is ours to manage as we see fit. If we decide to pursue a job that
requires more than 40 hours then one of the other areas, that have a call on our
time, must suffer. This could be at the expense of, for example, personal
development or time spent with the family.

2-217 Usually we will find that we only have a small amount of “discretionary time” and
if we are not careful it will be easy to exhaust it. The improvement of time
management is difficult – we must treat it in the same way that other people lose
weight or give up smoking. Improving your time management needs
commitment. The first step in the process is to analyse your starting position and
for that you need to gather some information.

2.5.1 The Time Audit

2-218 Record all your movements, activities and tasks on a time line. Your analysis of
this exercise will identify the activities that are taking time but not contributing to
the important tasks that you have to accomplish.

2-219 For example, it may be that unnecessary telephone calls are being forwarded to you.

2.5.2 Time Bandits

2-220 Time bandits may be important activities or something that we are obliged to
carry out but they will be activities that keep us from doing things that have more
value or importance to achieving our considered goals and targets.

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2-221 However, you have to decide the source of individual problems:

● Was the distraction due to too much work?

● If so, have you taken on too much?

● Are the distractions important or are they due to your inability to say “no”?

2-222 Routine tasks can be delegated and meetings can be more focused.

2-223 One of the worst “time bandits” is inaction or a “laissez faire” attitude toward
important or difficult tasks. We all accomplish some activities better or easier
than other activities. How many times have you been determined to complete a
task that you have prioritised and allocated time to only to be thwarted by a lack
of motivation or being side-tracked by another task that is just not as important.
The second task may be more desirable or interesting and before you know it
time has run out.

2-224 It is essential to think about what you are going to do and carry out a little
planning before starting a large or difficult task. Ask yourself:

● is it possible to break up the task into more manageable sizes?

● is it possible to delegate some of the task?

2-225 Organise yourself so that it is easy to carry on with what you are doing, try to
remove all other distractions such as trade journals, access to the Internet,
switch off your e-mail in-box reminder.

2-226 It is very difficult to stay focused on a task especially if it is one that you do not
enjoy. It is a big failing of people running small businesses that the “paperwork”
is not up to standard or the vouchers are missing to complete the accounts. This
is especially true if the business activity is of a practical nature and the office
side is completely different from the core business activity.

2-227 People will find all manner of things to do rather than, for example, complete the
documentation to finish the sales invoice in a reasonable timescale. This then
has a knock-on effect because the cash flow of the company starts to deteriorate
and it is then difficult to pay the suppliers.

2-228 The concept of the internal customer is a good motivating driver because you
are then giving an undertaking to another person to complete work in a
reasonable time to an acceptable standard, in the same way that you would if
you were supplying a service when running a business.

2.5.3 Planning and Goal Setting

2-229 Planning and target or goal setting is covered more comprehensively under the
section on project management. However, it should be said here that it is not
good enough to say:

● “I do not have time to plan”

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2-230 Instead managers should say:

● “I cannot afford not to plan”

2-231 Effective management always requires planning. Even your daily work will benefit
from some thought at the start of the day. Large projects will require many hours
of planning. Planning allows you to consider the bigger picture to build up an idea
of the intermediate objectives or milestones required to complete the work.

2-232 Daily and weekly planning are valuable tools in the management of time yet few
people use them enough. I know that I quickly look at my diary, take note of the
meetings arranged or the customers that I will be visiting. I then think “I will have
all this other time to complete my other work” without planning what I will be
doing, major projects, important activities or people that I must contact. In fact,
all the activities that do not involve other people in a formal arrangement are
regarded as being unplanned.

2-233 Combining weekly and daily planning into an overall guide to your work can have
significant advantages, such as:

● time can be allocated for updating major projects; and

● daily to-do lists can be added, as well as key meetings, discussions and
other activities.

2-234 Time should be allocated to think about your own personal goals:

● Does your education and experience match the needs of the organisation
as it currently stands, or is there a requirement for personal development,
bearing in mind that you are the person that your team will be looking to
for guidance about new legislation or technical innovations?

2-235 Intelligent thinking and planning at the start of the day will accomplish two things.
It will allow you to focus on the important tasks of the day and it will have a
motivating effect because you will have divided the work into manageable sizes.

2-236 Consider what has to be done, make a list and allocate time to each section. The
hardest part will be not to overrun each section. Often when we are faced with
deadlines we panic and run around trying to complete all the tasks and not
achieving anything. It is better to concentrate on the important tasks by
prioritising. Make a list with all the important tasks at the top and methodically
work your way down the list.

2.6 DEVELOPMENT OF YOUR TEAM

2.6.1 Appraisal

2-237 Once the targets and goals of the organisation have been set then appraisal
against those targets becomes possible. Staff do need to know how well they are
doing and where they can improve. They need to be supported not just by the
individual but also by the organisation in the form of support for staff
development courses or seminars.

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2-238 Appraisals should be seen in a positive way but so often they become traumatic
and then they are more of an impediment to development rather than being
helpful.

2-239 The chance for dialogue between managers and their staff is very important. It
should be common practice to ensure that the interview takes place in a
closed environment without interruptions. This means careful planning of the
time and the venue. Holding an appraisal with the phone going or the door being
opened is embarrassing, annoying and inefficient. You should always regard the
staff as being the greatest asset of the organisation and as such their welfare
and development should be of paramount importance.

2.6.2 Continual Professional Development (CPD)

2-240 Professional development is not only about attending courses or studying further
qualifications, it is also about looking carefully at the responsibilities you have
and asking:

● how can I make myself more effective at the job I am doing?

2-241 I walked into the boss’s office one day to see him staring out the window.
Knowing that he normally worked long hours, I was puzzled at the lack of activity.
“Nothing to do I see”, I ventured. His reply has had a long-lasting influence on
me since. He stated that it was essential for busy people to stop what they are
doing from time to time and reflect on the action to be taken. You can get so
engrossed in the daily activity of the job that you do not actually achieve your
objectives both personal and professional.

2-242 It is sometimes beneficial to remove yourself from the usual surroundings to

stimulate the thought process. This is why some companies regularly have
strategic planning days away from the organisation and all its usual distractions.

2-243 I was lucky enough to be involved with a project not so long ago that was carried
out in the Middle East. The project was to qualify 80 operatives at a newly
constructed port.

2-244 The team had been assembled specifically for the job and, as such, were able
to achieve their goal in a short timespan. This is something that the team would
not have been able to achieve if they had not been removed from their normal
everyday jobs and asked to work on the project specifically.

2-245 The project was completed on time and within the costing parameters set. Time
was not allowed to slip away and unforeseen tasks were dealt with as they
arose. The major reason for success was that the team was focused on that task
for the duration of the project.

2-246 The marine professional should take responsibility for his or her own
development, reflect on their work and their position. Plan out your milestones to
achieve where you want to be in say five years time and ten years time.

2-247 It is considered good practice to build a portfolio of information about the

professional development activities that you have undertaken. The Institute of

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Marine Engineering, Science and Technology and the Nautical Institute produce
documentation, which acts as a framework, a member can then index all the
documentation that will build up.

2-248 Under the requirements of the ISM Code it is important that companies show
that their staff have access to and undertake staff development. It has also been
demonstrated by the CBI that there is a positive link between staff development
and company performance. Therefore, there is a powerful argument for staff to
undertake CPD and for the company to support the activities.

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3. REPORT WRITING AND TECHNICAL
PRESENTATIONS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

● describe the reasons for the careful choice of sources of

information;

● describe appropriate methods of gathering information

required for a project; and

● state how that information is structured in a report.

2-249 The expertise of collecting information and formulating reports and

presentations is an important lesson to be learned. I make no excuses for
including a small amount of philosophy describing the nature of knowledge
because it puts into perspective how difficult it is for humans to communicate in
the way that we want. It is not so difficult to impart information, but has that
been received in the way that we wish, and been interpreted in the intended
manner?

2-250 Educationalists have philosophical notions at the heart of pedagogical study

about how people learn. Universities focus on the scientific approach to
learning, which asks students to gather information in a reasoned and
methodical way so that conclusions drawn are deduced from established
sources.

2-251 Cohen and Manion (1994) state that people find out about the world around us
by one or a combination of methods that fall into three broad categories.
These are:

● Experience

Experience is one’s own body of knowledge and is very important from

which to build a solid base. This derives from personal experiences and
contacts with other people. This should make networking an important
priority for the ship’s superintendent. Building up contacts and fostering
relationships is a key operation for success.

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● Reasoning

Reasoning comes with a health warning. The logic is sound when based
on the original concept that would use a sequence of logical steps to
deduce valid conclusions such as:

All planets orbit the sun;

The earth is a planet;
Therefore, the earth orbits the sun.

However, you must be wary of the person who takes a specific event or
action and makes a general statement to prove a point.

● Research

Research requires a systematic approach to the collection of data and a

rigorous approach to the critical analysis of the findings.

2-252 These broad categories are more complex and interesting than we have time or
space for here so it is worth reading further from some of the established texts
that have been listed in the bibliography at the end of this section.

3.1 GATHERING INFORMATION

2-253 When gathering information you should be very careful and methodical in your
actions. The research method you choose will have an important impact on the
length of time it takes to complete your task. However, it will first help to have a
brief look at the nature of knowledge because it can illustrate that it is important
to gather and present your information very carefully. Do not forget, your
audience will pick up on information that they already know about even if this
does not have a major impact on your version of events. It is very important for
you to lead the way through your project. If there is not a clear path for the
audience to follow, they will wander off and you will have lost the opportunity to
press home your message.

2-254 Use all the tools at your disposal and do not forget the saying:

“A picture paints a thousand words”

2-255 Steer clear of acronyms and jargon: you must present your topic in a clear and
concise way. Communication does not only mean using the language it also
means sending the right information in the right way. A highly technical
presentation is fine to a group of well qualified specialists, but not to a group of
young teenagers expecting to see a presentation on the latest chart-topping songs.

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3.2 KNOWLEDGE

What is knowledge?

2-256 This question at first glance seems easy. I mean, everyone knows what
knowledge is, don’t they? It is not until you actually think just a minute what
knowledge is that you realise the question is not as easy as at first thought.

2-257 The current Oxford Dictionary describes knowledge as “a person’s range of

information” whereas, according to that well-known educationalist, B S Bloom,
knowledge is defined as the remembering of previously learned material. This
may involve the recall of a wide range of material, from specific facts to complete
theories, but all that is required is the bringing to mind of the appropriate
information. Knowledge represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the
cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956).

2-258 There is, however, a different approach to describing what we mean when we
talk of knowledge. Man’s knowledge of the natural and social world in which he
or she lives can be differentiated in several ways. R S Peters has put forward that
there are seven or eight different kinds of knowledge, distinguishable in principle
from each other and which preclude logically any interrelationships with each
other (The Philosophy of Education, R S Peters).

2-259 The nature of these forms of knowledge are a distinct way in which our
experience becomes structured around the use of accepted public symbols. The
symbols thus having public meaning, their use is in some way testable against
experience and the different forms can be classified as follows:

● distinct disciplines or forms of knowledge (sub-divisible):

– mathematics,

– physical sciences,

– human sciences,

– history,

– religion,

– literature and the fine arts,

– philosophy; and

● fields of knowledge:

– theoretical,

– practical.

These may or may not include elements of moral knowledge (Knowledge and
the Curriculum, P H Hirst, 1974).

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2-260 We now have a much more concise picture of knowledge than the ideas put
forward by Bloom and, to sum up the idea of forms of knowledge, I would like to
use the analogy of a piece of chalk which goes something like this:

How does one look at a piece of chalk?

To a person unfamiliar with differing forms of knowledge it would appear as no

more than a teaching resource. The educated person, however, could look at the
chalk from a:

● scientific (what is it made of?) view,

● mathematical (what are its dimensions?) view,

● moral (should I use this as a weapon?) view,

● social (what is it being used for?) view; and

● historical (how has it been used in the past?) view.

2-261 Therefore, to be introduced to different forms of knowledge is to see the world in

a new way, to extend your conception of reality and to extend the possibilities of
experiences open to you, e.g. I don’ think that the education and training of
engineers has enough material about people skills, relationships and
psychological issues.

2-262 The reason for making these distinctions at this stage in the learning process is
to illustrate the pitfalls that can face the superintendent if he or she is not careful
about the information presented to other colleagues, especially to the senior
management. The reasons for this are two-fold:

● The first is that they rely on the information being presented, to make
important decisions of a strategic nature which could have substantial
resource implications for the company.

● The second is a personal one, which is that you are putting yourself on
show through the work that you produce. A superintendent will be judged
by the results of his or her performance and presenting information and
imparting knowledge in the correct way is a very good method of showing
the world what you can do.

2-263 Langford (1969) states that A J Ayer’s requirements for knowledge are:

● firstly, that “what is known should be true”; and

● secondly, that “one should be completely sure of what one knows”.

2-264 However, these two criteria alone are not enough to say categorically that a
person has knowledge, since a superstitious person who had inadvertently
walked under a ladder might be convinced that as a result he or she was about
to suffer a misfortune, and he might well be correct. But to say that they knew
that this was to happen would not be true.

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2-265 The important learning point here is that if you present a true conclusion without
appearing to have adequate background information and knowledge then the
likely conclusion is that the researcher/presenter does not really know the
subject.

2-266 The evidence base for the knowledge that is being presented must stand up to
outside scrutiny. People will be ready to question your evidence base and,
therefore, will challenge your knowledge. You must to be ready to defend you
evidence base and the best way to do this is to be sure of the empirical source
and methods of your research. This will ensure that your information and
conclusions have a firm basis in fact.

3.3 RESEARCH METHODS

2-267 Time and resource constraints dictate the method of research used for a survey.
If as a consequence questionnaires are chosen then much thought must go into
the design of the questionnaire to overcome the classic problem of the lack of
response to questionnaires that should be expected during a survey.

2-268 Cohen and Manion (1994) suggest that a flow chart might be useful to anticipate
the probable answers to any questions and to check the arrangement and
structure of those questions to make the survey more user-friendly.

2-269 Thought should be given to the wording of questions and should not include
open-ended questions but could include tick boxes. Colour and/or desktop
publishing would support the use of “tick boxes” and short clear questions to
make the overall impact of the questionnaire more appealing.

2-270 During a survey, follow-up letters might improve the response rate. However,
Cohen and Manion (1994) suggest that introduction letters or follow-up letters
should include reference to the importance of the survey to the participant, e.g.
if the participants are being questioned as part of the Merchant Navy, then
the benefit to the Merchant Navy as a whole should be emphasised and not the
benefit to the individual or his or her company. Success might come when the
participants contacted in connection with the postal questionnaire are offered an
incentive, possibly a lunch or an open day then the person might have the
opportunity to conduct an interview using the questionnaire as a prompt and
structure for the interview.

2-271 This action might give a chance to test the questionnaire and highlight any
ambiguity of questions, which could be subsequently changed before posting
the questionnaires to the other identified participants. The questions should have
been tested before the survey by carrying out a trial on colleagues. In this way
the structure could have been changed so that participants would be more
predisposed to completing the questionnaire.

2-272 The postal questionnaire, however, might not be the best method of market
research for the Merchant Navy. The questionnaire used as a prompt sheet to
structure individual interviews will probably prove to be better but there will be a
cost implication. The interviews could take place as part of an ongoing process,
for example as part of meetings or forum that are held several times throughout
the year.

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2-273 Reading the document, after a break is beneficial to see how an outside reader
might become confused, even though at the time of writing all seemed logical.
I think that an independent reader is necessary or as Judith Bell (1993)
suggests, reading the document out aloud to check for grammar and suitable
links to ensure that the text flowes smoothly from one argument to another.

2-274 Time management should be managed well. A planning exercise, as proposed

by Judith Bell (1993), such as drawing up a simple timetable of events to check
that one was not falling behind at each stage of the project, would save time at
the final stage.

3.4 ANALYSING DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE

2-275 When analysing documentary evidence you must be confident about the validity
of the source document. It is always desirable to reference your work so that
readers can check for themselves where the information has come from. The
other big problems that arise with taking information from documentary sources
are sampling and interpretation of the original text. Some documents may not be
original source documents and might, therefore, be quoting from other work. If
this is the case then the author might have already put one interpretation on the
original information.

2-276 Taking information and quoting it “out of context” must also be guarded against.
This is a great technique for people who have their own agenda and are using
information from any source to support their cause.

3.5 INTERVIEW TECHNIQUES

2-277 When conducting interviews to gather information this method is both the
technique’s strength and weakness. It is a strength because the interviewer has
the chance to extract a more elaborate answer from the interviewee and it is its
weakness because it is open to subjectivity and bias on the part of the
interviewer.

2-278 The interviewer can reduce some of this subjectivity by preparing prompt lists or
questions that guide him or her through the interview. In fact, Cohen and Manion
(1994) outline four types of interview:

● the structured interview;

● the unstructured interview;

● the non-directive interview; and

● the focused interview.

2-279 The names are fairly self-explanatory in so much as the structured interview
does not allow the interviewer any leeway to change the questions, he or she
must ask them as prepared beforehand. The unstructured interview
might still have a guideline but it will be broadly unrestricted in its line of
questioning.

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2-280 The non-directive interview is similar to the psychiatric interview where the
interviewee in free to express his or her subjective views. This form of interview
then led to the development of the focused interview. This form of
interview focuses on the subjective responses of the interviewee to then collect
the relevant data.

2-281 Recently, the cognitive interview has been developed mostly as a method to aid
the police when interviewing witnesses to a crime. This could be an interesting
technique to adopt to find out more after a marine accident has occurred
and people are reluctant to talk on the grounds that they might
incriminate themselves. More information can be found on the web by
typing “cognitive interview” into one of the popular search engines or by typing
www.monash.edu.au into your web browser.

Figure 3.1

2-282 Figure 3.1 shows the sequencing of operations or tasks in process. The events
can be shown visually so that the most productive method of sequencing the
events can be found. They do not necessarily give an exact plan view of the total
operation but enough to see where the bottlenecks are at a glance.

3.6 SOURCES OF INFORMATION

2-283 The maritime industry is highly complex and yet some parts have been made
straightforward by the work of the people within the industry. Take initial
education and training for example.

2-284 Most countries have a well established system for entry into their country’s
merchant marine. This will mostly be centred on the international requirements
of IMO. Whatever the system, the entry and progress to junior officers is
relatively straightforward.

2-285 The career prospects, progression, education and training after the rise through
the ranks to master or chief engineer, becomes much more complicated and
subsequently the collection of information about ships and shipping also
becomes much more complicated.

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2-286 The Internet is fast becoming one of the most important points of call for
information. For example, the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) has their
website at www.eagle.org and all their standards are downloadable free of
charge. You can subscribe free of charge, to Lloyd’s List newsletter which will
give you a very quick overview of the day’s shipping headlines. You will, of
course, have to subscribe in full to read the stories behind the headlines but that
will take longer and time will have to be allocated.

2-287 Trade journals are an excellent source of information but which ones are the
best for the market that you are in. This will have to be an individual choice based
on your own circumstances.

2-288 The professional institutes are worth a great deal of consideration. The three
biggest are:

● The Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology.

● The Nautical Institute.

● The Royal Institute of Naval Architects.

They all produce technical papers and books covering a wide range of subjects.

2-289 Networking is certainly one of the most effective ways of building up your
contacts and ensuring that you are known throughout the sector of the industry
in which you operate. There are very good programmes of events and
conferences organised for marine professionals at different times and places
throughout the world.

3.7 WRITING TECHNICAL REPORTS AND CONTRACTS

2-290 The first thing to remember is that a project is not complete until the report
has been written. All the hard work in gathering evidence, collecting your
thoughts and structuring your arguments must now be presented in the
best way.

2-291 The emphasis here is on “successfully” because reports can be written in such
a way that the information and facts are so difficult to extract that the report does
not fulfil its purpose.

2-292 The report is also an extension of you, the writer, and it must be
remembered that once in the public domain your report might be read by
people other than the person it was first intended for. It is not unknown that
a marine surveyor is called upon to defend his work in a court of law long
after it was written.

2-293 The way that you present the facts and the language you use can change the
message that is carried within a report. This has been graphically illustrated
recently when the British government were accused of “sexing up” a report to
convey their views, on the threat to national security, in a stronger way.

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2-294 The change in emphasis will be a subtle process and will involve changing
words from say:

● “may be able to” – to

● “will be able to”.

This changes the whole emphasis of the statement.

2-295 If the surveyor said in his or her report that, a piece of equipment “may fail in the
future”, this would convey a different message from “will fail in the future”. It could
be argued that both statements are drawn from the same set of facts, but one
carries a stronger message about the likely risk of equipment failure.

2-296 It is, therefore, most important that you understand the focus of the report and
the rationale that you have been given by your customer. The two-way flow of
information and communication starts with the information that you receive
about the task that you have been asked to accomplish.

2-297 You must remember that the initial information might have come from overseas,
from a non-specialist and from someone with a lot of money at stake. Therefore,
the information that you receive might not be as complete or as accurate as you
might wish.

2-298 You do not have to look far among shipping professionals to see an illustration
of differing points of view. Take the ship in a discharge port that has to complete
the cargo work and carry out a survey on the cargo handling equipment.

2-299 The chief officer is focused on the cargo and the chief engineer on the survey
work that has to be done. If the two do not “communicate” effectively, then the
master may have a situation where the cargo handling equipment is in pieces
ready for the surveyor and the cargo is still in the ship.

2-300 This situation might be exacerbated if the people are from different nationalities
and/or cultures.

2-301 It may be that the initial information received is not extensive and you will have
to carry out some research before starting or accepting the contract for the work.
It is, however, very important that you are happy with the terms of reference
before spending too much time and effort on what might turn out to be a lost
cause.

2-302 People’s needs will be different; some will only need the bare essentials of the
project while others will need to know the details. The executive summary should
be able to give the overview without the detail.

2-303 The main body of the report should contain the detail required, but also don’t
forget that people learn by being led from something that they do know to
something that they don’t. They are able to associate the two and thus learning
will take place. It is important that you take your audience from the known to the
unknown.

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2-304 Choose your title carefully. This can have quite an impact on your work because
people remember a well thought out catchy title long after the presentation. If
your work is published on the Internet or in paper form then the correct name
will assist in the work being retrieved by the relevant researchers and interested
people in the future.

3.7.1 Typical Report Sections

2-305 A report is quite different from, say, an essay. Essays do not usually have
headings or sub-headings. A report is full of headings, sections, sub-headings
and sub-sections. It is important that they are all numbered and follow a logical
sequence that is clear and concise. Depending on the type of report that you
have been asked to write, you should consider the following sections. The
headings might change to suit the local circumstances, but should be used as a
framework to guide the surveyor when writing his or her report.

Title Page

Which should include the name of the report (what is it about), name and
affiliation or title of the author, release date and any additional useful information
such as for whom the report has been prepared.

Declaration

That the material in the report is the author’s own work.

Acknowledgement

To those who have helped or influenced your work (used only for academic or
research work where you have had significant help from other people).

Contents Page

If the report is longer than a few pages, then the contents listing is essential. It
should list the structure of the report from hereon with appropriate page or
section references, such as shown on the following page.

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1.0 Abstract or Executive Summary

2.0 Introduction

2.1 The purpose of the report

2.2 The scope of the report

2.3 Limitations, assumptions or background

3.0 Glossary

3.1 Essential for technical reports or reports of a specialised nature

4.0 Main Technical Chapters

4.1 Survey work

4.2 Accident investigation

4.3 Legal reports

5.0 Conclusions

5.1 Should be referenced back to the main body of the report

5.2 Conclusions should present a well reasoned argument based on fact

6.0 References

6.1 State the source of material from books or other places such as the
Internet, journals or films and videos

7.0 Appendices

7.1 Additional detailed information that is relevant to the report

If you are producing a report longer than a few pages, then it will be essential to use page
numbers within the contents page as shown on the following page.

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Contents

1.0 Abstract or Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

2.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

2.1 To report on a structural failure

2.2 Limitations, assumptions or background

3.0 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

3.1 Engineering terms relating to stresses in structures

4.0 Main Technical Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

4.1 Survey work carried out onboard

4.2 Stress calculations on different sizes of steel structures

4.3 Reduced strength of corroded scantlings

5.0 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

5.1 Area of the failure

5.2 Reasons for the failure

6.0 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

7.0 Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

7.1 Guide to the design and building of bulk carriers

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2-306 If you are carrying out an academic study, it is important to explain the method
used in conducting the study. It is important to remember that research studies
are meant to be repeatable and if this is to be so then the next researcher must
have all the relevant information. It is also important, as part of academic study,
to publish the results of your study and they should be included in a separate
section.

2-307 Attention should be given to the presentation of the project, for example the
information should be presented in as concise a way as possible. Don’t forget
your audience may not have English as their first language.

2-308 Draw your conclusions from the evidence presented and leave any subjective
statements until after the project trial, and be as objective as possible.

2-309 It is important to reference your work correctly. The referencing should not
interrupt the flow of the document but it should support what you are saying and
give strength to your own arguments.

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4. THE USE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

● name the most important operating systems for office and

home computers;

● describe the many uses of computers for ship’s

superintendents;

● state the major difference between using traditional film

cameras and digital cameras;

● describe the use of three computer applications;

● state how presentation software can be used to their

advantage for the delivery of information; and

● state the names of, and give a brief description of, at least five
components that go to make up the structure that is known as
a personal computer.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

2-310 This chapter will give some general information about the use of IT by the ship’s
superintendent.There is a fundamental change in the working practices between the
shipboard environment and the shipping company’s head office. The work on-board
is a mixture of the cognitive function intertwined with the need for practical
operations, whereas the work of the ship’s superintendent is one focused on
information-gathering, arranging and presenting. The modern tool central to this
function is the computer and its amazing array of software and peripheral equipment.

2-311 One of the golden rules about using information technology is to ensure that
your work is properly saved and that you make regular backup copies of your
work. I have found from years of experience of being responsible for an office
environment that this is the single most important activity that you can carry out.

2-312 You must guard against not saving your work in the first place. Good software
will stop and prompt you, if you are exiting without saving your work. However, it
is possible to override the prompt and delete your work without saving. There is
an increased chance of this happening if you have several documents open for
reference and you are closing them down at the same time. You might not wish
to save temporary changes to the reference documents and then accidentally
close your main document without saving.

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2-313 The best defence against this is to be fully aware of the actions that the software
goes through as it saves. If the software has an auto save facility then make sure
that this is switched on. You might then have a chance to recover the majority of
your work if there is a power failure for example, or if the machine “crashes”.

2-314 If you are working in an office where you log onto a network, do not forget that
your personal settings are usually set from your log-in script. Modern log-in
procedures are better than they were in the past and it is difficult to log-in without
entering your correct username and password. If you are using a slightly older
system and you find that some of your old favourites are not where you expected
them to be, do not be quick to suspect the computer of skulduggery, it may well
be that you have not logged on correctly.

2-315 It is worth mentioning here that as a general rule, if something has gone wrong with
your computer the root cause will probably be attributable to the operation that was
carried out just prior to the malfunction. For example, if your machine “crashes”, it
is worth making a note of what you were doing at the time; this will help the
technicians to find the fault. If you are using a machine at home then be aware that
games software is one of the most common causes for the computer to crash. You
should also be aware that not all operating systems work in the same way and
whilst this may not be a problem for the end user it could well be a problem if you
are installing software at home to be compatible with your software at work.

2-316 The most common operating systems currently in use are the Windows systems
produced by Microsoft. These systems started with Windows 3.11 and are currently
at Windows XP and “Vista”. A lot has happened in between and the systems and
they are as different as the Model T Ford is to the modern day Jaguar XK8.

2-317 The operating systems have been produced to follow two distinct lines of
evolution. Windows 3.11, 95, 98, ME and XP (Home) have all been produced with
the small business/personal user in mind. The structure has a similar core (File
Allocation Table (FAT)), backward compatibility and is more tolerant of games
software. Therefore, not all the problems of the past have been completely lost.
Microsoft estimate that over 40% of Windows problems are related to the drivers
from the hardware manufacturers. If you then add problems due to components
overheating, parts failing, poor bus timing and unreliable power supplies, it is no
wonder that a lot of computer problems can be traced to the make of the
computer parts and how they are fitted together in any one machine.

2-318 Windows NT, 2000 and XP (Professional) have all been produced for the
business user and as such uses a different working protocol to the small
business, home user software mentioned above. The New Technology File
System (NTFS) is more efficient than the FAT system. However, it is less tolerant
of non-business software.

2-319 Software written for both systems will run, and to the end user will probably look
and feel the same but the software will need different drivers, when loading the
software, to connect and interact with the different systems. User files produced
by the application (e.g. Word) on one system will, however, work perfectly on the
application running on the other system. So, if you have a document produced
by, say, Word under the XP Professional system, then the document will operate
perfectly okay when run on Word under the XP Home operating system.

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2-320 There are other operating systems produced for personal computers, the most
widespread of which is LINUX. The major aspect of this system is that is has
what is known as “open architecture”. This means that the source code is made
available with the software, and programmers are free to use this information to
develop new applications. The system is also very cheap, especially when
compared with the cost of Microsoft Windows.

2-321 The system is also closely aligned to the UNIX operating system, which is the most
widespread system used by larger mini and mainframe computers. This could well
become a more important factor as the power of personal computers increases.

4.2 WORD-PROCESSING

2-322 The use of word-processors and spreadsheets has transformed the office work
that is so necessary for all marine professionals. Modern word-processors,
however, can accomplish much more than just replace the typewriter.

2-323 Fifteen years ago the leading application packages of word-processing,

spreadsheets and databases were stand-alone packages and invariably they were
produced by different companies. There were one or two attempts at integrating the
applications but these were always cut down versions of the full applications.

2-324 Microsoft have now produced software containing full applications of, not only, word-
processors, spreadsheets and databases but they have added applications such as:

● a contacts and information manager (Outlook); and

● presentation software (PowerPoint).

2-325 The advantage of this is that the applications all have the same “look and feel”.
The toolbars and menu screens are similar from one package to the next. Other
companies have produced similar software but currently the Office software
produced by Microsoft is the leading office software.

2-326 Microsoft Word is the name of the word-processor within the Office suite and
some of its advanced features are what makes it such a powerful and useful tool.
For example, you can write a draft document and send it around your team who
will look at the content and might want to change some of the details. Word can
track those changes so when the document is returned you can see quickly
where the changes have been made.

2-327 You can insert into your reports, spreadsheets, pictures, tables and links to other
parts of the document.You might have consistently used the wrong name throughout
a document this can be easily changed by using the global search and replace
function. Repetitive tasks can be automated by using the “macro” command. This is
easy to begin to use because Word copies your actions when you turn on the
recorder, so you do not have to learn any programming techniques to get started.

4.3 SPREADSHEETS

2-328 The electronic spreadsheet is one of the most important pieces of software ever
written. When it was first developed in the late 1970s, customers queued up to buy
the machine that was able to run this software. Within two years the sales of Apple
computers rose from $7 million to nearly $100 million. The software freed the

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accountant from a lot of “number crunching” activities and it helped the scientific
and engineering professions to remove the need for repetitive calculations.

Figure 4.1

2-329 The spreadsheet is a page divided into rows and columns, which make a grid of
boxes. Each row is numbered and each column has a letter assigned to it, which
when combined gives each box on the sheet a unique reference. Numbers, text
or formulae can be placed in the boxes. By using the reference to boxes the
contents of one box can be used in a calculation involving the contents of
another box. Using the electronic spreadsheet large complicated sheets
of calculations can be constructed using many complicated formulae. The power
of the electronic spreadsheet is that if the contents of one of the boxes changes
then all the values within and formulae that reference that box will also change.

2-330 For example, a company might have a good number of products each with its
own sales price. The company might decide to increase the price by 3% across
all products. In the past the accountant would have had to recalculate each price
individually. That would have run into hundreds of calculations, with each one a
potential for error.

2-331 Using the electronic spreadsheet means that the whole process can be
completed with one key press or a short series of commands. This not only
saves time but also improves accuracy because the formulae remain the same
and the sheets of calculations are updated in seconds instead of hours, as it
would have been before.

2-332 The efficiency gain was very high and it also allowed the manager to explore
“what if” scenarios very quickly and easily. If we use the example above it can
be seen that if we change the 3% to 4% you can quickly see the effect on total
income as a result of the change. The new calculations would be completed in
seconds and other questions could then be answered in seconds.

2-333 The use of spreadsheets to compare different suppliers’ quotations is very useful.
The ship’s superintendent will want to compare specifications of equipment:
different manufacturers might quote different life spans, maintenance periods,
different delivery costs or any possible additional components needed to
complete the job required. A set of calculations can be quickly built up on the
spreadsheet and then all the differences can be multiplied quickly over a number
of years to give the total cost savings of one system against another.

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2-334 The most interesting thing about using spreadsheets is that with the tedium of
number crunching being taken away it allows the user’s creative side to shine
and exercises can become quite sophisticated very quickly.

2-335 I remember a simple exercise to compare the cost of photocopying. Salesmen

would emphasise the fact that the cost was as little as two and a half pence per
copy, which on the face of it looked cheap. However, there was a minimum
charge per month of 40,000 copies and the contract lasted for five years. Fifteen
years ago these contracts were common. However, if you quickly compare the
£60,000 cost of the rental, over the five-year period, against the purchase price
of the machine add the depreciation of the capital, the maintenance cost and the
cost of spares and the answer that upsets the salesman is suddenly revealed.
The total cost of purchase and a separate maintenance contract does not come
to more than £20,000 exposing the vast profits to be made from the rental
scheme. Some of this needed to cover the salesman’s bonuses.

4.4 DATABASES

2-336 Databases are very powerful and useful tools. However, they are more difficult
to master and need more time and thought about their use than word-processor
or spreadsheets.

2-337 Databases are not used for carrying out a quick task such as writing a quick note
or quickly analysing the costing of products. The database is more about
manipulation of data that has been accumulated over a period of time.

2-338 For example, a company running a passenger ship or ferry would take bookings
from customers wishing to travel on the ship’s route. This information could
include things such as gender, nationality, address and reason for traveling. The
information would be entered into a database. The view presented to the
computer operator could be designed so that each question comes up
sequentially and the operator just enters the correct data.

2-339 That data then goes into a simple table, which would be added to with each
entry. After a period of time, say six months the company can design reports to
extract information bases on its previous customers.

2-340 This information could be used to focus future marketing effort. For example, you
might run a report to see the percentage difference between the number of males
and females that use your service. You might want to know how many come from
the local area and how many come from further away. This information could then
be used to decide whether the company advertise locally or nationally.

4.5 E-MAIL AND THE INTERNET

2-341 When you consider using e-mails and the Internet it is important that you protect
your computer and the information contained within, by using anti-virus software
in partnership with a “firewall”.

2-342 Where you are working in an office environment you will no doubt be connected
to the outside world via a Local Area Network (LAN). This network will be
administered by IT professionals and will have all the necessary protection.

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2-343 However, if you work from home or if you carry out your companies work at
home then you will need protection. Hackers have computer programs that scan
the Internet looking for computers that are vulnerable. They are trying to extract
information from your machine. Their motives could be for fun or to try to profit
from their activities. Whatever the motive it will be at your expense.

2-344 The concept of the firewall is to stop the hacker’s software from probing your
machine. Technically the ideal firewall should be a combination of hardware and
software that is activated before the information is allowed to enter the computer.
This is difficult and in the case of home or small office machines, unnecessary.
Having said that it must be understood that a software-only firewall will work
inside an operating system and the machine may, therefore, be open to all the
weaknesses within that operating system. For example, Microsoft is continually
releasing security patches for their operating systems.

2-345 Firewall software is becoming very popular because it is so cost effective. The
personal copy for use on home machines is very cheap and in some cases
“free”. The slightly more sophisticated versions for businesses are still below
£100. The best software will employ sophisticated techniques to make your
machine invisible to the scanning software. Some will also stop the scanning
software from tracking you home as you leave a site. The firewall will alert you if
software on your machine automatically requests to send information to a
location on the Internet.

2-346 Having stopped scanning software looking at your machine you will now need to
protect your information against damaging software that has been sent via
e-mail. The golden rule with e-mails is:

If they are from a source that you have had no dealings with
and they have an attachment, then

“OPEN THE ATTACHMENT AT YOUR OWN RISK”

2-347 It is in your own interests to invest in anti-virus software. This software is roughly
the same price as the firewall software but it is much harder to find a free copy
for personal use. A company called Grisoft do offer anti-virus software, which is
free to the person using the software for personal use only. They can be found
at www.grisoft.com.

2-348 The second problem with anti-virus software is that they work by referring to a
look-up table, which lists all the known viruses. This database must be updated
at regular intervals. Therefore, within a short space of time your software will be
out of date and in need of an upgrade. If you have upgraded your operating
system from say Windows 98/ME to Windows XP then you should also upgrade
your anti-virus software.

2-349 The secret to successful use of e-mail is in its management. If you are
bombarded with upward of 50 to 80 e-mails a day then you have a severe
management problem and a potential time bandit.

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2-350 The situation can be managed by careful planning. Your first action is to reduce
what is known as “Spam”. These are speculative e-mails from organisations or
individuals that have something to sell or something to say. E-mails that you
probably do not want and will waste your time in dealing with them. The software
used to block these advertising e-mails is changing, all the time, as the
“spammers” use ever more sophisticated software to get their message across.
The latest anti spam software works by blacklisting the internet address that is
being used by the perpetrators of spam. Unfortunately this can have an adverse
effect because the address used by some internet providers changes. Therefore
if you are assigned an address that has recently been used by a “spammer” then
your e-mails will be blacklisted as well.

2-351 The e-mail system can be so productive and informative. For example
subscribing to a newsletter can be effective and they are usually free but you
must be aware that they can be just another way of advertising a product. Some
can be very useful, for example, Lloyd’s List produces a daily newsletter.
This can be read in minutes and gives you headlines when you have access to
your computer, which might not be the same as having access to the paper. You
could then read a full account when you have access to the paper.

2-352 However, you should be aware that some retailers find newsletters a good way of
flooding the market with information and once you have subscribed it might be
difficult to unsubscribe despite there being a seemingly clear unsubscribe path.

2-353 Another action that you might take is to automatically move the e-mails to a
different directory on your hard drive, which will organise and keep your in-box
small. Some networks require the in-box to be kept relatively small because all
the users need to take up some space on the main server for their in-box.

2-354 Therefore, if you are working on a network this operation will move a permanent
copy of the contact onto your own computer. You will also have to consider the
size of attachments because they will be included in any calculation of the size
of the in-box.

2-355 Generally speaking, word-processing documents or spreadsheets do not

require much space – an 8,000 word, 30-page document, constructed on a
word-processor is still below 100 Kb. A complicated spreadsheet would also be
similar in size.

2-356 Databases, graphics files and pictures are, in contrast, relatively large. One
picture, of a useful size and detail and in uncompressed form, would take up
500 Kb. Using compression files would reduce the size to around 50 to 80 Kb but
some detail may be lost in the compression process.

2-357 If you wish to transmit large files such as PowerPoint presentations, large
pictures, or video clips, then you need a broadband connection to the Internet.

4.6 BROADBAND

2-358 Much has been written and talked about “broadband” technology especially in
connection with the Internet. Broadband is very simple to understand but
technically difficult to achieve.

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2-359 The problem centres on the amount of data that has to be transmitted within a
given time span. The analogy to a pipeline delivering water to a tank is helpful. If
you have a given size of pipe to fill a tank then the only two ways to fill the tank
quicker is to increase the pressure of the water or to increase the size of the pipe.

2-360 The same happens with data that is transmitted across the Internet. At present,
the majority of private connections to the Internet are via modems. These are
devices that change binary data into audible tones, which are suitable for
transmission via the ordinary telephone. However, there is a limit on how far you
can increase the speed using this method and still achieve reliable transmission
of information.

2-361 Digital transmission can increase the rate of data transmission. However, the
size of the pipe or channel has not been increased and there is still very limited
capacity for increasing the amount of information that can be transmitted in a
given time span.

2-362 A better name for broadband would be multi-band since the cable carries more
than one data channel, using frequency division multiplexing. The data is carried
on the different radio frequencies and placed on the carrier media (high quality
cables). The channels are then separated out at the receiving end.

2-363 The 56k modem is the slowest standard device for connecting to the Internet.
This is used by the majority of private people in the UK for gathering
information. This is fine for downloading text and simple graphics pages.
However, information containing better high-resolution graphics, moving pictures
or video clips will require a broadband connection.

2-364 An example of a website that has graphics that can be used with 56k modems
can be found at www.swos.navy.mil or www.marine-diesels.com.

4.7 WEB PAGE DESIGN

2-365 The use of the Internet to advertise your business is becoming more and more
important. Most medium to large businesses realise the benefits and the power
of the Internet. They frequently employ the services of professional web design
companies and appoint webmasters to look after the maintenance of their site.

2-366 One of the most frustrating things is publishing a website and then not keeping the
information up-to-date. Obviously, this is time consuming and could be expensive
for the smaller businesses. However it is necessary because if potential customers
see information that is out of date then they will not trust the information that is ok.

2-367 However, for those that are prepared to build and maintain your own site, the
costs can be substantially lower and if you keep the site simple and to the point
it will not be complicated either.

2-368 The basic computer language of the web is html which stands for hypertext
mark-up language. Using this language, you can write information about yourself
and your business in the same way that you would if you designed a poster of an
advert for a trade journal. For example, the opening page for a marine surveyor
could be designed in minutes and look like Figure 4.2 on the following page.

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Figure 4.2

2-369 This simple page was produced using MS Word in a matter of minutes. The
latest versions of Word have the facility to save a document in a web format. The
other Microsoft product for web design is FrontPage or FrontPage express. You
can design pages and hyperlink them together or even now upload whole
databases to a website carrying lots on information about your business.

2-370 More sophisticated web publishing software includes Dreamweaver which, if

funds can be justified, is probably the most popular web authoring software
around. Some of the older versions of the software are given away with the
computer magazines. This might be a good place to start and get a feel for the
software before deciding to invest you money on the latest version. Magazines
such as PCPLUS also run excellent websites, where you can download a lot of
different software and also gain a wealth of help and information about different
areas of computers and computing, including information about the Internet.

2-371 Borland’s Delphi software and Xara Webstyle are also packages worth looking
at, especially if you wish to put graphics onto your web page. Movement can be
achieved by using animated Gifs.

4.7.1 Design to Get Noticed

2-372 Seeding your page is the expression given to maximising the promotion of your
website. This can start even before you upload your site to the host server.

2-373 What happens is that to look for information on the Internet it is common to use
a search engine. The search engines use software utilities called “spiders” or
“robots” to scour the Internet for new sites or changes to existing sites. The
software then compiles a list or index of the content, which can be used by the
search engine user to find the information that they are seeking.

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2-374 The different search engines put different emphasis on the way the software
handles the information that it finds. However, it is interesting and helpful to think
a bit about how you might improve your website’s chance of being found.

2-375 Search engine software can only carry out a set of instructions the same as any
other software. Therefore, you have to do the thinking for the software. It is no
good starting with a catchy phrase such as “The answer is YES, now what’s the
question”. This may catch the attention of a person but it means nothing to a
computer program looking for a “marine surveyor” or surveying.

2-376 The computer program will search for “key words”, so if the person searching the
net is looking for classification society then they are not going to type in “please
find some one who can help me” they will type in “marine surveyor” or “marine
surveying” or “classification society”. You must ensure that these “keywords” can
be found by the search engine.

2-377 Search engines also look for the TITLE text on a web page. This is the text
placed on a web page that has the hidden TITLE code placed on either side.
It is also assumed that web authors place their most important information at the
top of the page.

2-378 There are other ways that search engines can find their information, but this is
for much more sophisticated websites. If you wish to follow this subject, then
please read the Website Creation chapter in David Dick’s book (Dick 2002) or
Teach Yourself to Create Web Pages (Snell 1999).

4.7.2 Publishing Your Site

2-379 Your domain name has to be unique. This can now be a problem as a lot of the
more obvious names have already been allocated. Names are usually made of
three parts:

● the first is the name;

● the second illustrates the activity; and

● the third the country of origin.

2-380 Extensions such as .gov, .org, .ac, .pro, .coop, .areo and .museum are only
allocated upon proof that the applicant is eligible for the extension. For example,
NWK College has the extension .ac.uk. The .ac is reserved for academic
institutions. To have this extension, an organisation would have to provide proof
of that fact. The same applies to the other special extensions.

2-381 If you subscribe to an e-mail address with a company such as Freeserve or Blue
Yonder you will have, as part of the package, some web space allocated to you.
This you can use to publish your basic website. The deals differ from provider to
provider so it is worth looking around. You might be able to pick up 50 Mb of
space for no extra charge and for a modest fee this can be increased to 100 Mb,
which is enough to produce quite a sophisticated little website with a few simple
eye-catching graphics.

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2-382 Please note that if you have produced your site with FrontPage or FrontPage
Express, then you will need to ensure that your provider has enabled FrontPage
extensions.

2-383 After this is complete, you MUST keep the site up-to-date. There is nothing worse
for a potential customer than to find that he or she cannot reach the people they
want because, having found the website, the information is not current.

4.8 DIGITAL IMAGERY

2-384 The usefulness of photographic information to the ship’s superintendent will be

immense, especially in the recording of breakdowns or for recording the
condition of equipment over a period of time. Below are examples of the
photographic record of a main engine and auxiliary engine piston defects.

Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4

2-385 There are alternative methods of recording the visual information required and
there are pros and cons to both methods.

4.9 SCANNERS AND PHOTOGRAPHS

2-386 The first method is traditional photographic film. The most cost-effective medium
for the ship’s superintendent will be 35mm film or the new Advanced Photo
System (APS) format. The APS format uses small compact cameras and has
been designed to produce good quality results with improved ease of film
handling and print production. This system is, however, slightly more costly than
the 35mm systems. The advantage to the ship’s superintendent is that the
cameras are even smaller than the compact 35mm or indeed the digital compact
cameras. This means that the camera is highly portable and can be carried into
tight corners or remote places.

2-387 If greater detail, difficult lighting situations or a variety of views were required then
the 35mm or digital formats would be the correct choice. The SLR (single lens
reflex) camera (film or digital) would provide the opportunity to change the lens
to cover a number of different situations, i.e. close-up, wide angle or telephoto.

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2-388 However, the end result is to produce photographic information for a report to the
company management or to keep a record of the condition of equipment.
Whatever the need, the images will be better in digital form.

2-389 To accomplish this, the photographic pictures will have to be digitised ready to
incorporate into reports or to be filed electronically.

2-390 The equipment needed to achieve this will be a scanner and the appropriate
software needed to store and file the scanned images. This is the hardware
“add-on”, that is required to be fixed to a computer. The basic software required
to recognise the scanned image will probably come with the scanner but it is well
worth investing in a software package that will be able to enhance the image to
make it more presentable.

Figure 4.5

2-391 Modern scanners, as shown above, connect to a computer via the USB 1.0 or
2.0 standard. It is well worth purchasing a machine with the new 2.0 standard as
it is much faster and will make scanning photos much quicker. Older machines
can be upgraded to offer the new standard, but this will need an extension card
fitted to the motherboard.

2-392 The generally accepted market leader is Adobe’s Photoshop, but this software
is quite expensive. A less costly option is a software package called Paint Shop
Pro, which will allow you to edit images and store or move them into different
directories.

2-393 The two pictures below are a small example of what can be accomplished by
using Paint Shop Pro. The original picture (Figure 4.6) is too light; Paint Shop Pro
has been able to make the picture (Figure 4.7) darker. The chair has been
removed from the lower left of the original picture, as have the ear defenders that
have been placed on the grab handle at the front of the switchboard.

Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7

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4.10 DIGITAL CAMERAS

2-394 Digital cameras are classified in two different ways:

● One way is by the format of the camera. This follows the same classification
as film cameras with Single Lens Reflex (SLR) cameras and compact
cameras.

● The second way that digital cameras are classified is by the resolution of
the electronic chip that captures the image, which is stated in Mega pixels.

Figure 4.8

2-395 The sensing electronics at the heart of the digital camera is called a Charge
Couple Device (CCD) this senses the light coming into the camera and converts
it into an electronic signal that can be read by the camera’s software.

2-396 The current generation of digital cameras’ CCDs are of a smaller area than the
film in a 35mm camera; because of this, the camera’s photographic settings will
not correspond directly to the settings on the 35mm camera.

2-397 This should not be a cause for concern for superintendents as the cameras
normally work out the shutter speed and aperture settings automatically.
However, if a zoom is included on the camera then the focal length quoted will
be the 35mm film equivalent.

2-398 The ability of a camera to capture fine detail is one of the reasons for its use. This
ability in the digital camera is due to the resolution of the CCD and the quality of
the lens. However, the marketing departments can mislead the unwary buyer.

2-399 If the resolution stated is due to the camera optics and the light hitting the CCD
directly then it should be quoted as the optical resolution.

2-400 However, the software can artificially enhance resolution by a technique called
pixel interpolation. In its simplest form, this takes the value of adjacent pixels and
adds in another pixel. Manufacturers can exploit this for marketing purposes and
cameras can be advertised with a higher resolution than the optical resolution
without stating that digital techniques have been used.

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2-401 It is important to compare like with like and the accepted yardstick is the optical
resolution. Therefore, when purchasing a digital camera, it is wise to ask directly
the question “is the resolution quoted the optical resolution”.

2-402 It is not easy to find a serious digital camera now below 5.0 mega pixels. Some
mobile phones and pocket PCs include 1.3 mega pixel cameras. These are not
bad cameras and will be good if you only want pictures that will be sent across
the Internet or that will be seen on a monitor rather than printed out.

2-403 The lowest level serious cameras with zoom lenses are currently priced at
between £80 and £100 and for this you should be able to find at least a 4.0 mega
pixel example from a well-known maker. This level of camera does produce very
high quality results with a good level of detail. The pictures that are printed out
will also be of a good resolution, especially at the size of a normal photograph
(15cm x 10cm).

2-404 The full SLR digital cameras are now no longer just the realm of the professional
photographer. Just two years ago, the SLR had a £2,500 to £7,000 price tag.
However, the major manufacturers now have digital SLR cameras for as little as
£570.00. These will be about 10.0 mega pixels and aimed both at the amateur
photographer as well as the professional.

4.11 USES AND ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL CAMERAS OVER TRADITIONAL

EQUIPMENT

2-405 The most obvious advantage of digital cameras (equipment) is the savings in
time and money on the processing because there is no film processing involved.
The next major advantage over traditional systems is the immediacy of the
results. The majority of digital cameras have a small LCD screen on which the
photos can be previewed and any that are not acceptable can be deleted from
the camera and another picture can be taken in its place.

2-406 Once the picture has been downloaded into the computer it is then ready for
inclusion in your reports. The pictures can usually be saved in the Jpeg format,
which is easily transferable from one software package to the next. The picture
can be edited in a good photo/picture editing software package such as Paint
Shop Pro or Adobe Photoshop and then inserted into your word-processed
report or into your presentation.

4.12 THE USE OF POWERPOINT FOR PRESENTATIONS

2-407 Part of the job of the superintendent will be to prepare reports for senior managers
and company customers. These reports will from time to time need deeper
explanation. During recent years, Microsoft’s PowerPoint software has become
very popular to people who have to give formal presentations to an audience.

2-408 The software has two operating modes:

● the first is the design mode of operation; and

● the second is the “run” operation.

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2-409 Your project is designed with the software operating one way; the project is then
activated by switching the software to run the presentation.

2-410 In its simplest form, the information is set out on each of the pages according to
how the person wishes to run the presentation. Each page is selected
sequentially and the presenter activates the next operation to illustrate his or her
talk as required.

Figure 4.9

2-411 Figure 4.9 above gives an idea about the way in which text pictures and “action
buttons” can be used. This shows the opening page of a presentation that I have
put together to show the general public an overview of the maritime industry. The
pictures give an idea about the topic to be reviewed in greater detail. The “action
buttons” take the student to other pages in the presentation that include
interesting things such as a video clip of the training taking place in a life boat
and more pictures of ships’ machinery, as well as the places that ships go to and
the work that they carry out.

2-412 The advantage to using “action buttons” is that the presentation does not have
to progress from page to page sequentially. The operator can move to the topic
under discussion and then come back to the original position. Sophisticated
databases can be built up using this and other methods.

4.13 BASIC HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

2-413 Computer manufacturers use a marketing strategy of promoting the speed of

the main processor as a measure of the performance of the computer.
However, overall performance depends upon the performance of all the
computer’s components and the maximum performance is only as good as
the weakest component. To have a better discernment of the marketing
“hype”, it will help to understand some of the ways in which a computer is
constructed.

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2-414 Inside the main “system unit” box are a number of components. The design and
number of the components will depend upon the age and specification of the
machine. A similar comment can be made about the peripheral components
attached to the outside of the system unit, but we will deal with them later.

4.14 MOTHERBOARDS AND THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

2-415 The design of the motherboard will be one of the major influences on the
performance of a computer. The compatibility and interaction with the other
components such as the main processor, the hard disk and the main memory
will not only affect performance but also reliability. For example, the processor
might work at, say, 2GHz but the speed at which the processor connects with
the outside motherboard might be 10 times less. This is known as the speed of
the Front Side Bus (FSB). Therefore, increasing the speed of the Front Side Bus
can greatly increase the overall speed of the machine.

2-416 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is at the heart of the computer. This is a
component made from transistors, resistors, capacitors and diodes, which
combine to form logic gates. The logic gates react to an input signal and influence
the next logic gate in the sequence by maintaining or changing its own output
depending on the input information. Early computers had less than 30,000
transistors and the modern Pentium processor now has in excess of 42 million.

2-417 The sequencing is controlled by the “clock”, which operates at a specified design
frequency, e.g. 500 megahertz, 1 gigahertz or 2 gigahertz. The faster the clock
operates then the faster the processor can carry out instructions and thus the
faster it operates. The early CPUs operated at 100kHz, a Pentium II could
operate at 200mHz, and the new Pentium IV is now operating at over 3GHz.

2-418 Another area that has contributed to an increase in performance is the introduction
of “cache” memory included as part of the CPU’s internal architecture.

2-419 Cache memory is a small amount of “local” memory that is sited close to where
it is needed. The next instructions can be stored in this memory which means
that the processor does not have to refer to the main memory that is much
further away and would take longer to access.

2-420 However, the CPU makes contact with the other components inside the
computer at a much lower speed, e.g. 66 MHz for older machines and 100 MHz
for newer machines. This speed is increasing to 400 or 800 MHz on the latest
machines, but this is still well below the 2 or 3 GHz of the main processor. This
contact system is know as the Front Side Bus (FSB). Generally speaking, a
processor with the higher FSB and same main processor speed as a similar
machine will have the better performance.

4.15 HARD DISKS OR HARD DRIVE

2-421 Information stored on the hard disk or hard drive is still the main way of keeping
a record of your work. This equipment is amazing because the capacity just
keeps increasing and increasing without an end in sight. A few years ago,
100 Mb hard disks were considered to be large and certainly they were
adequate for storing the small word-processed documents that was the main
information stored on desktop machines at that time.

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2-422 These days, however, hard disk capacity has risen to over 100 Gb for the same
money as the 100 Mb drives were five or six years ago. This enormous capacity
has facilitated the increasing use that people are now making of pictures and
multimedia files.

2-423 However, the access time for the computer to find files has not increased. The
latest hard drives run at 7,200 rpm instead of the 5,400 rpm of the older drives
and the access time is still around 9 milliseconds.

2-424 It is important to observe some basic rules when using machines with large hard
drives. Try to keep the root directory as small as possible. This is the first
directory after C:/ shown in Windows Explorer. Windows will have created
some directories, such as the directory for its own files. It will have also created
the directory called My Documents; it is advisable to keep your own files in this
directory or in sub-directories under this main directory.

2-425 The other important directory is called Program Files. This is where all the main
program files for your applications should be held. Sometimes, poorly written
software creates its own directory from the computer’s main root directory
instead of placing a sub-directory in the Program Files directory.

4.16 OTHER STORAGE DEVICES

2-426 The floppy disk used to be a good method of keeping a copy of your data. About
15 years ago, it was possible to keep a copy of the payroll for a small-sized
company on a floppy disk and, to be fair, a floppy disk is still okay for transporting
a small number of office files or the occasional picture between the workplace
and home. The problem with this is that modern machines are being
manufactured without a floppy disk drive. This is particularly true of the laptop
machines that are becoming more and more popular.

2-427 However, to keep a reliable backup of your files you should be using a tape
streamer or a recordable CD. The new USB tape back up equipment is very
efficient and easy to use.

2-428 A very useful device that is gaining popularity very quickly is the USB memory
stick. This is as convenient as having in excess of 200 floppy discs in a form that
will fit easily in the palm of your hand.

Figure 4.10

4.17 COMPUTER CONFIGURATION FOR PRODUCTIVITY

2-429 There is no doubt that computers, when used intelligently, are of great
assistance and are a very productive tool. However, by making careful choices

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the computer and some of the latest peripherals can be even more flexible and
helpful to your daily work.

2-430 The remainder of this chapter is given over to some of the latest innovations, some
of which will prove to be really beneficial, others will be just cosmetic additions.

2-431 Laptop computers are being used increasingly and are now out selling desk top
machines. The convenience of being able to take your whole computer with you
from place to place is the obvious reason for their popularity.

2-432 The other advantage of the laptop is that sockets, connections, keyboard,
screen and keyboard etc are all integrated with the machine. This is so useful,
especially if you are moving around conducting your business.

2-433 A good laptop running Windows XP will have the ability to take the latest pictures
from a digital camera and with a couple of key presses you will be able to see
the results on the screen.

Figure 4.11

2-434 Windows XP has very good image handling software, which is built into the
program. This saves on choosing third party software and ensures that the
software is compatible with other packages such as Word or PowerPoint.

2-435 The new tablet PC and so-called handheld PCs look like being an exciting
prospect for the future as the pictures below show.

Figure 4.12

2-436 With the tablet PC, the top screen separates from the keyboard to become a
mobile unit. The handwriting recognition software and voice recognition software
provides the means of contact with the computer while not at the main base.
A separate mouse, monitor and/or keyboard can be used when you return to
your workstation. This gives the correct ergonomic arrangement for the time
when you spend doing the bulk of your work.

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2-437 Flat or Thin Film Transistor (TFT) screens are rapidly becoming the standard
choice for the monitors of computer systems. The price is now much closer to that
of the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors. Other disadvantages are now much
less of a drawback than they have been. For example, in the past TFT screens
were always difficult to see if viewed from any angle except from head-on. This is
different now and the viewing angle is much closer to that of the CRT monitor.

4.17.1 Bluetooth

2-438 Bluetooth is a technology that has been slower to get going than first thought. It
is now starting to gather pace as more components come as “Bluetooth
enabled”. Bluetooth is a wireless system, with a limited range, that allows the
connection of components such as keyboards, printers and hand-held
computers to the main system unit. There are several other standards for
wireless connections, but Bluetooth is a universal standard and it ensures that
an operator will not be affected by other Bluetooth operators that are close by.

2-439 More and more “Bluetooth enabled” devices are being produced. The big growth
area for this is with mobile phones and pocket computers. These devices can
connect to a laptop or main machine using cordless technology. More than this,
other components such as headsets and keyboards can also be connected to
the phone or pocket PC.

4.17.2 Pocket PCs

2-440 These units are becoming much more powerful and are also becoming linked
with mobile phones. This link enables people to access, download and deal with
their e-mails while on the move. Navigation software is available for these units
so that they can guide you from A to B across the roads of northern Europe or
America. The most popular use for the pocket PC is as a personal organiser.
However, the uses for these small devices is becoming much more widespread,
for example they have voice recorders where you can record a note to yourself
to play back at a later stage or you can write a note in your own handwriting. This
last point could be very useful for recording meetings. The information can be
downloaded to your own PC and edited in Word.

2-441 There is a lot of third party software available for pocket PCs and a very useful
book dedicated to the pocket PC (or Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) as they
are sometimes called) is How To Do Everything With Your Pocket PC by Frank
McPherson. The monthly magazine published in the UK is PDA Essentials. The
navigation software that takes its position from the Geo Stationary Satellite is
proving to be extremely popular.

4.17.3 Voice Recognition

2-442 This is proving to be a tough nut to crack. Despite the power of computers
increasing tremendously, this technology is still not 100% reliable. The
operating systems, such as Windows, Linux and Mac OS, can accept
commands from the operator’s voice, but this is not as efficient as using the
keyboard and mouse.

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2-443 Applications such as Word and Excel work with third party software such as
IBM’s Via Voice or Dragon Naturally Speaking. The operator loads the voice
software and then has to spend some time training the package to become more
proficient at recognising his or her voice. The software then loads the words
straight into the word-processor or spreadsheet.

2-444 Advances are being made to make the software more accurate and most
magazines that have tested the software put the accuracy as high as 90% to
95%. However, in terms of productivity, voice recognition software is an
individual choice mostly dependent upon how good your typing skills are. The
software will not be as quick or as accurate as a touch typist. However, if you are
not in that league and you are prepared to persevere with “training” the software,
then voice recognition would be worth investigating. However, currently the best
results are achieved when the software is used in a quiet environment.

2-445 If you do want to invest, it is well worth investing in high quality equipment such
as quality microphones and the computer should have as much RAM as
possible to give the system the best chance of working to its full potential.

2-446 This area of computing is definitely worth watching because, if we can remove
the keyboard from the system and talk to the computer directly, then the
computer being with you at all times as a very useful personal assistant will be
very much closer. The power of computers is still doubling every 18 months, so
in 10 years we will have machines that are more than 1,000 times more powerful
than today. This will take this difficult technology a long way.

4.17.4 Satellite Communications

2-447 The problems associated with contacting ships on a global basis are proving to
be the most technically challenging of all. Inmarsat supply the satellites and the
electronic infrastructure to route the signal in the correct direction. Other
companies, such as Thrane & Thrane, supply the additional electronic
equipment needed to send the signal as shown in Figure 4.13 below:

Figure 4.13

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2-448 At present Inmarsat is still the only commercial satellite system with full global
coverage. There are other satellite TV systems that have an e-mail bolt-on
package to accompany the TV distribution, but they are limited in the area that
they cover.

2-449 At present, the use of Internet connection to ships is in its infancy. However, as the
cost of the infrastructure decreases and the number of users’ increases, then the
cost to the user will reduce. On land, we all enjoy low cost Internet access and
e-mail. In most cases, this includes Broadband but it is still at a reasonable cost.

2-450 All the different uses, that marine professionals working ashore use the Internet
for, are not all extended to the marine professional people at sea. Therefore, they
have still to receive the services that are enjoyed ashore. There are a number of
specialist companies preparing for the time when all seafarers have access to
low cost Internet use.

2-451 One of the things that will be changed is the way that we educate our seafarers.
The virtual campus concept would be beneficial to people at sea. They could:

● receive learning material on-line;

● contact tutors and students via chat rooms;

● take part in on-line assessment via secure connections;

● access on-line libraries; and

● book physical meetings with tutors.

2-452 Providing support for students working remotely from the learning centre is the
biggest challenge for any course provision. This is normally done via seminars and
e-mail connection, both of which are difficult for the marine professional at sea.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION

● Think about how voice recognition might improve your

productivity if it was 100% reliable.

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5. PLANNING AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

● describe the importance of planning as part of the project

manager’s daily activity;

● list at least four important tasks of the project manager; and

● state the common tracking and monitoring system used by

project managers.

5.1 PLANNING

2-453 The activity of planning is a very important step on the road to successful
management or project completion. Planning should be an activity that is carried
out on a daily basis as well as being a longer term strategic activity. You need to
control the potential distracters and move steadily toward your objectives and
with this in mind it is important to view the planning process as a closed loop
activity as shown below.

Figure 5.1

2-454 The superintendent needs to take an overview of the work or the project that is
to be completed. This has sometimes been described as:

● the “helicopter view”; or

● the “holistic view”.

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2-455 In planning a project as superintendent, you must set out the final objective, as
well as the intermediate objectives, to help transition from third person to first
person. You will also need to look at the timescales for the objectives and use
some form of daily planning guide to help you control your activities leading to
your final goal. Planning guides will vary from person to person, but some of the
most common are:

● appointment calendars;

● to-do lists;

● Progress diagrames;

● weekly planning diaries; and

● year planners.

2-456 Obviously, a number of these items might be grouped together. For example,
your personal diary might be used in combination with the appointment calendar
and/or the day-to-day or weekly planning diary.

2-457 It is common practice to keep track of your appointments in a personal diary.

However, I have found it more useful to use the pocket diary. Its use can be for
recording more than just appointments, which has a very positive effect on being
an effective manager.

2-458 The major advantage of the pocket diary is that it stays with you. This may sound
obvious but it is an important fact. If you are at seminars or networking events,
you can arrange future meetings with confidence. If you are in a meeting, you
will need the diary to arrange the date of the next meeting. It is very frustrating
and looks inefficient if you have to refer back to your office before you can
confirm the date of the next meeting.

2-459 There are two problems that need to be overcome to ensure effective use of the
pocket diaries:

● The first is to guard against the fact that all your information is in one place.
If you lose or misplace your diary then you also lose your information. It is
a good idea to transfer the information to your desk diary at regular
intervals. The start of the week would be a good time because it gives you
a chance to think about what you have to do over the coming week.

● The second problem to overcome is forming the habit to record the

information. I found it difficult at first to regularly think about recording
information in my diary. Now, however, I find it invaluable and second
nature. You have to get to the stage where you feel uncomfortable without
your diary to the same extent that you would without your watch.

2-460 The Filofax became very fashionable during the 1980s, which was an attempt to
expand the space available for recording more information than just appointment
times. However, the Filofax can be larger than a diary, and will not fit comfortably
into your pocket. This means that the Filofax is not as portable as the diary.

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Individual managers will have to decide whether they require the additional
space or the additional portability.

2-461 If used well the diary can be used as more than just a record for the
appointments. You can plan more activities by blocking off time for important
tasks, such as planning time for the meeting that is already fixed.

2-462 The use of the electronic “pocket computer” is covered earlier but here it is worth
mentioning that as an electronic diary this machine is very useful. Essential
accessories should include an “in-car” charger and international travel adapter
electric plugs

2-463 Projects, however, are different from everyday work. The project will be an
individual event with a beginning, middle and end. This also means that the
project can be tracked and the progress monitored as such.

2-464 Every project will have intermediate objectives as well as a final objective. These
intermediate objectives can be used as targets.

2-465 After the decision has been taken for the project to proceed, the team and
resources will need to be assembled to complete the task. Before starting, it is
important that the team of individuals or organisations are signed up to the
objectives and that they are well briefed. This will be particularly important where
different nationals are involved. The management of language and cultural
differences will be as important as the technical management of the project
itself. Misunderstandings at the early stages may only come to the surface
toward the middle or end of the project and cause more problems than if they
are resolved at the start of the process.

2-466 It is a common trait of some cultures not to admit that they do not understand
subject material or information, in public. The project manager will have to be
sympathetic to this potential problem and ensure that all parties understand
each step by holding private meetings if necessary. All parties must be signed
up to the project and especially the agreed lines of communication, individuals
or organisations that fail to recognise the reasons for established procedures
can cause havoc.

5.2 THE PROJECT MANAGER

2-467 The objectives of the project manager are simple, they are:

● to complete the project to the right quality;

● in the correct timescale; and

● at the agreed cost.

2-468 However, the actual tasks that will need to be completed will be much more
complicated because of the tension between cost, quality and time. The
diagrams in Figure 5.2 on the following page illustrate the tension between these
different aspects of project management.

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Figure 5.2

2-469 If the time is short, then the quality and cost suffer. If the quality is higher, then
the time taken will be longer.

2-470 As the project gets underway, the project manager must successfully manage
and control the work, which will mean successfully balancing the three
contrasting aspects. This will include:

● identifying, tracking, managing and resolving project issues;

● proactively disseminating project information to all stakeholders;

● identifying, managing and mitigating project risk;

● ensuring that the solution is of acceptable quality;

2-471 Carrying out a detailed study of critical items to formulate alternative strategies

● proactively managing the project structure to ensure that only the agreed
specification is delivered, unless changes are approved by the project
management team;

● defining and collecting information to give a sense of how the project is

progressing and whether the products are acceptable; and

● managing the overall workplan to ensure work is assigned and completed

on time and within budget.

2-472 In addition to the technical skills, a project manager must have good people
management skills. These will include things such as:

● having the self-discipline and general management skills to ensure people

follow the plan set out by the management team and not follow their own
agenda;

● using leadership skills so that the team willingly follow the leader’s direction,
work together and not against each other. Leadership is about communicating
a vision, having the team to accept it and working to the same goals;

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Planning and Project Management Module 2

● setting reasonable, challenging and clear objectives for people, and

holding them responsible for meeting those commitments. This must
include providing feedback to team members about their progress;

● team building skills so that the people work together well, and feel
motivated to work hard for the sake of the project and the other team
members. The larger your team and the longer the project, the more
important it is to have good team-building skills; and

● proactive verbal and written communication skills, including good, active

listening skills.

2-473 Do not forget that the project manager is responsible for the success of the
project. If morale is suffering or members are missing deadlines, the project
manager needs to get to the bottom of the problems and issues as soon as
possible. If team members do not understand exactly what they need to do, then
the project manager must act.

2-474 The difficult time is when there are interpersonal conflicts causing the problems.
It is better to try and uncover any possible problems at the recruitment stage by
looking for qualities in individuals that will fit into the culture of the team.

2-475 This will very much be the concern of the leader. Some staff thrive on conflict
and you might get members spurring each other on to higher performances by
the competition that is set up. Other people will not be able to work in an
environment that is a constant battleground. It may be better to choose a slightly
less able candidate for the team just because he or she will fit the particular
culture of the team better than the more technically able candidate. Remember
that the team performance is more important than the individual team members.

2-476 One anomaly that could arise with project management is that you might have
responsibility for a project but without the necessary management authority over
the members of the project team.

2-477 Managing a team in an organisation that has a matrix management structure is

another example. If you are asked to manage a project, where you are utilising
people who you do not have direct management responsibility for, you may find
that your ability to resolve issues is hampered because you are not high enough
in the organisation to get the issue resolved quickly. In other instances, you may
find that your ability to be innovative and flexible is constrained by company
policies or personalities.

2-478 All of these cases can be cause for frustration. One way to deal with this is to
define roles and responsibilities as a part of the project definition. This can help
set and manage expectations. For instance, if you have no budget or expense
approval authority, then note that up front, along with a process for gaining that
approval. Then, if problems do arise later, everyone knows who has the
appropriate level of authority to resolve them. For most project managers, the
frustration level is not caused so much by a lack of power as much as it
is caused by ambiguity. If the project manager does not have the authority, it is
important to know who does, and what process is needed to gain action.

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5.3 TARGET SETTING

2-479 The most important thing about setting targets, which has been said time and
time again, is that they must be SMART:

Specific;

Measurable;

Achievable;

Realistic; and

Time bound.

2-480 This statement on its own raises a lot of questions. If the target is to be
specific then it should be linked to the project as a whole. Possibly, a
stepping stone to the overall project objective but definitely a positive move
forward.

2-481 How do you measure change?

In order to do this, we need to know how far the project has moved forward from
the last checks, therefore, the base level needs to be defined. This may be the
starting point of the project, but also it might be the successful completion of the
previous target that forms the base for this target.

In a network of time the completion of one element of work and the start of the
next is referred to as an event or break point.

2-482 A target needs to be achievable, if it is not then this will have a demotivating
effect on the project team. The team leader needs to ensure that the timeline is
realistic, any data required is obtainable and also that the methods proposed are
correct to achieve the current target.

2-483 Not only must the target be realistic but it must contribute to the overall project
and it is most desirable not to have open ended targets that never become
realised. If the project is too big then smaller, more frequent targets should
be set.

5.4 RESOURCE EVALUATION

2-484 Some of the procedures for project management resource evaluation will be the
same for the superintendent evaluating the requirements of his or her
operational team.

2-485 Based on the objectives of the project the first task to complete is to work
out the skills and qualifications needed to complete the project. Then
you can look for the people who are in possession of those skills and
qualifications.

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2-486 For example:

● If the company were contemplating a new build, how would you assemble
your team to be the owner’s representatives during the building process?

● Would you, for example, select the most experienced master and chief
engineer in the fleet?

● If so, will they be equipped to readily accept the new technology that would
undoubtedly be included these days?

● Would the staff need training courses before the project, courses such as
gas turbine main engine operation and maintenance?

2-487 Your human resource evaluation should include the following questions:

● Can the objectives be met with existing staff?

● Will they need staff development training?

● Does the project require specialist skills and will this be for part of the
project or the whole project?

● How many different types of skills are required?

● Can tasks be combined to become the responsibility of one person?

● Is there sufficient overlap of skills to cover any sickness problems?

● If using contractors will there be a need to retain some skill for a while after
the project is complete?

2-488 Any skills gap would be filled by either additional recruitment or by staff
development. This should be determined by the Training Needs Analysis (TNA).
When carrying out the TNA, do not forget employee’s interests and hobbies
outside of their formal training and job function. It may be that navigation or
engineering staff are highly conversant with computer technology because of
interests outside of their everyday work.

2-489 If this is the case, you might be able to use that additional skill in the planning of
the IT strategy on-board. This might be better than expensive consultants
employed to tell you what you already know or could find out using existing staff
and the additional staff development opportunity would be well received.

2-490 It is natural to concentrate on the human side of your project, as nothing will be
accomplished without skilled personnel. However, skilled personnel will not be
able to carry out their task without the appropriate tools. Therefore, an evaluation
of the equipment and financial resources required is as equally important for the
successful completion of the project.

2-491 The original objectives of the project might have to be re-evaluated in the light of the
human, physical or financial resources available. Some textbooks talk about the
double loop learning as opposed to the single loop shown in Figure 5.1 on page 2-78.

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2-492 If we look at how the original pictorial view might change, we end up with
something like that shown in Figure 5.3 below.

Figure 5.3

2-493 With large projects, in many cases starting in exposed conditions, staff falilities
and conditions can make of break a project.

2-494 The rapore of the project team should also be given high importance. Group
dynamics is very important if the team are not working together then the project
could fail for that single reason.

5.5 PROGRESS MONITORING

2-495 The Institute of Project Managers have a very informative website at

www.allpm.com. The site outlines the history of project management, which
started in the 1950s and 1960s when very large, complex projects had to be
managed to important deadlines.

2-496 The website also put forward the notion that project management has the
danger of focusing too much on the checking and monitoring of progress. Senior
managers latch onto the fact that they can see progress from the reports that are
produced by the planning process.

2-497 The Institute suggest that the project leader would be better employed in
inspiring the team, concentrating on motivating the team members and
managing the relationships between both inside and outside of the team. The
Institute are promoting “project leadership” in favour of “project management”.

2-498 The Gantt chart has been used, for many years, for displaying a project visually.
It has been a favourite tool of the project planners because it shows an overview
of the project, as well as the tasks and their length.

2-499 A simple chart appears on page 2–87 in Figure 5.5. The triangles represent the
critical events and when they should happen. If these events do not happen on
time, the project will not be completed on time.

2-500 Prior to using these charts it is important to understand work content analysis.
This can be done by use of method charts that define individual task procedures

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Planning and Project Management Module 2

so that previously established work data can be applied to create realistic work
‘man hours’ required for each element of the project.

2-501 This is particularly necessary for items on a critical list it is also advisable
wherever possible to look at alternative methodology in order that a choice of
strategies can be used should plan ‘A’ fail to achieve the desired results.

2-502 Critical path analysis or critical path method is the system of tracking your
project by setting the time of all the key tasks which cannot be moved without
prolonging the overall length of the project. The critical path method has some
drawbacks.

2-503 As can be seen in Figure 5.4 below, Microsoft produce a useful software
package called “Project”. There is a fair amount of automation with this software.
For example, you could enter the length of the task in weeks and the dates will
be calculated by the software. The user can choose between working a five-day
week or a seven-day week. The weekends can also be set at overtime rates if
required.

Figure 5.4

2-504 Once the duration of the tasks have been entered into the software, then the
sequencing of events can be set. This is done by simply placing the number of
the preceding task against each task. A view of this can be seen in the final
column of Figure 5.4. The software automatically calculates the Gantt Chart from
the information entered in the table. The critical path is calculated and shown in
a different colour.

2-505 None of the information is cast in stone and dates and times can be changed
easily. This enables “what if” scenarios to be explored and the effect on the
critical path can be seen immediately.

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Module 2 Planning and Project Management

2-506 It can also be seen from the illustration that individual people can be assigned
to the different tasks. The employment cost can be allocated to the different
people and thus the cost of the project can be calculated.

Figure 5.5

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION

● Look at your own company’s procedures for project

planning. Look at the computer software used and the
approach taken.

Is it task-monitoring orientated or is there more emphasis

placed on leadership?

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6. HANDLING THE MEDIA

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After successful completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

● state at least two actions that a company could take in

preparation for a potential crisis;

● describe the appropriate course of action for a company

reacting to a crisis; and

● outline the forms of communication required within a

company to minimise the effect of a major crisis.

6.1 PREPARING FOR THE UNEXPECTED

2-507 The argument often put forward for not making preparations, for how the
company and its personnel should react in the case of an emergency, is that so
much could go wrong that we cannot prepare for everything. Therefore, we do
not know what to prepare for.

2-508 This is not the thinking of a well-run company. There are still some preparations
that can be carried out. The company managers know the business that they are
in and, therefore, should be able to evaluate the risks involved.

2-509 The senior managers and key personnel should meet and form what could be
called the crisis committee. They should hold brainstorming sessions where all
ideas are considered and lists drawn up of probable, possible and improbable
scenarios that might attract adverse publicity for the company.

2-510 Preparation is still the key. Yes, a company will not be able to cover all possible
scenarios but the system for reacting will be tested and the people will then have
to react to the actual situation when it happens.

2-511 In the UK, exercises take place on a regular basis between shipping companies
and the emergency services. This gives a chance to test the equipment and the
communication systems. It also gives two important organisations the
opportunity to work together and to find out any incompatibilities in each other’s
systems.

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Module 2 Handling the Media

6.2 CRISIS MANAGEMENT

2-512 When things do go wrong then, if the company has a media department or
indeed a public relations officer, he or she should be regarded as the focal point
of contact with the press in a time of crisis. What you must remember is that bad
news sells newspapers and if the press can build up a story then they will. The
company have a duty to their employees, shareholders, suppliers and customers
and they must be positive and clear in their statements about the situation.

2-513 The crisis committee must meet as soon as possible after the event, to decide
on the wording of the first press release. It is not a good idea just to continue to
say “no comment”, if you cannot answer a question, then it is best to give the
reason why.

2-514 However, what ever happens, you should always tell the truth. How much of the
truth you reveal and at what time during the crisis is the art of getting through
with minimal distress and long-term damage to the company reputation.

2-515 Frank Jefkins (1994) states that the results of a study revealed that out of 1,500
American companies, only 53% had plans for emergency communication in the
time of a crisis. The type of incidents identified were:

● industrial accidents;

● environmental problems;

● investor relations;

● hostile takeovers;

● rumour suppression;

● strikes;

● product recall; and

● government regulatory problems.

2-516 If we think carefully enough, I am sure that we can cite maritime companies that
have had problems in each of these areas. Unfortunately, shipping disasters
seem to hit the headlines, which puts the industry in the public eye for all the
wrong reasons. Companies should be honest and relay information quickly to
stop the media looking to other sources for its information.

2-517 Blame should not be eluded to or discussed until all the facts have been
gathered and the crisis is over and do not forget, there is no such thing as an
“off the record statement”.

6.3 COMMUNICATION

2-518 The senior managers should publish their thoughts in the form of the company policy.
In this way, everybody knows how to act when the company needs them most.

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Handling the Media Module 2

Everyone should be pulling together and the modern communications of e-mail

and mobile phone make the job somewhat easier than it has been in the past.

2-519 One golden rule is to always tell the truth. The real art is to know which parts to
release and when.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION

● What is the company’s policy toward individuals having

contact with the media?

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Rosemary Thomson
and Christopher Mabey Developing Human Resources (Butterworth and
Heinemann, 1994)

Peter F Drucker Managing the Non-profit Organisation (Heinemann

Professional Publishing, 1990)

Christopher Hendry Human Resource Management – A Strategic

Approach to Employment (1995)

Charles Handy Understanding Organisations (The Penguin Group,

1974 and 1993)

J Bell Doing Your Research Project (Buckingham: Open

University Press, 1993)

D Marsh Leadership and its Functions in Further and Higher

Education (Mendip Paper No 035 published by The
Staff College, 1992)

L Cohen and L Manion Research Methods in Education (London:

Routledge, 1994)

G A Cole Management Theory and Practice (London: DP

Publications, 1996)

Broadbent and Cullen Managing Financial Resources (Butterworth and

Heinemann, 1993)

Jack Ferner Successful Time Management (John Wiley, 1995)

Frank Jefkins Public Relations Techniques (Butterworth and

Heinemann, 1994)

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 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Please read this brief very carefully and don’t forget that if modules further on in the course
asks for a report then the lessons learned in this module should be applied.

This unit covers a number of topics but the major theme is about communication and at the
heart of that process is the formal written report. Therefore for the end of unit assignment
for this module we wish you to present a report about a marine project that you have been
associated with.

The structure of the report is important and the presentation should include income and
expenditure or budget information. If you do not have any financial information at all please
contact the course Director

This information does not have to be actual information as the marks will be awarded for
the structure and clarity of the report. It is important that the financial information is
presented clearly and not as a mass of figures on a spreadsheet. The supporting
documents could be attached as appendices.

Structure the report in the way shown in this module and use as much IT as you think
appropriate, presenting your final report in word-processed form. This is an important piece
of work and it will be expected that the report stretches across at least four to five pages.

For candidates taking the Diploma option, a Tutor Marked Assignment must be
completed for each core module. There is a minimum pass mark for each assignment
and candidates will be expected to reach this minimum standard. Collectively, the
assignments represent a possible 40% of the candidate’s final mark.

On the cover page of your assignment, could you please include the
following information:

● Your Name

● Course Name – Ship Superintendency

● Course Code – LM1928

● Order Number (the six digit number quoted on your enrolment

confirmation letter)

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Module 2 Tutor Marked Assignment

To speed the processing of assignments, please return your typed assignment by post, fax
or email directly to the TMA Administrator:

Post: Mrs Parmjit Gill

TMA Administrator
National Sea Training Centre
Dering Way
Gravesend
Kent
DA12 2JJ
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1322 629684
Fax: +44 (0)1322 629684
Email: mol@nwkcollege.ac.uk

Emailed assignments are the preferred method of receipt. Please ensure that in the sub-
ject of your email you include the following information:

● Your Name
● Your course name
● The module name

Emailed assignments will only be accepted if they are sent as attachments to the email
message. Remember to keep a copy of your completed assignment in case of loss. Please
also state if you would like confirmation of receipt of your assignment. If so, you must
include your email address, as confirmation by post or fax is not possible.

There are no penalty points for late submission of assignments. You should attempt to
complete each assignment within four weeks of receipt of the module. However, you can
submit assignments at any time during the course, but they must be received before
the exam.

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