MCC Notes by YK

Notes by Dr.
Yazdan khan
ECC 454 A - Mobile Communication and computing
(ECC) 3L, 1T 3 Hours, 100 Marks
Electronics and computer engineering
MBM UNIVERSITY, JODHPUR.
Chapter 1
Concept of mobile telecommunications. Mobile radio network issues, cell size coding,
modulation and diversity Base station subsystems. Access methods. Location strategies for
personal communications services. Cell design principles.
Chapter 2
Elements of Radio Paging and microcellular radio communication: Fixed and dynamic
channel assignment, Allocation of spectrum and channels, Concepts of hexagon cells, mobile
identification system and registration of mobile, call procedure.
Chapter 3
Concepts of GSM and CDMA radio system architecture, roaming, digital speech and channel
coding. Mobility computing: Issues, challenges, and benefits; Network Programming:
Process communication techniques, remote login, ftp, socket programming, RPC, RMI,
Client – server programming.
Chapter 4
Process Migration : Steps, advantages, application taxonomy, alternatives, case study of
DEMOS/MP. Mobile Computing : Physical mobility, challenges, limits and connectivity,
mobile IP and cellular IP in mobile computing, case study of CODA.
Chapter 5
Wireless LANs : Introduction to IEEE 802.11, Bluetooth and IrDA technologies and
standards.
Introduction to Mobile Adhoc Networks: Hidden and exposed terminal problems; Routing
protocols: DSDV, DSR, AODV. Elements of Wireless Sensor Networks - Motes, smart dust,
TinyOS, routing protocols.
Chapter 6
Handheld Devices and OS : Palm, HP; PalmOS, Window CE, Windows Mobile. Conceptual
study Mobile Internet and WAP, gateways, Mobile agents: Aglets, Tcl, PMADE.
Index
S.No. Details of topics Page no.
1 1.1 a Introduction of cellular concept 1-3
2 Chapter 1 1.1 b Multipath propagation and diversity reception 3 - 15
3 1.2 Multiplexing (SDM,FDM,TDM,CDM) 16 - 19
4 1.3 Modulation Techniques(ASK,FSK.PSK, MSK ) 20 - 25
5 1.4 Access methods 26 - 28
6 1.5 Location strategies for PCS 29 - 30
7 2.1 Fundamental of Cellular Design 30 - 30
Chapter 2
8 2.2 Channel Assignment Strategies 30 - 31

9 2.3 Hand off Process 32 - 35
10 2.4 Interference & System( Freq. Reuse) 35 - 41
11 2.5 Microcellular Comm.(Cell Splitting, Sectoring, Microcellular zone) 41 - 45
12 2.6 Radio Paging System 46 - 50
13 3.1 GSM radio service 51 - 52
14 3.2 GSM Architecture 52 - 55
Chapter 3 A
15 3.3 Interfacing of Different GSM System Architecture 55 - 58

16 3.4 GSM Protocol Structure 59 - 60
17 3.5 Localization, Roaming & Calling Procedure 61 - 63
18 3.6 GSM Signal Processing (Voice & Channel coding) 63 - 67
19 3.7 GSM Handover 68 - 69
20 3.8 GSM Security 69 - 70
21 3.9 GSM Encryption 70 - 70
22 3.1 CDMA Introduction 71 - 74
23 3.2 CDMA Channels 74 - 75
Chapter 3 B
24 3.3 CDMA Multiple Access Methods 75 - 78

25 3.4 CDMA Technology 79 - 81
26 3.5 CDMA Network 81 - 84
27 3.6 CDMA Techniques 84 - 89
28 3.7 CDMA Spread Spectrum 89 - 95
29 3.8 CDMA Handoff 95 - 96
30 3.9 CDMA Interface 96 - 97
31 3.1 Mobile Computing Issues , Challenges & Benefits 98 - 103
32 3.2 Network Programming 104 - 106
Chapter 3 C
33 3.3 Process Communication Techniques 106 - 110

34 3.4 Remote Login 111 - 112
35 3.5 File Transfer Protocol(FTP) 112 - 114
36 3.6 Socket Programming 115 - 117
37 3.7 Remote Procedure Call (RPC) 117 - 118
38 3.8 Remote Method Invocation (RMI) 118 - 120
39 3.9 Client Server Programming 120 - 121
40 4.1 Process Migration 122 - 123
Chapter 4
41 4.2 Application Taxonomy 124 - 125

42 4.3 Demos/MP 125 - 128
43 4.4 Mobile IP & Cellular IP 129 - 132
44 4.5 Case Study of CODA 132 - 134
S.No. Details of topics Page no.
45 5.1 Wireless LAN 135 - 138
46 5.2 Bluetooth & IrDA Technologies 138 - 143
143 – 147
Chapter 5
47 5.3 Mobile adhoc network (MANET)
48 5.4 MANET Routing Protocol (DSDV , DSR , AODV) 147 - 149
49 5.5 Wireless Sensor Network 150 – 151
50 5.6 Smart Dust or Motes 152 – 154
51 5.7 Tiny OS 154 – 156
52 5.8 WSN Routing Protocol 156 - 159
53 6.1 Handheld Operating System 160 - 171
Chapter 6
54 6.2 Internet & WAP 171 - 176

55 6.3 Mobile Agents (Aglets, TCL) 176 - 181
56 6.4 References 182 - 182
Chapter 1
Cellular concepts - contents
1.1.a : Introduction
Communication is one of the integral parts of science that has always been a focus point for
exchanging information among parties at locations physically apart. After its discovery, telephones
have replaced the telegrams and letters. Similarly, the term `mobile' has completely revolutionized
the communication by opening up innovative applications that are limited toone's imagination.
Today, mobile communication has become the backbone of the society. All the mobile system
technologies have improved the way of living. Its main plus point is that it has privileged a common
mass of society. In this chapter, the evolution as well as the fundamental techniques of the mobile
communication is discussed. The first wireline telephone system was introduced in the year
1877.Mobile communication systems as early as 1934 were based on Amplitude Modulation (AM)
schemes and only certain public organizations maintained such systems. With the demand for newer
and better mobile radio communication systems during the World War II and the development of
Frequency Modulation (FM) technique by Edwin Armstrong, the mobile radio communication
systems began to witness many new changes. Mobile telephone was introduced in the year 1946.
However, during its initial three and a half decades it found very less market penetration owing to
high costs and numerous technological drawbacks. But with the development of the cellular concept
in the 1960s at the Bell Laboratories, mobile communications began to be a promising field of
expanse which could serve wider populations. Initially, mobile communication was restricted to
certain official users and the cellular concept was never even dreamt of being made commercially
available. Moreover, even the growth in the cellular networks was very slow. However, with the
development of newer and better technologies starting from the 1970s and with the mobile users
now connected to the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), there has been an astronomical
growth in the cellular radio and the personal communication systems. Advanced Mobile Phone
System (AMPS) was the first U.S. cellular telephone system and it was deployed in 1983. Wireless
services have since then been experiencing a 50% per year growth rate. The number of cellular
telephone users grew from 25000 in 1984 to around 3 billion in the year 2007 and the demand rate
is increasing day by Day.
Mobile Telephony Development

The first wireline telephone system was introduced in the year 1877. Mobile communication or
mobile telecommunication is a wireless technology that employs a large number of cell towers
throughout towns and cities to provide nationwide cellular coverage so that our cell phones function
correctly. GSM, UMTS and LTE are examples of mobile communications technologies. Mobile
communication systems as early as 1934 were based on Amplitude Modulation (AM) schemes and
only certain public organizations maintained such systems. With the demand for newer and better
mobile radio communication systems during the World War II and the development of Frequency
Modulation (FM) technique by Edwin Armstrong, the mobile radio communication systems began
to witness many new changes. Mobile telephone was introduced in the year 1946.However, during
its initial three and a half decades it found very less market penetration owing to high figure in the
worldwide mobile subscriber chart costs and numerous technological drawbacks. But with the
development of the cellular concept in the 1960s at the Bell Laboratories, mobile communications
began to be a promising field of expanse which could serve wider populations. Initially, mobile
communication was restricted to certain official users and the cellular concept was never even
dreamt of being made commercially available.
Not for sale Only for reading purpose

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Moreover, even the growth in the cellular networks was very slow. However, with the development
of newer and better technologies starting from the 1970s and with the mobile users now connected
to the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), there has been an astronomical growth in the
cellular radio and the personal communication systems. Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
was the first U.S. cellular telephone system and it was deployed in 1983. Wireless services have
since then been experiencing a 50% per year growth rate. The number of cellular telephone users
grew from 25000 in 1984 to around 3 billion in the year 2007 and the demand rate is increasing day
by day. A schematic of the subscribers is shown in Figure 1.1.
Mobile networks use radio communication which requires the signals from the network and cell
phones to be in the form of radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves transmitted and
received at radio frequencies. The radio frequencies can range from 800 Megahertz to tens of
Gigahertz .Mobile phones communicate with mobile networks through a range of cellular
technologies. Many technologies have become part of the cellular industry since the first generation
of mobile networks in the early 1980s. Following the first generation, 1G, we have seen a new
generation of mobile networks nearly every ten years. Each generation is more advanced than its
predecessor and uses a more sophisticated set of technologies to maximise the achievable
bandwidth so that customers can do a lot more from their connection. To give you an example, back
in the 1990s, when GSM was the main technology for 2G in most parts of the world, a channel
bandwidth of 200KHz could enable phone calls and text messages. Nowadays, when we expect our
phones to be connected to high-speed internet all the time, current technologies like 4G and 5G can
enable bandwidths of 100 MHz and more through technologies like carrier aggregation.
The mobile phone and the mobile network are both able to transmit and receive using cellular
technologies that we generally refer to as 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G. All cellular technologies are based on
a network of cells. In mobile communications, a cell is the network coverage area created by the
transmission and reception of radio signals from a mobile base station.
The place where a mobile base station is installed is called a cell site. Mobile operators use a large
number of cell sites to enable nationwide coverage so that their customers stay connected no matter
where they are. The emission of signals from the antennas of the radio units at the cell site creates
cellular coverage. The radio units require electrical power to be able to generate electromagnetic

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waves that form cells of various sizes. The size or range of a cell depends on the radio unit‘s
frequency and transmission power.
Higher frequencies have higher losses and do not travel as far as the lower frequencies can. The
transmission power also determines how far a signal can travel. The radio signals are sent at
specific frequencies so that they don‘t interfere with the signals coming from other base stations.
Only the intended mobile phone can decode the signal sent by the radio units at the cell site. The
type of radio signal depends on which technology the mobile network is using for communication.
Examples of the technology we refer to here are GSM, CDMA2000, LTE, etc.
1.1. b : Mobile communication :

Multipath propagation and diversity base reception

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In wireless networks, the signal has no wire to determine the direction of propagation, whereas
signals in wired networks only travel along the wire (which can be twisted pair copper wires, a coax
cable, but also a fiber etc.). As long as the wire is not interrupted or damaged, it typically exhibits
the same characteristics at each point. One can precisely determine the behaviour of a signal
travelling along this wire, e.g., received power depending on the length. For wireless transmission,
this predictable behaviour is only valid in a vacuum, i.e., without matter between the sender and the
receiver as shown in figure and given by these following criteria
●Transmission range: Within a certain radius of the sender transmission is possible, i.e., a receiver
receives the signals with an error rate low enough to be able to communicate and can also act as
sender.
● Detection range: Within a second radius, detection of the transmission is possible, i.e., the
transmitted power is large enough to differ from background noise. However, the error rate is too
high to establish communication.
● Interference range: Within a third even larger radius, the sender may interfere with other
transmission by adding to the background noise. A receiver will not be able to detect the signals,
but the signals may disturb other signals.
Path loss of radio signals

In free space radio signals propagate as light does (independently of their frequency),i.e., they
follow a straight line (besides gravitational effects). If such a straight line exists between a sender
and a receiver it is called line-of-sight (LOS). Even if no matter exists between the sender and the
receiver (i.e., if there is a vacuum), the signal still experiences the free space loss. The received
power Pr is proportional to 1/d2 with d being the distance between sender and receiver (inverse
square law). The reason for this phenomenon is quite simple. Think of the sender being a point in
space. The sender now emits a signal with certain energy. This signal travels away from the sender
at the speed of light as a wave with a spherical shape. If there is no obstacle, the sphere
continuously grows with the sending energy equally distributed over the sphere‘s surface. This
surface area s grows with the increasing distance d from the center according to the equation
s = 4π d2.
Even without any matter between sender and receiver, additional parameters are important. The
received power also depends on the wavelength and the gain of receiver and transmitter antennas.
As soon as there is any matter between sender and receiver, the situation becomes more complex.
Most radio transmission takes place through the atmosphere – signals travel through air, rain, snow,
fog, dust particles, smog etc. While the path loss or attenuation does not cause too much trouble
for short distances, e.g., for LANs ( the atmosphere heavily influences transmission over long
distances, e.g., satellite transmission . Even mobile phone systems are influenced by weather
conditions such as heavy rain. Rain can absorb much of the radiated energy of the antenna (this
effect is used in a microwave oven to cook), so communication links may break down as soon as
the rain sets in.
Radio waves can exhibit three fundamental propagation behaviours depending on their frequency:
● Ground wave (<2 MHz): Waves with low frequencies follow the earth‘s surface and can
propagate long distances. These waves are used for, e.g., submarine communication or AM radio.
● Sky wave (2–30 MHz): Many international broadcasts and amateur radio use these short waves
that are reflected2 at the ionosphere. This way the waves can bounce back and forth between the
ionosphere and the earth‘s surface, travelling around the world.
● Line-of-sight (>30 MHz): Mobile phone systems, satellite systems, cordless telephones etc. use
even higher frequencies. The emitted waves follow a (more or less) straight line of sight. This

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enables direct communication with satellites (no reflection at the ionosphere) or microwave links on
the ground. However, an additional consideration for ground-based communication is that the
waves are bent by the atmosphere due to refraction.
Almost all communication systems presented in this book work with frequencies above 100 MHz
so, we are almost exclusively concerned with LOS communication. But mobile phones can work
even without an LOS.Mobile phones are typically used in big cities with skyscrapers, on mountains,
inside buildings, while driving through an alley etc. Hare several effects occur in addition to the
attenuation caused by the distance between sender and receiver, which are again very much
frequency dependent. Signals transmitted from a sender may bounce off the walls of buildings
several times before they reach the receiver.
1.1.1 Refraction: Refraction effect occurs because the velocity of the electromagnetic waves
depends on the density of the medium through which it travels. Only in vacuum does it equal c. As
the figure shows, waves that travel into a denser medium are bent towards the medium. This is the
reason for LOS radio waves being bent towards the earth: the density of the atmosphere is higher
closer to the ground.
Radio wave refraction follows exactly the same effects as it does for light. The basic law for radio
wave refraction and light wave refraction is known as Snell‘s Law which states:
η1sin(θ1) = η2sin(θ2)---------- Eq 1.1.1
Where η1& η2 are different Refractive index

θ1and θ2 are angle of incident and angle of refracted wave
1.1.2 Reflection: it is caused by objects much larger than the wavelength of the signals (and
demonstrate the typical ‗particle‘ behaviour of radio signals), the following two effects exhibit the
‗wave‘ character of radio signals.

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the plane of incidence, that is, the plane containing the direction of travel of the waves (incident,
reflected, and transmitted), and perpendicular to the surface (plane where the two media meet). See
Figure 1.1 .5

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1.1.3 Diffraction: Another effect is diffraction of waves. As shown on the right side of Figure
1.1.4, this effect is very similar to scattering. Radio waves will be deflected at an edge and
propagate in different directions. The result of scattering and diffraction are patterns with varying
signal strengths depending on the location of the receiver.
In EM wave propagation Huygens‘ principle says that at each point, the wave field is effectively re-
radiating in all directions. In free space, these secondary reradiators sum and ―produce‖ the effect of
a wave front advancing in the direction away from the source. When objects exist in free space that
block or attenuate some of the wave field, the reradiation enable EM waves to ―bend‖ around
objects. In order to calculate the field at a point in (or near) the ―shadow‖ of an object, we can use
Huygens‘ principle to find accurate numerical results. This is a short version of some advanced
electromagnetics. The Fresnel-Kirchoff parameter v is given by,
depends on the geometry and the frequency, and is unitless:

• d1, d2, distance along line-of-sight path from TX or RX to obstruction
• h, screening height
The summation is actually an integral, and is taken from to , and is called the complex Fresnel integral,
1.1.4 Scattering If the size of an obstacle is in the order of the wavelength or less, then waves can
be scattered (see Figure 1.4.3 An incoming signal is scattered into several weaker outgoing signals.
The typical wavelength of radio transmission for, e.g., GSM or AMPS is in the order of some 10
cm. Thus, many objects in the environment can cause these scattering effects. When we discussed
reflection, we said a wave was impinging on a flat surface. But most surfaces (e.g., walls, ground)
are rough, not flat. When is a surface considered rough? When the maximum height ―protuberance‖

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from the surface, h, is greater than hc,
where is, again, the angle of incidence.
Scattering has two effects important to us:
1. Rough surface scattering reduces the power in the reflected wave.
2. Scattering causes additional multipath to be received in directions other than the specular
direction ( ).
Effects like attenuation, scattering, diffraction, and refraction all happen simultaneously and are
frequency and time dependent. It is very difficult to predict the precise strength of signals at a
certain point in space. Two or three dimensional maps are used with a resolution down to several
meters. With the help of, e.g., ray tracing or radiosity techniques similar to rendering 3D graphics,
the signal quality can roughly be calculated in advance. Additionally, operators perform a lot of
measurements during and after installation of antennas to fill gaps in the coverage.
1.1.c. Multi-path propagation

Together with the direct transmission from a sender to a receiver, the propagation effects mentioned
in the previous section lead to one of the most severe radio channel impairments, called multi-path
propagation. Figure 1.1.6 shows a sender on the left and one possible receiver on the right. Radio
waves emitted by the sender can either travel along a straight line, or they may be reflected at a
large building, or scattered at smaller obstacles. This simplified figure only shows three possible
paths for the signal. In reality, many more paths are possible. Due to the finite speed of light, signals
travelling along different paths with different lengths arrive at the receiver at different times. This
effect (caused by multi-path propagation) is called delay spread: the original signal is spread due
to different delays of parts of the signal. This delay spread is a typical effect of radio transmission,
because no wire guides the waves along a single path as in the case of wired networks (however, a
similar effect, dispersion, is known for high bit-rate optical transmission over multi-mode fiber,
Notice that this effect has nothing to do with possible movements of the sender or receiver. Typical
values for delay spread are approximately 3 μs in cities, up to 12 μs can be observed. GSM, for
example, can tolerate up to 16 μs of delay spread, i.e., almost a 5 km path difference.
The first effect is that a short impulse will be smeared out into a broader impulse, or rather into
several weaker impulses. In Figure only three possible paths are shown and, thus, the impulse at the
sender will result in three smaller impulses at the receiver. For a real situation with hundreds of
different paths, this implies that a single impulse will result in many weaker impulses at the

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receiver. Each path has a different attenuation and, the received pulses have different power. Some
of the received pulses will be too weak even to be detected (i.e., they will appear as noise).
The second impulse shown in Figure On the sender side, both impulses are separated. At the
receiver, both impulses interfere, i.e., they overlap in time. Now consider that each impulse should
represent a symbol, and that one or several symbols could represent a bit. The energy intended for
one symbol now spills over to the adjacent symbol, an effect which is called intersymbol
interference (ISI). The higher the symbol rate to be transmitted, the worse the effects of ISI will
be, as the original symbols are moved closer and closer to each other. ISI limits the bandwidth of a
radio channel with multi-path propagation (which is the standard case). Due to this interference, the
signals of different symbols can cancel each other out leading to misinterpretations at the receiver
and causing transmission errors.
The power of the received signal changes considerably over time. These quick changes in the
received power are also called short-term fading or small scale fading. Depending on the mobile
movement the signals take different paths which causes these signals may have a different phase
and cancel each other as shown in Figure1.1.7 The receiver now has to try to constantly adapt to the
varying channel characteristics,e.g., by changing the parameters of the equalizer. However, if these
changes are too fast, such as driving on a highway through a city, the receiver cannot adapt fast
enough and the error rate of transmission increases dramatically.
An additional effect shown in Figure 1.1.7 is the long-term fading or Large scale fading of the
received signal. This long-term fading, shown here as the average power over time, is caused by,
varying distance to the sender or more remote obstacles. The large-scale fading is generated by
shadowing effects which is due to changes in both the nature of surroundings and the terrain profile
involved. The large scale fading is log-normally spreaded with particular standard deviation value
of approximately 10 decibels in the urban area.
Typically, senders can compensate for long-term fading by increasing/decreasing sending power so
that the received signal always stays within certain limits. multi-path propagation limits the
maximum bandwidth due to ISI and that moving transceivers cause additional problems due to
varying channel characteristics or channel impairments. To resolve this, there are three popular
techniques –
 Equalization
 Diversity
 Channel coding (See section)

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1.1.c.1 Equalization
An equalizer within a receiver compensates for the average range of expected channel amplitude
and delay characteristics. In other words, an equalizer is a filter at the mobile receiver whose
impulse response is inverse of the channel impulse response. Such equalizers find their use
in frequency selective fading channels.it is the front end of a receiver compensates for the average
range of expected channel amplitude and delay characteristics. As the mobile fading channels are
random and time varying, equalizers must track the time-varying characteristics of the mobile
channel and therefore should be time varying or adaptive. An adaptive equalizer has two phases of
operation:
1. training mode
2. tracking mode
1.Training Mode
Initially a known, fixed length training sequence is sent by the transmitter so that the receiver
equalizer may average to a proper setting. Training sequence is typically a pseudo-random binary
signal or a fixed, of prescribed bit pattern. The training sequence is designed to permit an equalizer
at the receiver to acquire the proper filter coefficient in the worst possible channel condition. An
adaptive filter at the receiver thus uses a recursive algorithm to evaluate the channel and estimate
filter coefficients to compensate for the channel.
2.Tracking Mode
When the training sequence is finished the filter coefficients are near optimal. Immediately
following the training sequence, user data is sent. When the data of the users are received, the
adaptive algorithms of the equalizer tracks the changing channel. As a result, the adaptive equalizer
continuously changes the filter characteristics over time.
1.1.c.2 Diversity
Diversity is a good technique applied in mobile communication receiver circuits where there are
multipath environments exists. The diversity techniques use the nature of the propagation path
characteristics for improving the sensitivity of receivers. It will improve the wireless links, at less
cost. It does not require prior training because a training sequence is not needed by a transmitter like
an equalizer. The diversity technique finds a way of analyzing signal paths for the multipath cellular
environment. The diversity decisions made at the receiver end and they are not known to the
transmitter.
Diversity Techniques Concept

The simple concept of diversity is that even if a radio signal path experiences a deep face, there will
be another independent signal path available for analysis. Let us consider the received signal that is
observed with many signal level variations. We assume two antennas with a specific separation
between them are located on a terminal. They experience different fading levels as the mobile
terminal moves. An example of received signal variations is represented in the figure below. The
received signal levels differ with their corresponding fading levels. Therefore, we select an antenna
that possess higher signal level so that the probability of deep fading can be avoided. In the figure
1.2.3 shown below, the signal level of antenna #1 suffers fading whereas the signal level of antenna
#2 fades in seldom cases. Note that branch #1 is deeply faded whereas branch #2 is not highly
faded.

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1.1.c..2 Types of Diversity
The two basic types of diversity are as under:
1) Microscopic diversity
2) Macroscopic diversity
1). Microscopic diversity techniques
To counteract small-signal fading that is to avoid deep fading in the signal received under small
distances, fading can be minimized by this technique. It can prevent small signal fades in case of
less antenna separations, if two antennas are used.
By choosing the signal of higher strength most of the time, the receiver can reduce the fading
effects in the graph shown in the figure 1.1.9 below. The small-signal fades rapidly whereas the
large-signal fades gradually with respect to an indoor environment.
2). Macroscopic diversity techniques
In large signal fading, the signal strength reduces that is because of shadowing problems. By
choosing a base station that is not shadowed when compared to other base stations, the mobile unit
can acquire a better signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in its forward path. Such a type of counteracting to
large-scale fading effects or the method of diversity used to reduce large-scale signal fades is
termed as macroscopic diversity technique. This is highly useful at the base station receiver end.

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Important Diversity Techniques
The important diversity techniques are discussed in the following ways:
Each diversity technique is unique in its functionality but aims towards a common goal of reducing
the fading effects in multipath receiver circuit.
1. Space Diversity Technique
The space diversity scheme is also called as ‘antenna diversity scheme‗. In conventional methods
of wireless communication, the availability of direct path between transmitter and receiver is not
assured. Therefore, the occurrence of Rayleigh fading will be present. But, the antenna space
diversity can achieve independent fading changes by applying spatially separated antennas.
In the space diversity scheme, the receiver configuration is quite simple. Several number of
diversity branches are selectable. For producing diversity reception at each and every cell site,
multiple base station receiving antennas are used effectively. It is important to note that main
scattering takes place in ground which is in the vicinity of the mobile unit, and hence to attain decor
relation, the antennas at base station have to be placed with necessary separation distances. This
separation distance can be in order or tens of wavelength (λ) value with respect to base station.
Generally, the space diversity technique can be used at base station or mobile or at both ends.
Also, in case, the antenna spacing is greater than λ/2, then it is sufficient to obtain low fading
correlation between the diversity branches, and antenna spacing of 50λ to 100λ is a must at the base
station end.

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A general schematic of space diversity is shown in the above figure. There are ‗n‘ branches with
separate gain values namely G1, G2 … Gn, and a set of demodulators to generate the required
output.
Space Diversity Combining Schemes
1. a). Selective Diversity

In selective diversity combining, the branches having the strongest received signal will be selected.
In selective diversity method, ‗n‘ number of demodulators are used and their gains can be adjusted
to give mean signal to noise ratio (SNR) for every diversity branch. Then, the antenna signals will
be sampled. Finally, the best signal that possess good signal strength will be sent to a demodulator.
It is also seen that practical diversity system has to be carefully such that reciprocal of the mobile
signal fading rate is a longer than the internal constant values of selection diversity circuitry.
1. b).Feedback Diversity
The feedback diversity technique is also known as scanning diversity. In this method, the ‗n‘ signals
are scanned in a proper sequence and monitored to pick a signal in the sequence which is above the
preset threshold value say ‗α‘. Then, a scanning process will be initiated for the received signals.
But, the demerit of this method is that the fading level reduction is less than the other diversity
techniques. In this method, for the received signals (m), the best signal of better strength is
measured by comparing every signal with a preset threshold value ‗α‘ as shown in the figure below.
One of the merit of feedback diversity is its easier implementation than other methods.
1. c). Maximal Ratio Combining Technique
The concept of this method is that all the branch signals [N] are combined coherently with
necessary weighting coefficients for every diversity branch signal so that the reduction of fading
will be better leading to overall improvement of system performance. A block diagram for this method
is shown in the figure below. Unlike selection diversity, the signals are co-phased before the addition process
and for this, individual receiver and phasing circuits are a must for all the antenna elements. In the output,
signal of maximal ratio combiner will be such that the sum of individual signal to noise ratio (SNR) values
will be equal to the SNR of output signal measured.

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Advantages of Maximal ratio combiner technique
 Maximal ratio combiner generates an acceptable SNR value.
 Accuracy is high.
 Produces the best reduction of fading
1. d). Equal Gain Combiner Technique

In the equal gain combining, all the diversity branches are coherently added with a same weighting
factor. On the other hand, this scheme also co-phases all the diversity branches and finally adds
them up. As the signals are co-phased from all branches, they provide an equal gain factor. When
compared to maximal ratio combining, the configuration of this method is simple. By applying
equal gain combining, it is convenient for the receiver to get back the signals. One of the demerits of
this method is that it degrades the SNR value by 0.5 dB at the output of combiner if two branches are
involved. If ten branches are involved in the reception, then, the SNR degradation would be roughly upto 1
dB value.
2. Polarization Diversity Techniques
In polarization diversity, both horizontal and vertical polarization are involved. In case, if a signal is
transmitted by a pair of polarized antennas, and they are received by another pair of antennas, then,
two uncorrelated fading signals will be received because different fading variations are experienced
by horizontal and vertical polarizations and due to different reflection coefficient values of the tall
building walls.
The measured vertical and horizontal polarization signal paths between the base station and mobile
are found to be uncorrelated. Also, the decorrelation in vertical and horizontal polarization for
signals is due to multiple reflections in the radio channel between base stations and mobile
antennas. There will be an amount of dependence of received polarization on transmitted
polarization.
3. Time Diversity Techniques

In the time diversity method, the information is transmitted repeatedly at specific time spacings that
would exceed the coherence time of the mobile channel, and this will lead to repetition of signals
for several times; irrespective of fading conditions.
Thus, when an identical information is sent for different time slots, it is possible to obtain diversity
branch signals. The time diversity technique is well suited for spread spectrum CDMA system, in
which, RAKE receiver is used for reception.
4. Frequency Diversity
In this method of frequency diversity, the information is transmitted on many carrier frequencies.
The idea behind this is that if the frequencies are separated by more than that of the coherence
bandwidth of the mobile channel, these would be uncorrelated with each other and hence these
would not experience same fading status. Also under channels, uncorrelated situations, the
occupancy of fading will be multiple of the individual fading probability (occurrence).
The frequency diversity scheme is applied in microwave fields whenever line of sight (LOS) links
is used. That is in LOS links, they may carry many channels in the frequency division multiplex
mode (FDM). There are chances of deep fades in frequency diversity due to tropospheric
propagation and the resulting refractions of the signal. The fading variation independence factor
between the separated frequency components is a main effect with respect to land mobile
communication and it is known as frequency diversity effect. Thus, the frequency diversity is a
popular diversity reception technique.
5. Directional Diversity
The received signals would arrive from different incident angles due to any one of the propagation
mechanisms namely reflection, diffraction or scattered signals around the mobile terminal. By using

14
selective directive antennas, the independent faded signals (since all the paths arising from various
angles are mutually independent of each other) can be received. This type of diversity is suitable to
apply in mobile terminal end, where limited directions of signals at base station is linked.
6. Path Diversity
In path diversity method, the signals are coherently combined. That is both the direct and delayed signal
components are combined together. Thus, the diversity branches are generated only after signal reception,
and this method is also called as Implicit diversity. As an example, an adaptive equalizer and RAKE
diversity are also categorized as path diversity schemes.
Advantages of Path Diversity schemes are as under:
 In this scheme, no extra power is required.
 No extra antennas are required
 No extra frequency spectrum is required.
Disadvantages of path diversity schemes
This diversity method is very sensitive to Rayleigh fading conditions, and hence, the propagation
path conditions have to be given more attention.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Diversity Schemes
Table: Summery of the advantages and disadvantages of different diversity schemes
S..No Diversity Scheme Advantages Disadvantages

1. Polarization (i) No space and extra bandwidth (i) 3 dB extra power is a must
are required. (ii) Two branch diversity schemes is
only possible.
2. Space Diversity (i) Several diversity branches are (i) Large hardware size is required.
allowed. (ii) Larger antenna spacing is a must
(ii) It is also applicable to for the microscopic diversity at the
macroscopic diversity. base station.
(iii) No extra bandwidth or power
power is required.
3. Frequency Diversity (i) Several diversity branches are (i) Relevant power level of
allowed. frequency spectrum are important.
4. Time Diversity (i) Hardware is simple. (i) Larger buffer memory is a must
(ii) Several diversity branches are when diversity frequency is small.
allowed. (ii) More frequency spectrum is
necessary according to the number of
diversity branches.
5. Angle Diversity Doppler spread can be reduced. Diversity gain will depend on the
number of obstacles available around
the terminal.
6. Path Diversity • No space is required. The diversity gain will depend on the
• No extra bandwidth and power are delay status.
required.

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1.2 Multiplexing
Multiplexing is not only a fundamental mechanism in communication systems but also in everyday
life. Multiplexing describes how several users can share a medium with minimum or no
interference. One example, is highways with several lanes. Many users (car drivers) use the same
medium (the highways) with hopefully no interference (i.e., accidents). This is possible due to the
provision of several lanes (space division multiplexing) separating the traffic. In addition, different
cars use the same medium (i.e., the same lane) at different points in time (time division
multiplexing). While this simple example illustrates our everyday use of multiplexing, the following
examples will deal with the use of multiplexing in wireless communications. Mechanisms
controlling the use of multiplexing and the assignment of a medium to users (the traffic
regulations), are discussed in chapter 3 under the aspect of medium access control.
1.2.1 Space division multiplexing (SDM)

For wireless communication, multiplexing can be carried out in four dimensions: space, time,
frequency, and code. In this field, the task of multiplexing is to assign space, time, frequency, and
code to each communication channel with a minimum of interference and a maximum of medium
utilization. The term communication channel here only refers to an association of sender(s) and
receiver(s) who want to exchange data. Figure 2.16 shows six channels ki and introduces a three
dimensional coordinate system. This system shows the dimensions of code c, time t and frequency
f. For this first type of multiplexing, space division multiplexing (SDM), the (three dimensional)
space si is also shown. Here space is represented via circles indicating the interference range as
introduced in Figure 2.11. How is the separation of the different channels achieved? The channels
k1 to k3 can be mapped onto the three ‗spaces‘ s1 to s3 which clearly separate the channels and
prevent the interference ranges from overlapping. The space between the interference ranges is
sometimes called guard space. Such a guard space is needed in all four multiplexing schemes
presented.

16
For the remaining channels (k4 to k6) three additional spaces would be needed. In wireless
transmission, SDM implies a separate sender for each communication channel with a wide enough
distance between senders. This multiplexing scheme is used, for example, at FM radio stations
where the transmission range is limited to a certain region
1.2.2 Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) describes schemes to subdivide the frequency dimension
into several non-overlapping frequency bands as shown in Figure 1.2.2. Each channel ki is now
allotted its own frequency band as indicated. Senders using a certain frequency band can use this
band continuously. Again, guard spaces are needed to avoid frequency band overlapping (also
called adjacent channel interference). This scheme is used for radio stations within the same
region, where each radio station has its own frequency. This very simple multiplexing scheme does
not need complex coordination between sender and receiver: the receiver only has to tune in to the
specific sender. However, this scheme also has disadvantages. While radio stations broadcast
24 hours a day, mobile communication typically takes place for only a few minutes at a time.
Assigning a separate frequency for each possible communication scenario would be a tremendous
waste of (scarce) frequency resources. Additionally, the fixed assignment of a frequency to a sender
makes the scheme very inflexible and limits the number of senders.
Figure 1.2.2 : Frequency Division Multiplexing
1.2.3 Time division multiplexing (TDM)

A more flexible multiplexing scheme for typical mobile communications is time division
multiplexing (TDM). Here a channel Ki is given the whole bandwidth for a certain amount of time,
i.e., all senders use the same frequency but at different points in time (see Figure 1.2.3). Again,
guard spaces, which now represent time gaps, have to separate the different periods when the
senders use the medium. In our highway example, this would refer to the gap between two cars. If
two transmissions overlap in time, this is called co-channel interference. (In the highway example,
interference between two cars results in an accident.) To avoid this type of interference, precise
synchronization between different senders is necessary. This is clearly a disadvantage, as all senders
need precise clocks or, alternatively, a way has to be found to distribute a synchronization signal to
all senders. For a receiver tuning in to a sender this does not just involve adjusting the frequency,
but involves listening at exactly the right point in time. However, this scheme is quite flexible as
one can assign more sending time to senders with a heavy load and less to those with a light load.

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Figure 1.2.3 : Time division Multiplexing
1.2.4 Combined Frequency and time division multiplexing (CFTDM)

Frequency and time division multiplexing can be combined, i.e., a channel ki can use a certain
frequency band for a certain amount of time as shown in Figure 1.2.4. Now guard spaces are needed
both in the time and in the frequency dimension. This scheme is more robust against frequency
selective interference, i.e., interference in a certain small frequency band. A channel may use this
band only for a short period of time. Additionally, this scheme provides some (weak) protection
against tapping, as in this case the sequence of frequencies a sender uses has to be known to listen
in to a channel. The mobile phone standard GSM uses this combination of frequency and time
division multiplexing for transmission between a mobile phone and a so-called base station (see
section 3.2).
Figure 1.2.4 : Frequency and time division multiplexing
A disadvantage of this scheme is again the necessary coordination between different senders. One
has to control the sequence of frequencies and the time of changing to another frequency. Two
senders will interfere as soon as they select the same frequency at the same time. However, if the
frequency change (also called frequency hopping) is fast enough, the periods of interference may
be so small that, depending on the coding of data into signals, a receiver can still recover the
original data.

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1.2.5 Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
code division multiplexing (CDM) is a relatively new scheme in commercial communication
systems. First used in military applications due to its inherent security features (together with spread
spectrum techniques, it now features in many civil wireless transmission scenarios thanks to the
availability of cheap processing power. Figure 1.2.5 shows how all channels ki use the same
frequency at the same time for transmission. Separation is now achieved by assigning each channel
its own ‗code‘, guard spaces are realized by using codes with the necessary ‗distance‘ in code
space, e.g., orthogonal codes. The typical everyday example of CDM is a party with many
participants from different countries around the world who establish communication channels, i.e.,
they talk to each other, using the same frequency range (approx. 300–6000 Hz depending on a
person‘s voice) at the same time. If everybody speaks the same language, SDM is needed to be able
to communicate (i.e., standing in groups, talking with limited transmit power).But as soon as
another code, i.e., another language, is used, one can tune in to this language and clearly separate
communication in this language from all the other languages.(The other languages appear as
background noise.) This explains why CDM has built-in security: if the language is unknown, the
signals can still be received, but they are useless. By using a secret code (or language),a secure
channel can be established in a ‗hostile‘ environment. (At parties this may cause some confusion.)
Guard spaces are also of importance in this illustrative example. Using, e.g., Swedish and
Norwegian does not really work; the languages are too close. But Swedish and Finnish
are ‗orthogonal‘ enough to separate the communication channels.
Figure 1.2.5 : Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

The main advantage of CDM for wireless transmission is that it gives good protection against
interference and tapping. Different codes have to be assigned, but code space is huge compared to
the frequency space. Assigning individual codes to each sender does not usually cause problems.
The main disadvantage of this scheme is the relatively high complexity of the receiver . A receiver
has to know the code and must separate the channel with user data from the background noise
composed of other signals and environmental noise. Additionally, a receiver must be precisely
synchronized with the transmitter to apply the decoding correctly. The voice example also gives a
hint to another problem of CDM receivers. All signals should reach a receiver with almost equal
strength, otherwise some signals could drain others. If some people close to a receiver talk very
loudly the language does not matter. The receiver cannot listen to any other person. To apply CDM,
precise power control is required.

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1.3 Modulation
Signals are the physical representation of data. Users of a communication system can only exchange
data through the transmission of signals. Signals are functions of time and location. Signal
parameters represent the data values. The most interesting types of signals for radio transmission
are periodic signals, especially sine waves as carriers. The general function of a sine wave is:
g(t) = At sin(2 π ft t + φt)
Signal parameters are the amplitude A, the frequency f, and the phase shift φ.The amplitude as a
factor of the function g may also change over time, thus At. The frequency f expresses the
periodicity of the signal with the period T = 1/f. (In equations, ω is frequently used instead of 2πf.)
The frequency f may also change over time and given as ft . Finally, the phase shift determines the
shift of the signal relative to the same signal without a shift. This shows a sine function without a
phase shift and the same function, i.e., same amplitude and frequency, with a phase shift φ. shows
how shifting the phase can be used to represent data. Sine waves are of special interest, as it is
possible to construct every periodic signal g by using only sine and cosine functions according to a
fundamental equation of Fourier:
g(t) = c + ∑ sin(2πnft) + ∑ cos(2πnft)

In this equation the parameter c determines the Direct Current (DC) component of the signal, the
coefficients an and bn are the amplitudes of the nth sine and cosine function. The equation shows
that an infinite number of sine and cosine functions is needed to construct arbitrary periodic
functions .However, the frequencies of these functions (the so-called harmonics) increase with a
growing parameter n and are a multiple of the fundamental frequency f. The bandwidth of any
medium, air, cable, transmitter etc. is limited and, there is an upper limit for the frequencies. In
reality therefore, it is enough to consider a limited number of sine and cosine functions to construct
periodic wave.
In wireless networks, however, digital transmission cannot be used. Here, the binary bit-stream has
to be translated into an analog signal first. The three basic methods for this translation are
amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK).
Apart from the translation of digital data into analog signals, wireless transmission requires an
additional modulation, an analog modulation that shifts the center frequency of the baseband
signal generated by the digital modulation up to the radio carrier. For example, digital modulation
translates a 1 Mbit/s bit-stream into a baseband signal with a bandwidth of 1 MHz There are several
reasons why this baseband signal cannot be directly transmitted in a wireless system:
 Antenna height is limited to few meters.

 Frequency division multiplexing could not be applied because of using only baseband
transmission.

20
 Path-loss, penetration of obstacles, reflection, scattering, and diffraction – all the effects
depend heavily on the wavelength of the signal.
The receiver (see Figure1.3.2) receives the analog radio signal via its antenna and demodulates the
signal into the analog baseband signal with the help of the known carrier. This would be all that is
needed for an analog radio tuned in to a radio station. (The analog baseband signal would constitute
the music.) For digital data, another step is needed. Bits or frames have to be detected, i.e., the
receiver must synchronize with the sender. How synchronization is achieved, depends on the digital
modulation scheme. After synchronization, the receiver has to decide if the signal represents a
digital 1 or a 0, reconstructing the original data.
1,3.1 Analog modulation Techniques

Amplitude Modulation
Wireless signals originally only had a single carrier

frequency, that carrier frequency would be
modulated to impose the data on it. Amplitude
Modulation (AM), used for AM radio, uses a high
speed carrier frequency and imposes the signal onto
the carrier by adjusting the carrier's amplitude. In the
diagram below, the signal that needs to be sent is on
top. It is then combined with the carrier frequency in
the middle resulting in the bottom waveform, which
is sent out of the antenna.
Figure 1.3.3 A: Amplitude modulation
Phase & Frequency Modulation
Phase and Frequency Modulation are the two other

types of modulation that can be used to impose data
onto a carrier frequency. Frequency modulation
(FM) is used for everyday FM radio. The signals are
imposed into the carrier by adjusting the frequency
of the carrier. In the diagram below, the signal that
needs to be sent is the on top. It is then combined
with the carrier frequency in the middle resulting in
the bottom waveform which is sent out of the
antenna.
Figure 1.3.4 B : Frequency & Phase Modulation

21
1.3.2 Digital Modulation
The digital modulation schemes differ in many issues, such as spectral efficiency (i.e., how
efficiently the modulation scheme utilizes the available frequency spectrum), power efficiency (i.e.,
how much power is needed to transfer bits – which is very important for portable devices that are
battery dependent), and robustness to multi-path propagation, noise, and interference
Figure 1.3.5 A illustrates amplitude shift keying (ASK),

the most simple digital modulation scheme. The two
binary values, 1 and 0, are represented by two different
amplitudes. In the example, one of the amplitudes is 0
(representing the binary 0). This simple scheme only
requires low bandwidth, but is very susceptible to
interference. effects like multi-path propagation, noise,
or path loss heavily influence the amplitude. In a
wireless environment, a constant amplitude cannot be
guaranteed, so ASK is typically not used for wireless
radio transmission.
A modulation scheme often used for wireless transmission is

frequency shift keying (FSK) (see Figure 1.3.5B). The
simplest form of FSK, also called binary FSK (BFSK),
assigns one frequency f1 to the binary 1 and another frequency
f2 to the binary 0. A very simple way to implement FSK is to
switch between two oscillators, one with the frequency f1 and
the other with f2,depending on the input. To avoid sudden
changes in phase, special frequency modulators with
continuous phase modulation, (CPM) can be used. Sudden
changes in phase cause high frequencies, which is an undesired
side-effect. A simple way to implement demodulation is by
using two band pass filters, one for f1 the other for f2. A
comparator can then compare the signal levels of the filter
outputs to decide which of them is stronger. FSK needs a larger
bandwidth compared to ASK but is much less susceptible to
errors.
Phase shift keying (PSK) uses shifts in the phase of a
signal to represent data. Figure 15 C shows a phase shift
of 180° or π as the 0 follows the 1 (the same happens as
the 1 follows the 0). This simple scheme, shifting the
phase by 180° each time the value of data changes, is
also called binary PSK (BPSK). A simple
implementation of a BPSK modulator could multiply a
frequency f with +1 if the binary data is 1 and with –1 if
the binary data is 0.To receive the signal correctly, the
receiver must synchronize in frequency and phase with
the transmitter. This can be done using a phase lock
loop (PLL). Compared to FSK, PSK is more resistant to
interference, but receiver and transmitter
are also more complex.
1.3.4 Advanced frequency shift keying (MSK)
A famous FSK scheme used in many wireless systems is minimum shift keying (MSK). MSK is
basically BFSK without abrupt phase changes, i.e., it belongs to CPM schemes. Figure 1.3.7 shows
an example for the implementation of MSK. In a first step, data bits are separated into even and odd
bits, the duration of each bit being doubled. The scheme also uses two frequencies: f1, the lower
frequency, and f2, the higher frequency, with f2 = 2f1. According to the following scheme, the lower
or higher frequency is chosen (either inverted or non-inverted) to generate the MSK signal:

22
● if the even and the odd bit are both 0, then the higher frequency f2 is inverted (i.e., f2 is
used with a phase shift of 180°);
● if the even bit is 1, the odd bit 0, then the lower frequency f1 is inverted. This is the case,
e.g., in the fifth to seventh columns of Figure 1.3.7.
 if the even bit is 0 and the odd bit is 1, as in columns 1 to 3, f1 is taken without changing
the phase,
● if both bits are 1 then the original f2 is taken.
Figure 1.3.7 : Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)

A high frequency is always chosen if even and odd bits are equal. The signal is inverted if the odd
bit equals 0. This scheme avoids all phase shifts in the resulting MSK signal. Adding a so-called
Gaussian low pass filter to the MSK scheme results in Gaussian MSK (GMSK), which is the
digital modulation scheme for many European wireless standards ( GSM, DECT). The filter reduces
the large spectrum needed by MSK.
1.3.5 Advanced phase shift keying

The simple PSK scheme can be improved in many ways. The basic BPSK scheme only uses one
possible phase shift of 180°. The left side of Figure 1.3.6.A shows BPSK in the phase domain
(which is typically the better representation compared to the time domain in Figure 1.3.5C). The
right side of Figure 16 A shows quadrature PSK (QPSK), one of the most common PSK schemes
(sometimes also called quaternary PSK). Here, higher bit rates can be achieved for the same
bandwidth by coding two bits into one phase shift.

23
Alternatively, one can reduce the bandwidth and still achieve the same bit rates as for BPSK. QPSK
(and other PSK schemes) can be realized in two variants. The phase shift can always be relative to a
reference signal (with the same frequency). If this scheme is used, a phase shift of 0 means that the
signal is in phase with the reference signal. A QPSK signal will then exhibit a phase shift of 45° for
the data 11, 135° for 10, 225° for 00, and 315° for 01 – with all phase shifts being relative to the
reference signal. The transmitter ‗selects‘ parts of the signal as shown in Figure 1.3.6 B and
concatenates them. To reconstruct data, the receiver has to compare the incoming signal with the
reference signal. One problem of this scheme involves producing a reference signal at the receiver.
Transmitter and receiver have to be synchronized very often, e.g., by using special synchronization
patterns before user data arrives or via a pilot frequency as reference.
The above examples show in the figure 1.3.4A & 1.3.4 B use of Amplitude and Frequency and
Modulation to carry an analog signal. Analog signals consist of the raw information and do not
relate to digital 1s and zeros. One way to avoid this problem is to use differential QPSK
(DQPSK). Here the phase shift is not relative to a reference signal but to the phase of the previous
two bits. A constellation diagram is used to relate discrete digital values to different changes in the
analog carrier. The constellation diagram 1.3.8 below is for an 8PSK modulation scheme. The
distance from the origin of the graph describes the amplitude of the signal. All of the signals on the
below constellation diagram are the same distance from the origin, meaning that the modulation
scheme doesn't use any amplitude modulation. The angle from the "I" axis to where the point is on
the diagram shows the phase offset that the signal would have to represent that particular value. The
carrier would be only phase modulated which is called Phase Shift Keying (PSK). A digital
modulation scheme that incorporates both Phase and amplitude modulation is referred to
quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).
To demonstrate the modulation an 8PSK modulator is used in the above block diagram. The
example bit stream on the left hand side enters the modulator and has a bit slot of 10. Being a
sample of 60 seconds and a bit slot of 10 seconds, the sample bit stream is carrying 6 bits (1 1 1 0 1
0). The 8PSK modulator clocks in 3 bits at a time to generate the modulated PSK signal. The PSK
modulator relates the 3 clocked bits to its constellation diagram and generates a PSK waveform
Because it clocks in 3 bits to ever state change, the RF signal is 1/3 the rate of the bit stream. The
entire process is depicted below and can be applied to any modulation scheme and bitrates. The
example above is using full rate modulation. In many cases, a half code rate scheme will be used in
conjunction with the modulation scheme such that only half of the bits would change every bit-slot.
Using a half code rate or even a 3/4 code rate helps ensure that the probability of an error in
transmission or detection is low.

24
As the carrier is modulated, additional frequency components are created. Without these extra
frequency components, the received signal would not resemble the original transmitted signal.
These side-bands define a definite signal physical spectrum bandwidth. The required physical
bandwidth of a signal is determined by the maximum modulation frequency and how drastic the
state change could be. An example of how far the side bands would be in the worst case scenario is
in the diagram below, where none of the spectral energy is in the carrier waveform. A Fourier
Transform determines the spectral components of this worst case scenario signal. The power
contained in the initial side bands is just a fraction of the carrier power and additional side-bands at
harmonics will contain some of the power.
A more advanced scheme is a hierarchical modulation as used in the digital TV standard DVB-T.
The right side Figure 1.3.10 shows a 64 QAM that contains a QPSK modulation. A 64 QAM can
code 6 bit per symbol. Here the two most significant bits are used for the QPSK signal embedded in
the QAM signal. If the reception of the signal is good the entire QAM constellation can be resolved.
Under poor reception conditions, e.g., with moving receivers, only the QPSK portion can be
resolved. A high priority data stream in DVB-T is coded with QPSK using the two most significant
bits. The remaining 4 bits represent low priority data. For TV this could mean that the standard
resolution data stream is coded with high priority, the high resolution information with low priority.
If the signal is distorted, at least the standard TV resolution can be received.

25
1.4 Access Methods
Multiple Access Techniques
In wireless communication systems, it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to send information
simultaneously from the mobile station to the base station while receiving information from the
base station to the mobile station.
A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a mobile unit in each cell communicates
with a base station. The main aim in the cellular system design is to be able to increase the
capacity of the channel, i.e., to handle as many calls as possible in a given bandwidth with a
sufficient level of quality of service.
There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These includes mainly the following
 Space division multiple access (SDMA)

 Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)
 Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
 Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
Depending on how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users, these techniques can be
classified as narrowband and wideband systems.
1.4.1 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is used for allocating a separated space to users in
wireless networks. A typical application involves assigning an optimal base station to a mobile
phone user. The mobile phone may receive several base stations with different quality. A MAC
algorithm could now decide which base station is best, taking into account which frequencies
(FDM), time slots (TDM) or code (CDM) are still available (depending on the technology).
Typically, SDMA is never used in isolation but always in combination with one or more other
schemes. The basis for the SDMA algorithm is formed by cells and sectorized antennas which
constitute the infrastructure implementing space division multiplexing (SDM)). A new application
of SDMA comes up together with beam-forming antenna arrays. Single users are separated in space
by individual beams. This can improve the overall capacity of a cell (e.g., measured in bit/s/m2 or
voice calls/m2) tremendously.
1.4.2 Frequency division multiple access (FDMA) comprises all algorithms allocating frequencies
to transmission channels according to the frequency division multiplexing (FDM) . Allocation can
either be fixed (as for radio stations or the general planning and regulation of frequencies) or
dynamic (i.e., demand driven). Channels can be assigned to the same frequency at all times, i.e.,
pure FDMA, or change frequencies according to a certain pattern, i.e., FDMA combined with
TDMA. The latter example is the common practice for many wireless systems to circumvent
narrowband interference at certain frequencies, known as frequency hopping. Sender and receiver
have to agree on a hopping pattern, otherwise the receiver could not tune to the right frequency.
Hopping patterns are typically fixed, at least for a longer period. The fact that it is not possible to
arbitrarily jump in the frequency space (i.e., the receiver must be able to tune to the right frequency)
is one of the main differences between FDM schemes and TDM schemes. Furthermore, FDM is
often used for simultaneous access to the medium by base station and mobile station in cellular
networks. Here the two partners typically establish a duplex channel, i.e., a channel that allows for
simultaneous transmission in both directions. The two directions, mobile station to base station and
vice versa are now separated using different frequencies. This scheme is then called frequency
division duplex (FDD). Again, both partners have to know the frequencies in advance; they cannot

26
just listen into the medium. The two frequencies are also known as uplink, i.e., from mobile station
to base station or from ground control to satellite, and as downlink, i.e., from base station to mobile
station or from satellite to ground control. As for example FDM and FDD, Figure 1.4.1 shows the
situation in a mobile phone network based on the GSM standard for 900 MHz . The basic frequency
allocation scheme for GSM is fixed and regulated by national authorities. (Certain variations exist
regarding the frequencies mentioned in the examples.) All uplinks use the band between 890.2 and
915 MHz, all downlinks use 935.2 to 960 MHz. According to FDMA, the base station, shown on
the right side, allocates a certain frequency for up- and downlink to establish a duplex channel with
a mobile phone. Up- and downlink have a fixed relation. If the uplink frequency is fu = 890 MHz +
n·0.2 MHz, the downlink frequency is fd = fu + 45 MHz, i.e., fd = 935 MHz + n·0.2 MHz for a
certain channel n. The base station selects the channel. Each channel (uplink and downlink) has a
bandwidth of 200kHz. This illustrates the use of FDM for multiple access (124 channels per
direction are available at 900 MHz) and duplex according to a predetermined scheme. Similar FDM
schemes for FDD are implemented in AMPS, IS-54, IS-95, IS-136, PACS, and UMTS (FDD
mode).
1.4.3 TDMA
Compared to FDMA, time division multiple access (TDMA) offers a much more flexible scheme,
which comprises all technologies that allocate certain time slots for communication, i.e., controlling
TDM. Now tuning in to a certain frequency is not necessary, i.e., the receiver can stay at the same
frequency the whole time. Using only one frequency, and thus very simple receivers and
transmitters, many different algorithms exist to control medium access. As already mentioned,
listening to different frequencies at the same time is quite difficult, but listening to many channels
separated in time at the same frequency is simple. Now synchronization between sender and
receiver has to be achieved in the time domain. Again this can be done by using a fixed pattern
similar to FDMA techniques, i.e., allocating a certain time slot for a channel, or by using a dynamic
allocation scheme. Dynamic allocation schemes require an identification for each transmission as
this is the case for typical wired MAC schemes (e.g., sender address) or the transmission has to be
announced beforehand. MAC addresses are quite often used as identification. This enables a
receiver in a broadcast medium to recognize if it really is the intended receiver of a message. Fixed
schemes do not need an identification, but are not as flexible considering varying bandwidth
requirements. The following sections present several examples for fixed and dynamic schemes as
used for wireless transmission. Typically, those schemes can be combined with FDMA to achieve
even greater flexibility and transmission capacity.
Figure 21 shows how these fixed TDM patterns are used to implement multiple access and a duplex
channel between a base station and mobile station. Assigning different slots for uplink and
downlink using the same frequency is called time division duplex (TDD). As shown in the figure,
the base station uses one out of 12 slots for the downlink, whereas the mobile station uses one
out of 12 different slots for the uplink. Uplink and downlink are separated in time. Up to 12
different mobile stations can use the same frequency without interference using this scheme. Each

27
connection is allotted its own up- and downlink pair. In the example below, which is the standard
case for the DECT cordless phone system, the pattern is repeated every 10 ms, i.e., each slot has a
duration of 417 μs. This repetition guarantees access to the medium every 10 ms, independent of
any other connections.
1.4.4 CDMA
Finally, codes with certain characteristics can be applied to the transmission to enable the use of
code division multiplexing (CDM). Code division multiple access (CDMA) systems use exactly
these codes to separate different users in code space and to enable access to a shared medium
without interference. The main problem is how to find ―good‖ codes and how to separate the signal
from noise generated by other signals and the environment. The code directly controls the chipping
sequence. But what is a good code for CDMA? A code for a certain user should have a good
autocorrelation and should be orthogonal to other codes. Orthogonal in code space has the same
meaning as in standard space (i.e., the three dimensional space).

28
1.5 Location strategies for personal communications services
Spectrum Allocations
Frequency management is done in several steps
Frequency allocation:
A band of radio frequencies identified by an upper and lower frequency limit earmarked for
use by one or more of the 38 terrestrial and space radio communication services defined by
the International Telecommunication Union under specified conditions.
Frequency allotment:
The designation of portions of an allocated frequency band to individual countries or

geographical areas for a particular radio communication service; for a satellite service,
specific orbital positions may also be allotted to individual countries.
Frequency assignment:
Authorization given by a nation's government for a station or an operator in that country to

use a specific radio frequency channel under specified conditions. In the U.S.,
the FCC handles frequency assignments. Increasingly, economic mechanisms are used to
assign frequencies.
The term frequency assignment is also used for the action of an operator assigning a channel
to a particular user. For instance in dynamic frequency assignment (DCA) the cellular
operator optimizes the resources available in all cells to optimally adapt to the changing
needs from its subscribers. Confusingly, DCA is often called dynamic frequency allocation.
Personal Communication Services
Figure 1.5 : The spectrum for PCS

29
Chapter 2
2.1 Fundamental of Cellular Design:
The power of the radio signals transmitted by the BS decay as the signals travel away from it. A
minimum amount of signal strength (say, x dB) is needed in order to be detected by the MS or
Mobile sets which may the hand-held personal units or those installed in the vehicles. The region
over which the signal strength lies above this threshold value x dB is known as the coverage area of
a BS and it must be a circular region, considering the BS to be isotropic radiator. Such a circle,
which gives this actual radio coverage, is called the foot print of a cell (in reality, it is amorphous).
It might so happen that either there may be an overlap between any two such side by side circles or
there might be a gap between the coverage areas of two adjacent circles. This is shown in Figure 2.1
Such a circular geometry, therefore, cannot serve as a regular shape to describe cells. A regular
shape for cellular design over a territory which can be served by 3 regular polygons, namely,
equilateral triangle, square and regular hexagon, which can cover the entire area without any
overlap and gaps is needed. Along with its regularity, a cell must be designed such that it is most
reliable too, i.e., it supports even the weakest mobile with occurs at the edges of the cell. For any
distance between the center and the farthest point in the cell from it, a regular hexagon covers the
maximum area. Hence regular hexagonal geometry is used as the cells in mobile communication.
The shape of a mobile network cell, in real life, is irregular and changes considerably depending on
the terrain structure and obstructions like buildings, trees and mountains etc. However, for technical
documentation purposes, a cell is represented by a large group of interconnected hexagons.
We have a simplified diagram 2.2 below where the green, yellow and magenta icons represent
cellular towers (base stations), and the hexagons represent cells created by the base stations. Each
base station has several radio units that operate at specific frequencies to create radiations. These
radiations create cellular coverage. Usually, each base station has multiple cells known as sectors of
a base station, as you can see in the diagram below. Cells do have a certain level of overlap with
each other to allow some time for the handover to take place when someone is moving from one
cell to another. A regular cell is known as a macro cell, and its range can be in tens of kilometres.
There are different kinds of cells though, including microcells and other smaller cells.

30
2.2 Channel Assignment Strategies
With the rapid increase in number of mobile users, the mobile service providers had to follow
strategies which ensure the effective utilization of the limited radio spectrum. With increased
capacity and low interference being the prime objectives, a frequency reuse scheme was helpful in
achieving these objectives. A variety of channel assignment strategies have been followed to aid
these objectives. Channel assignment strategies are classified into two types: fixed and dynamic, as
discussed below.
2.2.1: Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA)

In fixed channel assignment strategy each cell is allocated a fixed number of voice channels. Any
communication within the cell can only be made with the designated unused channels of that
articular cell. Suppose if all the channels are occupied, then the call is blocked and subscriber has to
wait. This is simplest of the channel assignment strategies as it requires very simple circuitry but
provides worst channel utilization. Later there was another approach in which the channels were
borrowed from adjacent cell if all of its own designated channels were occupied. This was named as
borrowing strategy. In such cases the MSC supervises the borrowing process and ensures that none
of the calls in progress are interrupted.
2.2.2: Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA)

In dynamic channel assignment strategy channels are temporarily assigned for use in cells for the
duration of the call. Each time a call attempt is made from a cell the corresponding BS requests a
channel from MSC. The MSC then allocates a channel to the requesting the BS. After the call is
over the channel is returned and kept in a central pool. To avoid co-channel interference any
channel that in use in one cell can only be reassigned simultaneously to another cell in the system if
the distance between the two cells is larger than minimum reuse distance. When compared to the
FCA, DCA has reduced the likelihood of blocking and even increased the trunking capacity of the
network as all of the channels are available to all cells, i.e., good quality of service. But this type of
assignment strategy results in heavy load on switching center at heavy traffic condition.

31
2.3 Handoff Process
When a user moves from one cell to the other, to keep the communication between the user pair, the
user channel has to be shifted from one BS to the other without interrupting the call, i.e., when a
MS moves into another cell, while the conversation is still in progress, the MSC automatically
transfers the call to a new FDD channel without disturbing the conversation. This process is called
as handoff. A schematic diagram of handoff is given in Figure Processing of handoff is an
important task in any cellular system. Handoffs must be performed successfully and be
imperceptible to the users. Once a signal level is set as the minimum acceptable for good voice
quality (Prmin), then a slightly stronger level is chosen as the threshold (PrH)at which handoff has
to be made, as shown in Figure.2.3
Figure 2.3: Handoff scenario at two adjacent cell boundary.

A parameter, called power margin, defined as
Δ = Pr handoff – Pr minimum usable
is quite an important parameter during the handoff process since this margin can neither be too large
nor too small. If Δ is too small, then there may not be enough time to complete the handoff and the
call might be lost even if the user crosses the cell boundary. If Δ is too high on the other hand, then
MSC has to be burdened with unnecessary handoffs. This is because MS may not intend to enter the
other cell. Therefore Δ should be judiciously chosen to ensure imperceptible handoffs and to meet
other objectives. Figure 2.4 illustrates a handoff situation. Figure 2.4(a) demonstrates the case
where a handoff is not made and the signal drops below the minimum acceptable level to keep the
channel active. This dropped call event can happen when there is an excessive delay by the MSC in
assigning a handoff or when the threshold Δis set too small for the handoff time in the system.
Excessive delays may occur during high traffic conditions due to computational loading at the MSC
or due to the fact that no channels are available on any of the nearby base stations (thus forcing the
MSC to wait until a channel in a nearby cell becomes free).
In deciding when to handoff, it is important to ensure that the drop in the measured signal level is
not due to momentary fading and that the mobile is actually moving away from the serving base
station. In order to ensure this, the base station monitors the signal level for a certain period of time
before a handoff is initiated. This running average measurement of signal strength should be
optimized so that unnecessary handoffs are avoided, while ensuring that necessary handoffs are
completed before a call is terminated due to poor signal level. The length of time needed to decide
if a handoff is necessary depends on the speed at which the vehicle is moving. If the slope of the
short-term average received signal level in a given time interval is steep, the handoff should be
made quickly. Information about the vehicle speed, which can be useful in handoff decisions, can

32
also be computed from the statistics of the received short-term fading signal at the base station. The
time over which a call may be maintained within a cell, without handoff, is called the dwell time .
The dwell time of a particular user is governed by a number of factors, including propagation,
interference, distance between the subscriber and the base station, and other time varying effects.
mobile user is stationary, ambient motion in the vicinity of the base station and the mobile can
produce fading; thus, even a stationary subscriber may have a random and finite dwell time.
Analysis indicates that the statistics of dwell time vary greatly, depending on the speed of the user
and the type of radio coverage.
The locator receiver is controlled by the MSC and is used to monitor the signal strength of users in
neighbouring cells which appear to be in need of handoff and reports all RSSI values to the MSC.
Based on the locator receiver signal strength information from each base station, the MSC decides if
a handoff is necessary or not. In today‘s second generation systems, handoff decisions are mobile
assisted. In mobile assisted handoff (MAHO), every mobile station measures the received power
from surrounding base stations and continually reports the results of these measurements to the
serving base station. A handoff is initiated when the power received from the base station of a
neighbouring cell begins to exceed the power received from the current base station by a certain
level or for a certain period of time. The MAHO method enables the call to be handed over between
base stations at a much faster rate than in first generation analog systems since the handoff
measurements are made by each mobile, and the MSC no longer constantly monitors signal
strengths. MAHO is particularly suited for microcellular environments where handoffs are more
frequent.

33
Different systems have different policies and methods for managing handoff requests. Some
systems handle handoff requests in the same way they handle originating calls. In such systems, the
probability that a handoff request will not be served by a new base station is equal to the blocking
probability of incoming calls. To improve the quality of service as perceived by the users, various
methods have been devised to prioritize handoff requests over call initiation requests when
allocating voice channels.
2.3.1 Prioritizing Handoffs & Queuing Handoffs

One method for giving priority to handoffs is called the guard channel concept, whereby a fraction
of the total available channels in a cell is reserved exclusively for handoff requests from ongoing
calls which may be handed off into the cell. This method has the disadvantage of reducing the total
carried traffic, as fewer channels are allocated to originating calls. Guard channels, however, offer
efficient spectrum utilization when dynamic channel assignment strategies, which minimize the
number of required guard channels by efficient demand-based allocation, are used.
Queuing of handoff requests is another method to decrease the probability of forced termination of
a call due to lack of available channels. There is a tradeoff between the decrease in probability of
forced termination and total carried traffic. It should be noted that queuing does not guarantee a
zero probability of forced termination, since large delays will cause the received signal level to drop
below the minimum required level to maintain communication and hence lead to forced
termination.
2.3.2 Practical Handoff Considerations (Soft Handoffs & Hard Handoffs)

Several schemes have been devised to handle the simultaneous traffic of high speed and low speed
users while minimizing the handoff intervention from the MSC. Another practical limitation is the
ability to obtain new cell sites. By using different antenna heights (often on the same building or
tower) and different power levels, it is possible to provide ―large‖and ―small‖ cells which are co-
located at a single location. This technique is called the umbrella cell approach and is used to
provide large area coverage to high speed users while providing small area coverage to users
traveling at low speeds. Figure 2.5 illustrates an umbrella cell which is co located with some smaller
microcells. The umbrella cell approach ensures that the number of handoffs is minimized for high
speed users and provides additional microcell channels for pedestrian users. The speed of each user
may be estimated by the base station or MSC by evaluating how rapidly the short-term average
signal strength on the RVC changes over time, or more sophisticated algorithms may be used to
evaluate and partition users by the base station without MSC intervention.

34
Another practical handoff problem in microcell systems is known as cell dragging. Cell dragging
results from pedestrian users that provide a very strong signal to the base station. Such a situation
occurs in an urban environment when there is a line-of-sight (LOS) radio path between the
subscriber and the base station. To solve the cell dragging problem, handoff thresholds and radio
coverage parameters must be adjusted carefully.
Another feature of newer cellular systems is the ability to make handoff decisions based on a wide
range of metrics other than signal strength. The co-channel and adjacent channel interference levels
may be measured at the base station or the mobile, and this information may be used with
conventional signal strength data to provide a multi-dimensional algorithm for determining when a
handoff is needed. The IS-95 code division multiple access (CDMA) spread spectrum cellular
system provides a unique handoff capability that cannot be provided with other wireless systems.
Unlike channelized wireless systems that assign different radio channels during a handoff (called a
hard handoff), spread spectrum mobiles share the same channel in every cell. Thus, the term
handoff does not mean a physical change in the assigned channel, but rather that a different base
station handles the radio communication task. By simultaneously evaluating the received signals
from a single subscriber at several neighbouring base stations, the MSC may actually decide which
version of the user‘s signal is best at any moment in time. This technique exploits macroscopic
space diversity provided by the different physical locations of the base stations and allows the MSC
to make a ―soft‖ decision as to which version of the user‘s signal to pass along to the PSTN at any
instance . The ability to select between the instantaneous received signals from a variety of base
stations is called soft handoff.
2.4 Interference & System Capacity (Frequency Reuse)

Susceptibility and interference problems associated with mobile communications equipment are
because of the problem of time congestion within the electromagnetic spectrum. It is the limiting
factor in the performance of cellular systems. This interference can occur from clash with another
mobile in the same cell or because of a call in the adjacent cell.
There can be interference between the base stations operating at same frequency band or any other
non-cellular system's energy leaking inadvertently into the frequency band of the cellular system. If
there is an interference in the voice channels, cross talk is heard will appear as noise between the
users. The interference in the control channels leads to missed and error calls because of digital
signaling. Interference is more severe in urban areas because of the greater RF noise and greater
density of mobiles and base stations. The interference can be divided into 2 parts: co-channel
interference and adjacent channel interference.

35
Frequency reuse, or, frequency planning, is a technique of reusing frequencies and channels within
a communication system to improve capacity and spectral efficiency. Frequency reuse is one of the
fundamental concepts on which commercial wireless systems are based that involve the partitioning
of an RF radiating area into cells. The increased capacity in a commercial wireless network,
compared with a network with a single transmitter, comes from the fact that the same radio
frequency can be reused in a different area for a completely different transmission. Frequency reuse
in mobile cellular systems means that frequencies allocated to Figure 2.6 Frequency reuse
technique of a cellular system.
the services are reused in a regular pattern of cells, each covered by one base station. The repeating
regular pattern of cells is called cluster. Since each cell is designed to use radio frequencies only
within its boundaries, the same frequencies can be reused in other cells not far away without
interference, in another cluster. Such cells are called `co-channel' cells. The reuse of frequencies
enables a cellular system to handle a huge number of calls with a limited number of channels.
Figure shows a frequency planning with cluster size of 7, showing the co-channels cells in different
clusters by the same letter. The closest distance between the co-channel cells (in different clusters)
is determined by the choice of the cluster size and the layout of the cell cluster. Consider a cellular
system with S duplex channels available for use and let N be the number of cells in a cluster. If each
cell is allotted K duplex channels with all being allotted unique and disjoint channel groups then
S = KN ------------------------------------------ Eq. 2.4.1(a)

under normal circumstances. Now, if the cluster are repeated M times within the total area, the total
number of duplex channels, or, the total number of users in the system would be
T = MS = KMN ----------------------------------- Eq. 2.4.1(b)
Clearly, if K and N remain constant, then and, if T and K remain constant, then Hence the capacity
gain achieved is directly proportional to the number of times a cluster is repeated, as shown, as well
as, for a fixed cell size, small N =25 decreases the size of the cluster with in turn results in the
increase of the number of clusters and hence the capacity. However for small N, co-channel cells
are located much closer and hence more interference. The value of N is determined by calculating
the amount of interference that can be tolerated for a sufficient quality communication. Hence the
smallest N having interference below the tolerated limit is used. However, the cluster size N cannot
take on any value and is given only by the following equation Where i and j are integer numbers.
Hence the smallest N having interference below the tolerated limit is used. However, the cluster
size N cannot take on any value and is given only by the following equation
N i2+ij+j2 where i ------------------------ Eq 2.4.2
2.4.1 Co-channel interference (CCI)
For the efficient use of available spectrum, it is necessary to reuse frequency bandwidth over
relatively small geographical areas. However, increasing frequency reuse also increases
interference, which decreases system capacity and service quality. The cells where the same set of
frequencies is used are call co-channel cells. Co-channel interference is the cross talk between two
different radio transmitters using the same radio frequency as is the case with the co-channel cells.
The reasons of CCI can be because of either adverse weather conditions or poor frequency planning
or overly crowded radio spectrum. If the cell size and the power transmitted at the base stations are
same then CCI will become independent of the transmitted power and will depend on radius of the
cell (R) and the distance between the interfering co-channel cells (D). If D/R ratio is increased, then

36
the effective distance between the co-channel cells will increase 34 and interference will decrease.
The parameter Q is called the frequency reuse ratio and is related to the cluster size. For hexagonal
geometry
Q= =√ ------------------------------- Eq. 2.4.3
From the above equation, small of `Q' means small value of cluster size `N' and increase in cellular
capacity. But large `Q' leads to decrease in system capacity but increase in transmission quality.
Choosing the options is very careful for the selection of `N', the proof of which is given in the first
section.
The Signal to Interference Ratio (SIR) for a mobile receiver which monitors the forward channel
can be calculated as :-
where S is the desired signal power from the desired base station and Ii is the interference power
caused by the ith interfering co-channel cell base station. If the signal levels of co-channel cells are
known, i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells. then the S/I ratio for the forward link can be
found using Equation (2.4.4).
Propagation measurements in a mobile radio channel show that the average received signal strength
at any point decays as a power law of the distance of separation between a transmitter and receiver.
The average received power Pr at a distance d from the transmitting antenna is approximated by:-
where P0 is the power received at a close-in reference point in the far field region of the antenna at a
small distance d0 from the transmitting antenna and n is the path loss exponent. Now consider the
forward link where the desired signal is the serving base station and where the interference is due to
co-channel base stations. If Di is the distance of the ith interferer from the mobile, the received
power at a given mobile due to the ith interfering cell will be proportional to (Di)–n. The path loss
exponent typically ranges between two and four in urban cellular systems.

37
When the transmit power of each base station is equal and the path loss exponent is the same
throughout the coverage area, S/I for a mobile can be approximated as (2.4.7)
Considering only the first layer of interfering cells, if all the interfering base stations are equidistant
from the desired base station and if this distance is equal to the distance D between cell centers,
then Equation (2.4.7) simplifies to (2.4.8)
Equation (2.4.8) relates S/I to the cluster size N, which in turn determines the overall capacity of the
system from Equation (2.4.3). It should be noted that Equation (2.4.8) is based on the hexagonal
cell geometry where all the interfering cells are equidistant from the base station receiver, and hence
provides an optimistic result in many cases.
Using an exact cell geometry layout, it can be shown for a seven-cell cluster, with the mobile unit at
the cell boundary, the mobile is a distance D – R from the two nearest co-channel interfering cells
and is exactly D + R/2, D, D – R/2, and D + R from the other interfering cells in the first tier, as
shown rigorously in. Using the approximate geometry shown in Figure 2.7, Equation (2.4.7), and
assuming n = 4, the signal-to-interference ratio for the worst case can be closely approximated as:
Equation (2.4.9) can be rewritten in terms of the co-channel reuse ratio Q, as

38
For N = 7, the co-channel reuse ratio Q is 4.6, and the worst case S/I is approximated as 49.56 (17
dB) using Equation (3.11), whereas an exact solution using Equation (2.4.8) yields 17.8 dB . Hence
for a seven-cell cluster, the S/I ratio is slightly less than 18 dB for the worst case. To design the
cellular system for proper performance in the worst case, it would be necessary to increase N to the
next largest size, which from Equation (2.4.2) is found to be 12 corresponding to i = j = 2). This
obviously entails a significant decrease in capacity, since 12-cell reuse offers a spectrum utilization
of 1/12 within each cell, whereas seven-cell reuse offers a spectrum utilization of 1/7. In practice, a
capacity reduction of 7/12 would not be tolerable to accommodate for the worst case situation
which rarely occurs. From the above discussion, it is clear that co-channel interference determines
link performance, which in turn dictates the frequency reuse plan and the overall capacity of cellular
systems.
Numerical Example 1
If a total of 33 MHz of bandwidth is allocated to a particular FDD cellular telephone system which
uses two 25 kHz simplex channels to provide full duplex voice and control channels, compute the
number of channels available per cell if a system uses (a) four-cell reuse, (b) seven-cell reuse,
and(c) 12-cell reuse. If 1 MHz of the allocated spectrum is dedicated to control channels, determine
an equitable distribution of control channels and voice channels in each cell for each of the three
systems.
Solution
Given:
Total bandwidth = 33 MHz
Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz × 2
simplex channels = 50 kHz/duplex channel
Total available channels = 33,000/50 = 660 channels
(a) For N = 4,
total number of channels available per cell = 660/4 ≈ 165 channels.
(b) For N = 7,
(c) For N = 12,
A 1 MHz spectrum for control channels implies that there are 1000/50 = 20 control channels out of
the 660 channels available. To evenly distribute the control and voice channels, simply allocate the
same number of voice channels in each cell wherever possible. Here, the 660 channels must be
evenly distributed to each cell within the cluster. In practice, only the 640 voice channels would be
allocated, since the control channels are allocated separately as 1 per cell.
(a) For N = 4, we can have five control channels and 160 voice channels per cell. In practice,
however, each cell only needs a single control channel (the control channels have a greater reuse
distance than the voice channels). Thus, one control channel and 160 voice channels would be
assigned to each cell.
(b) For N = 7, four cells with three control channels and 92 voice channels, two cells with three
control channels and 90 voice channels, and one cell with two control channels and 92 voice
channels could be allocated. In practice, however, each cell would have one control channel, four
cells would have 91 voice channels, and three cells would have 92 voice channels.

39
(c) For N = 12, we can have eight cells with two control channels and 53 voice channels, and four
cells with one control channel and 54 voice channels each. In an actual system, each cell would
have one control channel, eight cells would have 53 voice channels, and four cells would have 54
voice channels.
Numerical Example 2
If a signal-to-interference ratio of 15 dB is required for satisfactory forward channel performance of
a cellular system, what is the frequency reuse factor and cluster size that should be used for
maximum capacity if the path loss exponent is (a) n = 4, (b) n = 3? Assume that there are six
cochannel cells in the first tier, and all of them are at the same distance from the mobile. Use
suitable approximations.
Solution
(a) n = 4
First, let us consider a seven-cell reuse pattern.
Using Equation (3.4), the co-channel reuse ratio D/R = 4.583.
Using Equation (3.9), the signal-to-noise interference ratio is given by
S/I = (1/6) × (4.583)4 = 75.3 = 18.66 dB
Since this is greater than the minimum required S/I, N = 7 can be used.
(b) n = 3
First, let us consider a seven-cell reuse pattern. Using Equation (2.4.8), the signal-to-interference
ratio is given by
S/I = (1/6) × (4.583)3 = 16.04 = 12.05 dB
Since this is less than the minimum required S/I, we need to use a larger N. Using Equation (2.4.2),
the next possible value of N is 12, (i = j = 2). The corresponding co-channel ratio is given by
Equation (2.4.2) as
D/R = 6.0
Using Equation (2.4.3), the signal-to-interference ratio is given by
S/I = (1/6) × (6)3 = 36 = 15.56 dB
Since this is greater than the minimum required S/I, N = 12 is used.
2.4.2Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)

Interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in frequency to the desired signal is called
adjacent channel interference. Adjacent channel interference results from imperfect receiver filters
which allow nearby frequencies to leak into the pass band. The problem can be particularly serious
if an adjacent channel user is transmitting in very close range to a subscriber‘s receiver, while the
receiver attempts to receive a base station on the desired channel. This is referred to as the near–far
effect, where a nearby transmitter (which may or may not be of the same type as that used by the
cellular system) captures the receiver of the subscriber. Alternatively, the near–far effect occurs
when a mobile close to a base station transmits on a channel close to one being used by a weak
mobile. The base station may have difficulty in discriminating the desired mobile user from the
―bleedover‖ caused by the close adjacent channel mobile.
Adjacent channel interference can be minimized through careful filtering and channel assignments.
Since each cell is given only a fraction of the available channels, a cell need not be assigned
channels which are all adjacent in frequency. By keeping the frequency separation between each
channel in a given cell as large as possible, the adjacent channel interference may be reduced
considerably.
If the frequency reuse factor is large (e.g., small N), the separation between adjacent channels at the
base station may not be sufficient to keep the adjacent channel interference level within tolerable

40
limits. For example, if a close-in mobile is 20 times as close to the base station as another mobile
and has energy spillout of its passband, the signal-to-interference ratio at the base station for the
weak mobile (before receiver filtering) is approximately
For a path loss exponent n = 4, this is equal to –52 dB. If the intermediate frequency (IF) filter of
the base station receiver has a slope of 20 dB/octave, then an adjacent channel interferer must be
displaced by at least six times the passband bandwidth from the center of the receiver frequency
passband to achieve 52 dB attenuation. Here, a separation of approximately six channel bandwidths
is required for typical filters in order to provide 0 dB SIR from a close-in adjacent channel user.
This implies more than six channel separations are needed to bring the adjacent channel interference
to an acceptable level. Tight base station filters are needed when close-in and distant users share the
same cell. In practice, base station receivers are preceded by a high Q cavity filter in order to reject
adjacent channel interference.
2.5 Microcellular communications (cell splitting ,Sectoring ,microcell zone

approaches)
As the demand for wireless service increases, the number of channels assigned to a cell eventually
becomes insufficient to support the required number of users. At this point, cellular design
techniques are needed to provide more channels per unit coverage area. Techniques such as cell
splitting, sectoring, and coverage zone approaches are used in practice to expand the capacity of
cellular systems. Cell splitting allows an orderly growth of the cellular system. Sectoring uses
directional antennas to further control the interference and frequency reuse of channels. The zone
microcell concept distributes the coverage of a cell and extends the cell boundary to hard to-reach
places.
2.5.1 Cell Splitting
Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells, each with its own base
station and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter power. Cell splitting
increases the capacity of a cellular system since it increases the number of times that channels are
reused. By defining new cells which have a smaller radius R/2 than the original cells radius R and
by installing these smaller cells (called microcells) between the existing cells, capacity increases
due to the additional number of channels per unit area.
The increased number of cells would increase the number of clusters over the coverage region,
which in turn would increase the number of channels, and thus capacity, in the coverage area. Cell
splitting allows a system to grow by replacing large cells with smaller cells without upsetting the
channel allocation scheme required to maintain the minimum co-channel reuse ratio Q (see
Equation (2.4.3)) between co-channel cells. An example of cell splitting is shown in Figure 2.8. In
Figure 2.8, the base stations are placed at corners of the cells, and the area served by base station A
is assumed to be saturated with traffic (i.e., the blocking of base station A exceeds acceptable rates).
New base stations are therefore needed in the region to increase the number of channels in the area
and to reduce the area served by the single base station. Note in the figure that the original base
station A has been surrounded by six new microcells. In the example shown in Figure 2.8, the
smaller cells were added in such a way as to preserve the frequency reuse plan of the system. For
example, the microcell base station labelled G was placed half way between two larger stations
utilizing the same channel set G. This is also the case for the other microcells in the figure. As can

41
be seen from Figure 2.8, cell splitting merely scales the geometry of the cluster. In this case, the
radius of each new microcell is half that of the original cell.
Figure 2.8: Cell Splitting
2.5.2 Sectoring
As shown in figure 2.8, cell splitting achieves capacity improvement by essentially rescaling the
system. By decreasing the cell radius R and keeping the co-channel reuse ratio D/R unchanged, cell
splitting increases the number of channels per unit area. However, another way to increase capacity
is to keep the cell radius unchanged and seek methods to decrease the D/R ratio. As we now show,
sectoring increases SIR so that the cluster size may be reduced. In this approach, first the SIR is
improved using directional antennas, then capacity improvement is achieved by reducing the
number of cells in a cluster, thus increasing the frequency reuse. However, in order to do this
successfully, it is necessary to reduce the relative interference without decreasing the transmit
power.
The co-channel interference in a cellular system may be decreased by replacing a single

omnidirectional antenna at the base station by several directional antennas, each radiating within a
specified sector. By using directional antennas, a given cell will receive interference and transmit
with only a fraction of the available co-channel cells. The technique for decreasing co-channel
interference and thus increasing system performance by using directional antennas is called
sectoring. The factor by which the co-channel interference is reduced depends on the amount of
sectoring used. A cell is normally partitioned into three 120° sectors or six 60° sectors as shown in
Figure 2.9 (a) and (b).
When sectoring is employed, the channels used in a particular cell are broken down into sectored
groups and are used only within a particular sector, as illustrated in Figure 2.9 (a) and (b).
Assuming seven-cell reuse, for the case of 120° sectors, the number of interferers in the first tier is

42
reduced from six to two. This is because only two of the six co-channel cells receive interference
with a particular sectored channel group.
Referring to Figure 2.10, consider the interference experienced by a mobile located in the right-
most sector in the center cell labeled ―5‖. There are three cochannel cell sectors labelled ―5‖ to the
right of the center cell, and three to the left of the center cell. Out of these six co-channel cells, only
two cells have sectors with antenna patterns which radiate into the center cell, and hence a mobile
in the center cell will experience interference on the forward link from only these two sectors. The
resulting S/I for this case can be found using Equation (2.4.7) to be 24.2 dB, which is a significant
improvement over the omnidirectional case where the worst case S/I was shown to be 17 dB. This
S/I improvement allows the wireless engineer to then decrease the cluster size N in order to improve
the frequency reuse, and thus the system capacity. In practical systems, further improvement in S/I
is achieved by downtilting the sector antennas such that the radiation pattern in the vertical
(elevation) plane has a notch at the nearest co-channel cell distance.
The improvement in S/I implies that with 120° sectoring, the minimum required S/I of 18 dB can be
easily achieved with seven-cell reuse, as compared to 12-cell reuse for the worst possible situation
in the unsectored case (see Section 2.5.1). Thus, sectoring reduces interference, which amounts to
an increase in capacity by a factor of 12/7, or 1.714. The penalty for improved S/I and the resulting
capacity improvement from the shrinking cluster size is an increased number of antennas at each
base station, and a decrease in trunking efficiency due to channel sectoring at the base station. Since
sectoring reduces the coverage area of a particular group of channels, the number of handoffs
increases, as well.
2.5.3 Microcell Zone or Improved coverage area
Microcellular stations are transceiving units covering a relatively small geographic area and adapted
to establish bidirectional links between mobile telephone subscriber stations and a main base
station. Each such microcellular station includes a transmitter for generating outgoing signals
directed to the main base station over an optical fiber link. Radio signals received from a mobile

43
station at a separate diversity antenna of the microcellular station are frequency shifted and
combined with other signals received from the mobile station. The transmitter at the microcellular
station generates an optical carrier signal which is modulated by the resulting combined signals. A
frequency converter, located at the main base station, restores the frequency band of signals
received from the microcellular station to its original frequency. Frequency shifting and conversion
are implemented at the microcellular station and at the main base station by frequency mixing steps
performed by oscillators at both locations, which oscillators use the same reference frequency
thereby achieving channel coherency.
The increased number of handoffs required when sectoring is employed results in an increased load
on the switching and control link elements of the mobile system. A solution to this problem was
presented by Lee . This proposal is based on a microcell concept for seven cell reuse, as illustrated
in Figure 2.11 In this scheme, each of the three (or possibly more) zone sites
Represented as Tx/Rx in Figure 2.11 are connected to a single base station and share the same radio
equipment. The zones are connected by coaxial cable, fiberoptic cable, or microwave link to the
base station. Multiple zones and a single base station make up a cell. As a mobile travels within the
cell, it is served by the zone with the strongest signal. This approach is superior to sectoring since
antennas are placed at the outer edges of the cell, and any base station channel may be assigned to
any zone by the base station.
As a mobile travels from one zone to another within the cell, it retains the same channel. Thus,
unlike in sectoring, a handoff is not required at the MSC when the mobile travels between zones
within the cell. The base station simply switches the channel to a different zone site. In this way, a
given channel is active only in the particular zone in which the mobile is traveling, and hence the
base station radiation is localized and interference is reduced. The channels are distributed in time
and space by all three zones and are also reused in co-channel cells in the normal fashion. This
technique is particularly useful along highways or along urban traffic corridors. The advantage of
the zone cell technique is that while the cell maintains a particular coverage radius, the co-channel
interference in the cellular system is reduced since a large central base station is replaced by several
lower powered transmitters (zone transmitters) on the edges of the cell. Decreased co-channel
interference improves the signal quality and also leads to an increase in capacity without the
degradation in trunking efficiency caused by sectoring. As mentioned earlier, an S/I of 18 dB is

44
typically required for satisfactory system performance in narrowband FM. For a system with N = 7,
a D/R OF 4.6 was shown to achieve this. With respect to Figure 2.12A the zone microcell system,
since transmission at any instant is confined to a particular zone, this implies that a Dz /Rz of 4.6
(where Dz is the minimum distance between active co-channel zones and Rz is the zone radius) can
achieve the required link performance.
In Figure 2.12 B, let each individual hexagon represents a zone, while each group of three hexagons
represents a cell. The zone radius Rz is approximately equal to one hexagon radius. Now, the
capacity of the zone microcell system is directly related to the distance between co-channel cells,
and not zones. This distance is represented as D in Figure 2.12 B For a Dz /Rz value of 4.6, it can be
seen from the geometry of Figure 2.12B that the value of co-channel reuse ratio, D/R, is equal to
three, where R is the radius of the cell and is equal to twice the length of the hexagon radius. Using
Equation , D/R = 3 corresponds to a cluster size of N = 3. This reduction in the cluster size from N
= 7 to N = 3 amounts to a 2.33 times increase in capacity for a system completely based on the zone
microcell concept. Hence for the same S/I requirement of 18 dB, this system provides a significant
increase in capacity over conventional cellular planning.
Benefits of the micro-cell zone concept:

1) Interference is reduced in this case as compared to the scheme in which the cell size is
reduced.
2) Handoffs are reduced (also compared to decreasing the cell size) since the microcells within
the cell operate at the same frequency; no handover occurs when the mobile unit moves
between the microcells.
3) Size of the zone apparatus is small. The zone site equipment being small can be mounted on
the side of a building or on poles.
4) System capacity is increased.
The new microcell knows where to locate the mobile unit in a particular zone of the cell and deliver
the power to that zone. Since the signal power is reduced, the microcells can be closer and result in
an increased system capacity. However, in a microcellular system, the transmitted power to a
mobile phone within a microcell has to be precise; too much power results in interference between
microcells, while with too little power the signal might not reach the mobile phone. This is a
drawback of microcellular systems, since a change in the surrounding (a new building, say, within a
microcell) will require a change of the transmission power.

45
2.6 Radio paging System
Paging systems are one way communication systems that send brief messages to a subscriber.
Depending on the type of service, the message may be either a numeric message, an alphanumeric
message, or a voice message. Paging systems are typically used to notify a subscriber of the need to
call a particular telephone number or travel to a known location to receive further instructions. In
modern paging systems, news headlines, stock quotations, and faxes may be sent. A message is sent
to a paging subscriber via the paging system access number (usually a toll-free telephone number)
with a telephone keypad or modem. The issued message is called a page. The paging system then
transmits the page throughout the service area using base stations which broadcast the page on a
radio carrier.
Paging systems vary widely in their complexity and coverage area. While simple paging systems
may cover a limited range of 2 to 5 km, or may even be confined to within individual buildings,
wide area paging systems can provide worldwide coverage. Though paging receivers are simple and
inexpensive, the transmission system required is quite sophisticated. Wide area paging systems
consist of a network of telephone lines, many base station transmitters, and large radio towers that
simultaneously broadcast a page from each base station (this is called simulcasting). Simulcast
transmitters may be located within the same service area or in different cities or countries. Paging
systems are designed to provide reliable communication to subscribers wherever they are; whether
inside a building, driving on a highway, or flying in an airplane. This necessitates large transmitter
powers (on the order of kilowatts) and low data rates (a couple of thousand bits per second) for
maximum coverage from each base station. Figure shows a diagram of a wide area paging
system. The paging control center dispatches pages received from the PSTN throughout several
cities at the same time in Fig 2.13 A
2.6.1 Paging system block diagram and components
A paging system is composed of the following 6 basic elements (see Figure 2.13 B above).
1) Paging Terminal
2) Controller
3) Outbound control and paging information channel
4) Transmitter network
5) Communications link from transmitter network to controller
6) End user pagers

46
1) The paging terminal
The Paging Terminal maintains subscriber pager type and service information. The terminal
accepts paging requests via direct dial-up phone interface or via data entry equipment. The
terminal prepares the paging information for transmission and communicates to the
controller that it needs access to the infrastructure. Terminals can also provide statistics on
paging traffic and billing information. The paging terminal is connected to the controller for
key requests and control handshakes as well as passing pager address and information for
transmission. The terminal and controller are therefore co-located to allow for control signal
and audio interface. The paging terminal provides user access typically by a Video Display
Terminal (VDT) for database programming and review purposes. Terminals can usually
support a variety of peripherals such as disk drives, printers, and modems for expanded user
capabilities.
2) The controller
The controller is the central focal point of the system responsible for recognizing paging
terminal requests and keying the transmitters in the proper paging mode, analog or binary.
The controller, depending on its sophistication, is responsible for monitoring transmitter
operational performance as well as reporting system level alarms. The controller can also
perform system level maintenance to compensate for changes in the outbound control and
paging information channel. Depending on the type, the controller may or may not store
transmitter configuration and operational data, as well as logging station and system alarm
information. The controller provides user access typically by a Video Display Terminal
(VDT) for database programming and review. More sophisticated controller usually support
a variety of peripherals such as disk drives, printers, and modems for expanded user
capabilities.
3) The outbound control and paging information channel
The outbound control and paging information channel is the medium by which the
controller information is passed on to the transmitters. The most conventional information
distribution methods are Radio Frequency RF) Links , dedicated wire lines to each
transmitter from the controller site, or satellite up link and down links. With an RF link
system the controller audio is sent to a Link transmitter via a wire line connection. A link
repeater could then be used to listen to the link transmitter to further extend transmission of
the information, hence the name repeater. With a wire line system the controller audio is
sourced to a data splitter which then feeds the signal to each transmitter via a dedicated wire
line. With a satellite distribution system the controller information is sent to the satellite up
link location. Each station is equipped with a satellite dish and receiver to recover the
controller information.
4) Transmitter network
The paging base stations decode control information from the controller for keying in the
appropriate mode, analog or binary. The transmitter network in conjunction with the antenna
system converts the information from the paging terminal into modulation and RF energy
for transmission to the paging receivers. The transmitters continually check their operating
performance and generate alarms in the event of a degradation in performance. The
controller and system configuration determine how and when the alarms are reported.
5) Communications link
The communications link is primarily a feedback path from the transmitter network to the
controller. This communications link is used to transfer base station status and alarm
information from the transmitter network to the controller for evaluation and reporting.
Several communications links may exist from the transmitter network to the controller. The
communications link can be a one way path from base station to controller or a bi-
directional depending on the type of link used. Some common communications links include

47
dedicated wire lines, dial-up phone lines, and monitor receivers with dedicated return phone
lines.
6) Pagers
The pager is a specialized miniature radio receiver carried by the user for retrieval of
information from the paging terminal. Depending on the pager and system, the user can
receive either an alert, a voice transmission, a numeric display page, or an alpha numeric
display page. The pager is only able to receive pages within the allowable coverage area
provided by the transmitter network.
3D views of Figure 2.14 a pocket pager patented in 1960 by Donald R. Jones of Motorola. In this
system, pages were delivered in two parts. First, you received a short alert tone from a loudspeaker (19,
green). That signalled you to flick a receiver switch (24, purple), and hook a headphone up to a receiver
socket (21, brown), whereupon you could listen to a short voice message from your caller relayed via an
operator. The other components I've highlighted are a radio antenna (37, light blue), selective frequency
switch (red 40), and battery (35, yellow).

48
2.6.2 Pager addressing modes
Several analog and binary coding formats exist for addressing pagers.
1). Analog Addressing Mode
The analog addressing coding formats in use today are Two-Tone or 5-Tone/6-Tone Decimal Digit.
 The Two-Tone coding format uses a total of 110 tones ranging from 67 to 2468.5 Hz and
has a maximum capacity of 3540 unique codes. As the name implies two-tone bursts of
specified duration are transmitted sequentially to alert a pager. The plan supports both tone
and voice pagers, and tone only pagers. The plan also has provisions for group calling, the
ability to alert several pagers simultaneously and battery saver capability. Battery Saver
operation typically refers to the pager's ability to cycle from a low current draw state and the
normal current draw state and still receive pages. Pager address alert times for Two-Tone
coding formats can range from 2.5 seconds for tone-only pager to 5.3 seconds for tone and
voice pagers. Group call pages can take up to 10 seconds. The Two-Tone coding format has
limited user capacity and paging throughput can become an issue due to long alert times on
a busy channel.
 The 5-Tone/6-Tone Decimal Digit coding format supports tone and voice pagers however
this coding format can alert pagers much faster than the Two-Tone coding format. The 5-
Tone/6-Tone coding format uses 12 separate frequency tones to represent the decimal digits
0 through 9, a repeat number tone (R), and a special Tone X function. Each pager address is
made up of 5 digits represented by the respective frequency tone burst. The tone bursts are
sent sequentially, 33 milliseconds in duration each. A sixth tone burst is used for multiple
addressing applications, hence the name 5/6 tone signaling. The 5-Tone/6-Tone coding
format can support 100,000 subscribers. A typical 5/6 tone page takes approximately .217
seconds to alert the pager, a 12 times improvement over a standard Two-Tone page of 2.5
seconds.
2.) Binary addressing and data coding formats:
Several binary coding formats exist for pager addresses and numeric or alphanumeric display
information.
 The industry predominant binary coding formats are Golan Sequential Coding, referred to as
GSC, and Post Office Code Standardization Advisory Group, referred to as POCSAG. GSC
as we know it today, was expanded from what was known as the ECHO code format that
supported 400,000 codes with 4 address capability per pager. GSC development from
ECHO code involved improved battery saver operation, improved efficiency, and increased
code capacity of 1 million codes with 4 address capability per pager. The GSC signaling
scheme is an asynchronous scheme that transmits pager address information at 300 baud and
display data at 600 baud. The GSC binary coding format provides error correction for the
pager address and display information. A typical "display page" address alert takes .2
seconds for a non-battery saver pager and .24 seconds for a battery saver pager. The GSC
code is an extremely robust code at an adequate signaling speed offering substantial
resistance to falsing.
 The POCSAG coding format was primarily invented to improve signaling speed thereby
increasing system throughput. The POCSAG coding format has an increased code capacity
of 2 million codes with 4 addresses per pager. Unlike GSC which is asynchronous,
POCSAG employs bit synchronization and word framing. POCSAG uses time division for
battery saver operation whereas GSC relies on selective batching. POCSAG signaling
operates with both address and data at the same baud rate, initial offering at 512 baud.
Improvements in equipment technology have increased the POCSAG signaling speed to
1200 and 2400 baud. At a 512 baud rate POCSAG address alerts take .0625 seconds. This a
3 times improvement over the GSC signaling scheme. The structure of the POCSAG coding

49
format allows for substantial system throughput performance. It is, however less immune to
falsing than GSC signaling. POCSAG can correct 2 of 32 bits for address words and 1 of 32
for data words, whereas GSC can correct 3 of 23 bits for address words and 16 of 120 bits
for data words. Depending on the desired system capacity, throughput, coverage and
immunity noise the system operator can decide which binary code format best suits there
needs.
2.6.3 Types of Paging
 NON-SIMULCAST vs. SIMULCAST

Paging systems are commonly referred to as being one of two types, either Simulcast or
Non-Simulcast. Non-Simulcast systems are primarily for single transmitter systems or
systems where coverage is not required to be continuous over a geographic coverage area,
i.e. the transmitters are so far apart that they cannot interfere with each other. Non-Simulcast
systems allow for lower transmitter costs since system alignment and maintenance for
overlapping transmitter coverage is not an issue by definition.
A Simulcast Paging system refers to a system where coverage is continuous over a

geographic area serviced by more than one paging transmitter. In this type of system the
pager can be receiving signals from two or more paging transmitters when in the overlap
area of the two or more paging transmitter. The overlap are of two or more paging
transmitters is referred to as the non-capture are since a pager not locked or captured by a
single transmitter. The construction of Simulcast System takes advantage of the overlapping
transmitters signals in a constructive manner so that coverage is improved and the system
can provide continuous coverage over a wide geographic area.
 SECTOR PAGING
A paging system, either simulcast or non-simulcast, can be operated in either an, all
transmitters key or a subset of all transmitters key, depending on the pager being paged.
When all transmitters do not key for paging in the system this is referred to as sector paging.
Sector paging allows the system operator to partition his system and charge various monthly
service fees depending on the users desired area of coverage. The paging terminal database
must now segregate and group page requests for various service areas. Sector paging
provides no increase in system paging throughput, but in fact can even reduce throughput
slightly since the base stations must be selectively keyed and de-keyed depending on the
page requests. Efficient page request batching may not be possible if the page requests are
not all associated with the same sector. Through the years sector paging has fallen off in
popularity with the increase in users on a system.
 MULTIPLE FREQUENCY PAGING
When the multiple frequency transmitter is keyed on a channel the other channel is forced to
be idle by definition. The objective of a paging system operator is to build a single
frequency channel and load the channel to capacity such the system users receive acceptable
paging throughput at a reasonable cost. If the system loading is excessive then throughput
during peak paging hours may become unacceptable by users and service may be sought by
the user from the competition. Typically multiple frequency paging is used when the user
desires to hold a paging frequency they have been granted however they do not have the
capitol to build a complete second system.

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Chapter 3A
3.1 GSM radio service system
3.1.1 Teleservices
GSM mainly focuses on voice-oriented tele services. These comprise encrypted voice transmission,
message services, and basic data communication with terminals as known from the PSTN or ISDN
(e.g., fax). However, as the main service is telephony, the primary goal of GSM was the provision
of high-quality digital voice transmission, offering at least the typical bandwidth of 3.1 kHz of
analog phone systems. Special codecs (coder/decoder) are used for voice transmission, while other
codecs are used for the transmission of analog data for communication with traditional computer
modems used in, e.g., fax machines. Another service offered by GSM is the emergency number.
The same number can be used throughout Europe. This service is mandatory for all providers and
free of charge. This connection also has the highest priority, possibly pre-empting other
connections, and will automatically be set up with the closest emergency center. A useful service
for very simple message transfer is the short message service (SMS), which offers transmission of
messages of up to 160 characters. SMS messages do not use the standard data channels of GSM but
exploit unused capacity in the signalling channels. Sending and receiving of SMS is possible during

51
data or voice transmission. The successor of SMS, the enhanced message service (EMS), offers a
larger message size (e.g., 760 characters, concatenating several SMs), formatted text, and the
transmission of animated pictures, small images and ring tones in a standardized way (some
vendors offered similar proprietary features before). EMS never really took off as the multimedia
message service (MMS) was avail-able. (Nokia never liked EMS but pushed Smart Messaging, a
proprietary system.) MMS offers the transmission of larger pictures (GIF, JPG, WBMP), short
video clips etc. and comes with mobile phones that integrate small cameras. Another non-voice tele
service is group 3 fax, which is available worldwide. In this service, fax data is transmitted as
digital data over the analog telephone network according to the ITU-T standards T.4 and T.30 using
modems.
3.1.2 Bearer services
GSM specifies different mechanisms for data transmission, the original GSM allowing for data rates
of up to 9600 bit/s for non-voice services. Bearer services permit transparent and non-transparent,
synchronous or asynchronous data transmission. Transparent bearer services only use the
functions of the physical layer (layer 1) to transmit data. Data transmission has a constant delay and
throughput if no transmission errors occur. The only mechanism to increase transmission quality is
the use of forward error correction (FEC), which codes redundancy into the data stream and
helps to reconstruct the original data in case of transmission errors. Depending on the FEC, data
rates of 2.4, 4.8, or 9.6 kbit/s are possible. Transparent bearer services do not try to recover lost data
in case of, for example, shadowing or interruptions due to handover. Non-transparent bearer
services use protocols of layers two and three to implement error correction and flow control. These
services use the transparent bearer services, adding a radio link protocol (RLP). This protocol
comprises mechanisms of high-level data link control (HDLC) and special selective-reject
mechanisms to trigger retransmission of erroneous data. The achieved bit error rate is less than 10–
7, but now throughput and delay may vary depending on transmission quality. Using transparent
and non-transparent services, GSM specifies several bearer services for interworking with PSTN,
ISDN, and packet switched public data networks (PSPDN) like X.25, which is available worldwide.
Data transmission can be full-duplex, synchronous with data rates of 1.2, 2.4, 4.8, and 9.6 kbit/s or
full-duplex, asynchronous from 300 to 9,600 bit/s.
3.1.3 Supplementary services
In addition to tele and bearer services, GSM providers can offer supplementary services. Similar
to ISDN networks, these services offer various enhancements for the standard telephony service,
and may vary from provider to provider. Typical services are user identification, call redirection,
or forwarding of ongoing calls. Standard ISDN features such as closed user groups and multi-
party communication may be available. Closed user groups are of special interest to companies
because they allow, for example, a company-specific GSM sub-network, to which only members of
the group have access.
3.2 GSM System architecture
As with all systems in the telecommunication area, GSM comes with a hierarchical, complex
system architecture comprising many entities, interfaces, and acronyms. Figure 3.2 gives a
simplified overview of the GSM system as specified in ETSI (1991b). A GSM system consists of
three subsystems, the radio sub system (RSS), the network and switching subsystem (NSS), and
the operation subsystem (OSS). Each subsystem will be discussed in more detail in the following

52
sections. Generally, a GSM customer only notices a very small fraction of the whole network the
mobile stations (MS) and some antenna masts of the base transceiver stations (BTS).
3.2.1 Radio subsystem
As the name implies, the radio subsystem (RSS) comprises all radio specific entities, i.e., the
mobile stations (MS) and the base station subsystem (BSS). Figure 3.2 shows the connection
between the RSS and the NSS via the A inter-face (solid lines) and the connection to the OSS via
the O interface (dashed lines). The A interface is typically based on circuit-switched PCM-30
systems (2.048 Mbit/s), carrying up to 30 64 kbit/s connections, whereas the O interface uses the
Signalling System No. 7 (SS7) based on X.25 carrying management data to/from the RSS .
 Base station subsystem (BSS): A GSM network comprises many BSSs, each controlled by
a base station controller (BSC). The BSS performs all functions necessary to maintain radio
connections to an MS, coding/decoding of voice, and rate adaptation to/from the wireless
network part. Besides a BSC, the BSS contains several BTSs.
 Base transceiver station (BTS): A BTS comprises all radio equipment, i.e., antennas,
signal processing, amplifiers necessary for radio transmission. A BTS can form a radio cell
or, using sectorized antennas, several cells, and is connected to MS via the Um interface
(ISDN U interface for mobile use), and to the BSC via the Abis interface. The Um interface
contains all the mechanisms necessary for wireless transmission (TDMA, FDMA etc.) and
will be discussed in more detail below. The Abis interface consists of 16 or 64 kbit/s

53
connections. A GSM cell can measure between some 100 m and 35 km depending on the
environment (buildings, open space, mountains etc.) but also expected traffic.
 Base station controller (BSC): The BSC basically manages the BTSs. It reserves radio
frequencies, handles the handover from one BTS to another within the BSS, and performs
paging of the MS. The BSC also multiplexes the radio channels onto the fixed network
connections at the A interface. Table 4.1 gives an overview of the tasks assigned to the BSC
and BTS or of tasks in which these entities support other entities in the network.
 Mobile station (MS): The MS comprises all user equipment and software needed for
communication with a GSM network. An MS consists of user independent hard- and
software and of the subscriber identity module (SIM), which stores all user-specific data
that is relevant to GSM.3 While an MS can be identified via the international mobile
equipment identity (IMEI), a user can personalize any MS using his or her SIM, i.e., user-
specific mechanisms like charging and authentication are based on the SIM, not on the
device itself. Device-specific mechanisms, e.g., theft protection, use the device specific
IMEI. Without the SIM, only emergency calls are possible. The SIM card contains many
identifiers and tables, such as card-type, serial number, a list of subscribed services, a
personal identity number (PIN), a PIN unblocking key (PUK), an authentication key
Ki, and the inter-national mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) (ETSI, 1991c). The PIN is
used to unlock the MS. Using the wrong PIN three times will lock the SIM. In such cases,
the PUK is needed to unlock the SIM. The MS stores dynamic information while logged
onto the GSM system, such as, e.g., the cipher key Kc and the location information
consisting of a temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI) and the location area
identification (LAI). Typical MSs for GSM 900 have a transmit power of up to 2 W,
whereas for GSM 1800 1 W is enough due to the smaller cell size. Apart from the telephone
interface, an MS can also offer other types of interfaces to users with display, loudspeaker,
microphone, and programmable soft keys. Further interfaces comprise computer modems,
IrDA, or Bluetooth.
3.2.2 Network and switching subsystem
The ―heart‖ of the GSM system is formed by the network and switching sub-system (NSS). The
NSS connects the wireless network with standard public networks, performs handovers between
different BSSs, comprises functions for worldwide localization of users and supports charging,
accounting, and roaming of users between different providers in different countries. The NSS
consists of the following switches and databases:
 Mobile services switching center (MSC): MSCs are high-performance digital ISDN
switches. They set up connections to other MSCs and to the BSCs via the A interface, and
form the fixed backbone network of a GSM system. Typically, an MSC manages several
BSCs in a geographical region. A gateway MSC (GMSC) has additional connections to
other fixed networks, such as PSTN and ISDN. Using additional interworking functions
(IWF), an MSC can also connect to public data networks (PDN) such as X.25. An MSC
handles all signaling needed for connection setup, connection release and handover of
connections to other MSCs. The standard signaling system No. 7 (SS7) is used for this
purpose. SS7 covers all aspects of control signaling for digital networks (reliable routing and
delivery of control messages, establishing and monitoring of calls). Features of SS7 are
number portability, free phone/toll/collect/credit calls, call forwarding, three-way calling
etc. An MSC also performs all functions needed for supplementary services such as call
forwarding, multi-party calls, reverse charging etc.
 Home location register (HLR): The HLR is the most important database in a GSM system
as it stores all user-relevant information. This comprises static information, such as the

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mobile subscriber ISDN number (MSISDN), sub-scribed services (e.g., call forwarding,
roaming restrictions, GPRS), and the international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI).
Dynamic information is also needed, e.g., the current location area (LA) of the MS, the
mobile sub-scriber roaming number (MSRN), the current VLR and MSC. As soon as an
MS leaves its current LA, the information in the HLR is updated. This information is
necessary to localize a user in the worldwide GSM network. All these user-specific
information elements only exist once for each user in a single HLR, which also supports
charging and accounting. HLRs can manage data for several million customers and contain
highly specialized data bases which must fulfil certain real-time requirements to answer
requests within certain time-bounds.
 Visitor location register (VLR): The VLR associated to each MSC is a dynamic database
which stores all important information needed for the MS users currently in the LA that is
associated to the MSC (e.g., IMSI, MSISDN, HLR address). If a new MS comes into an LA
the VLR is responsible for, it copies all relevant information for this user from the HLR.
This hierarchy of VLR and HLR avoids frequent HLR updates and long-distance signaling
of user information. Some VLRs in existence, are capable of managing up to one million
customers.
3.2.3 Operation subsystem
The third part of a GSM system, the operation subsystem (OSS), contains the necessary functions
for network operation and maintenance. The OSS possesses network entities of its own and
accesses other entities via SS7 signaling (see Figure 3.2). The following entities have been defined:
 Operation and maintenance center (OMC): The OMC monitors and controls all other
network entities via the O interface (SS7 with X.25). Typical OMC management functions
are traffic monitoring, status reports of net-work entities, subscriber and security
management, or accounting and billing. OMCs use the concept of telecommunication
management net-work (TMN) as standardized by the ITU-T.
 Authentication centre (AuC): As the radio interface and mobile stations are particularly
vulnerable, a separate AuC has been defined to protect user identity and data transmission.
The AuC contains the algorithms for authentication as well as the keys for encryption and
generates the values needed for user authentication in the HLR. The AuC may, in fact, be
situ- ated in a special protected part of the HLR.
 Equipment identity register (EIR): The EIR is a database for all IMEIs, i.e., it stores all
device identifications registered for this network. As MSs are mobile, they can be easily
stolen. With a valid SIM, anyone could use the stolen MS. The EIR has a blacklist of stolen
(or locked) devices. In theory an MS is useless as soon as the owner has reported a theft.
Unfortunately, the blacklists of different providers are not usually synchronized and the
illegal use of a device in another operator‘s network is possible (the reader may speculate as
to why this is the case). The EIR also contains a list of valid IMEIs (white list), and a list of
malfunctioning devices (gray list).
3.3 Interfacing Between Different system of GSM Architecture

The most interesting interface in a GSM system is Um, the radio interface, as it comprises
many mechanisms presented in chapters 2 and 3 for multiplexing and media access. GSM
implements SDMA using cells with BTS and assigns an MS to a BTS. Furthermore, FDD is

55
used to separate downlink and uplink as shown in Figures in chapter 2 & 3. Media access
combines TDMA and FDMA. In GSM 900, 124 channels, each 200 kHz wide, are used for FDMA,
whereas GSM 1800 uses, 374 channels. Due to technical reasons, channels 1 and 124 are not used
for transmission in GSM 900. Typically, 32 channels are reserved for organiza tional data; the
remaining 90 are used for customers. Each BTS then manages a single channel for organizational
data and, e.g., up to 10 channels for user data. The following example is based on the GSM 900
system, but GSM works in a similar way at 1800 and 1900 MHz. While Figure 3.3 in chapter 3 has
already shown the FDM in GSM, Figure 3.4 also shows the TDM used. Each of the 248 channels is
additionally separated in time via a GSM TDMA frame, i.e., each 200 kHz carrier is subdivided
into frames that are repeated continuously. The duration of a frame is 4.615 ms. A frame is again
subdivided into 8 GSM time slots, where each slot represents a physical TDM channel and lasts for
577 μs. Each TDM channel occupies the 200 kHz carrier for 577 μs every 4.615 ms.
Data is transmitted in small portions, called bursts. Figure 3.4 shows a so-called normal burst as
used for data transmission inside a time slot (user and signaling data). In the diagram, the burst is
only 546.5 μs long and contains 148 bits. The remaining 30.5 μs are used as guard space to avoid
overlapping with other bursts due to different path delays and to give the transmitter time to turn on
and off. Filling the whole slot with data allows for the transmission of156.25 bit within 577 μs.
Each physical TDM channel has a raw data rate of about 33.8 kbit/s, each radio carrier transmits
approximately 270 kbit/s over the Um interface.
The first and last three bits of a normal burst (tail) are all set to 0 and can be used to enhance the
receiver performance. The training sequence in the middle of a slot is used to adapt the parameters
of the receiver to the current path propagation characteristics and to select the strongest signal in
case of multi-path propagation. A flag S indicates whether the data field contains user or network
control data. Apart from the normal burst, ETSI (1993a) defines four more bursts for data
transmission: a frequency correction burst allows the MS to correct the local oscillator to avoid
interference with neighbouring channels, a synchronization burst with an extended training
sequence synchronizes the MS with the BTS in time, an access burst is used for the initial
connection setup between MS and BTS, and finally a dummy burst is used if no data is available

56
for a slot. Two factors allow for the use of simple transmitter hardware: on the one hand, the slots
for uplink and downlink of a physical TDM channel are separated in frequency (45 MHz for GSM
900, 95 MHz for GSM 1800 using FDD). On the other hand, the TDMA frames are shifted in time
for three slots, i.e., if the BTS sends data at time t0 in slot one on the downlink, the MS accesses
slot one on the uplink at time t 0+3·577 μs. An MS does not need a full-duplex transmitter, a simpler
half-duplex transmitter switching between receiving and sending is enough. To avoid frequency
selective fading, GSM specifies an optional slow frequency hopping mechanism. MS and BTS
may change the carrier frequency after each frame based on a common hopping sequence. An MS
changes its frequency between up and downlink slots respectively.
3.3.2 Logical channels and frame
Frames based on the combination of these physical channels. A physical channel consists of a slot,
repeated every 4.615 ms. GSM specifies two basic groups of logical channels, i.e., traffic channels
and control channels:
3.3.2.a : Traffic channels (TCH): GSM uses a TCH to transmit user data (e.g., voice, fax). Two
basic categories of TCHs have been defined, i.e., full-rate TCH (TCH/F) and half-rate TCH
(TCH/H). A TCH/F has a data rate of 22.8 kbit/s, whereas TCH/H only has 11.4 kbit/s. With the
voice codecs available at the beginning of the GSM standardization, 13 kbit/s were required,
whereas the remaining capacity of the TCH/F (22.8 kbit/s) was used for error correction (TCH/FS).
The standard codecs for voice are called full rate (FR, 13 kbit/s) and half rate (HR, 5.6 kbit/s). A
newer codec, enhanced full rate (EFR), provides better voice quality than FR as long as the
transmission error rate is low. An additional increase in voice quality is provided by the so-called
tandem free operation (TFO). This mode can be used if two MSs exchange voice data. In this
case, coding to and from PCM encoded voice (standard in ISDN) can be skipped and the GSM
encoded voice data is directly exchanged. Data transmission in GSM is possible at many different
data rates, e.g., TCH/F4.8 for 4.8 kbit/s, TCH/F9.6 for 9.6 kbit/s, and, as a newer specification,

57
TCH/F14.4 for 14.4 kbit/s. These logical channels differ in terms of their coding schemes and error
correction capabilities.
3.3.2.b.Control channels (CCH): Many different CCHs are used in a GSM system to control
medium access, allocation of traffic channels or mobility management. Three groups of control
channels have been defined, each again with sub channels):
 Broadcast control channel (BCCH): A BTS uses this channel to signal information to all
MSs within a cell. Information transmitted in this channel is, e.g., the cell identifier, options
available within this cell (frequency hopping), and frequencies available inside the cell and
in neighbouring cells. The BTS sends information for frequency correction via the
frequency correction channel (FCCH) and information about time synchronization via the
synchronization channel (SCH), where both channels are sub channels of the BCCH.
 Common control channel (CCCH): All information regarding connection setup between
MS and BS is exchanged via the CCCH. For calls toward an MS, the BTS uses the paging
channel (PCH) for paging the appropriate MS. If an MS wants to set up a call, it uses the
random access channel (RACH) to send data to the BTS. The RACH implements multiple
access (all MSs within a cell may access this channel) using slotted Aloha. This is where a
collision may occur with other MSs in a GSM system. The BTS uses the access grant
channel (AGCH) to signal an MS that it can use a TCH or SDCCH for further connection
setup.
 Dedicated control channel (DCCH): While the previous channels have all been
unidirectional, the following channels are bidirectional. As long as an MS has not
established a TCH with the BTS, it uses the stand-alone dedicated control channel
(SDCCH) with a low data rate (782 bit/s) for signaling. Finally, if more signaling
information needs to be transmitted and a TCH already exists, GSM uses a fast associated
dedicated control channel (FACCH). The FACCH uses the timeslots which are otherwise
used by the TCH. This is necessary in the case of handovers where BTS and MS have to
exchange larger amounts of data in less time.
This periodic pattern of 26 slots occurs in all TDMA frames with a TCH. The combination of these
frames is called traffic multiframe. Figure 3.4.1 shows the logical combination of 26 frames
(TDMA frames with a duration of 4.615 ms) to a multiframe with a duration of 120 ms. This type
of multiframe is used for TCHs, SACCHs for TCHs, and FACCHs. As these logical channels are all
associated with user traffic, the multiframe is called traffic multiframe. TDMA frames containing
(signaling) data for the other logical channels are combined to a control multiframe. Control
multiframes consist of 51 TDMA frames and have a duration of 235.4 ms.
This logical frame hierarchy continues, combining 26 multiframes with 51 frames or 51

multiframes with 26 frames to form a superframe. 2,048 superframes build a hyperframe with a
duration of almost 3.5 hours. Altogether, 2,715,648 TDMA frames form a hyperframe. This large
logical structure is needed for encryption – GSM counts each TDMA frame, with the frame number
forming input for the encryption algorithm. The frame number plus the slot number uniquely
identify each time slot in GSM.

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3.4 GSM Protocol Structure
Figure 3.4.2 shows the protocol architecture of GSM with signaling protocols, interfaces, as well as
the entities already shown in Figure 3.2. The main interest lies in the Um interface, as the other
interfaces occur between entities in a fixed network. Layer 1, the physical layer, handles all
radio-specific functions. This includes the creation of bursts according to the five different
formats, multiplexing of bursts into a TDMA frame, synchronization with the BTS, detection of
idle channels, and measurement of the channel quality on the downlink. The physical layer at Um
uses GMSK for digital modulation and performs encryption/decryption of data, i.e., encryption is
not performed end-to-end, but only between MS and BSS over the air interface. Synchronization
also includes the correction of the individual path delay between an MS and the BTS. All MSs
within a cell use the same BTS and thus must be synchronized to this BTS. The BTS generates the
time-structure of frames, slots etc. As the variable timing advance cannot be extended a burst
cannot be shifted earlier than 63 bit times. This results in the 35 km maximum distance between an
MS and a BTS. It might be possible to receive the signals over longer distances; to avoid collisions
at the BTS, access cannot be allowed.
The main tasks of the physical layer comprise channel coding and error detection/correction,
which is directly combined with the coding mechanisms. Channel coding makes extensive use of
different forward error correction (FEC) schemes. FEC adds redundancy to user data, allowing
for the detection and correction of selected errors. Different logical channels of GSM use different
coding schemes with different correction capabilities. Speech channels need additional coding of
voice data after analog to digital conversion, to achieve a data rate of 22.8 kbit/s (using the 13 kbit/s
from the voice codec plus redundancy, CRC bits, and interleaving As voice was assumed to be the
main service in GSM, the physical layer also contains special functions, such as voice activity
detection (VAD), which transmits voice data only when there is a voice signal.

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Figure 3.4.2 : Protocol architecture for signaling
Signaling between entities in a GSM network requires higher layers (see Figure 3.4.2). For this
purpose, the LAPDm protocol has been defined at the Um interface for layer two. LAPDm, as the
name already implies, has been derived from link access procedure for the D-channel (LAPD) in
ISDN systems, which is a version of HDLC. LAPDm is a lightweight LAPD because it does not
need synchronization flags or check summing for error detection. (The GSM physical layer already
performs these tasks.) LAPDm offers reliable data transfer over connections, re-sequencing of data
frames, and flow control. As there is no buffering between layer one and two, LAPDm has to obey
the frame structures, recurrence patterns etc. defined for the Um interface. Further services provided
by LAPDm include segmentation and reassembly of data and acknowledged/unacknowledged data
transfer.
The network layer in GSM, layer three, comprises several sublayers as Figure 3.4.2 shows. The
lowest sublayer is the radio resource management (RR).The functions of RR‘ are supported by
the BSC via the BTS management (BTSM). The main tasks of RR are setup, maintenance, and
release of radio channels. RR also directly accesses the physical layer for radio information and
offers a reliable connection to the next higher layer.
Mobility management (MM) contains functions for registration, authentication, identification,

location updating, and the provision of a temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI) that
replaces the international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) and which hides the real identity of
an MS user over the air interface. While the IMSI identifies a user, the TMSI is valid only in the
current location area of a VLR. MM offers a reliable connection to the next higher layer.
Finally, the call management (CM) layer contains three entities: call control (CC), short message
service (SMS), supplementary service (SS). SMS allows for message transfer using the control
channels SDCCH and SACCH(if no signaling data is sent), CC provides a point-to-point connection
between two terminals and is used by higher layers for call establishment, call clearing and change
of call parameters. This layer also provides functions to send in-band tones, called dual tone
multiple frequency (DTMF), over the GSM network. These tones are used, e.g., for the remote
control of answering machines or the entry of PINs in electronic banking and are, also used for

60
dialing in traditional analog telephone systems. These tones cannot be sent directly over the voice
codec of a GSM MS, as the codec would distort the tones. They are transferred as signals and then
converted into tones in the fixed network part of the GSM system.
3.5 Localization , Roaming & Calling Procedure
3.5.1 Roaming & Localization process

One fundamental feature of the GSM system is the automatic, worldwide localization of users. The
system always knows where a user currently is, and the same phone number is valid worldwide. To
provide this service, GSM performs periodic location updates even if a user does not use the mobile
station (provided that the MS(mobile station or subscriber) is still logged into the GSM network and
is not completely switched off). The HLR always contains information about the current location
(only the location area, not the precise geographical location), and the VLR currently responsible
for the MS informs the HLR about location changes. As soon as an MS moves into the range of a
new VLR (a new location area), the HLR sends all user data needed to the new VLR. Changing
VLRs with uninterrupted availability of all services is also called roaming. Roaming can take place
within the network of one provider, between two providers in one country (national roaming is,
often not supported due to competition between operators), but also between different providers in
different countries (international roaming). Typically, people associate international roaming with
the term roaming as it is this type of roaming that makes GSM very attractive: one device, over 190
countries! To locate an MS and to address the MS, several numbers are needed:
 Mobile station international ISDN number (MSISDN): The only important number for a
user of GSM is the phone number. Remember that the phone number is not associated with
a certain device but with the SIM, which is personalized for a user. The MSISDN follows
the ITU-T standard E.164 for addresses as it is also used in fixed ISDN networks. This
number consists of the country code (CC) (e.g., +91 79 12345678 with 91 for India), the
national destination code (NDC) (i.e., the address of the network provider, e.g., 791), and
the subscriber number (SN)
 International mobile subscriber identity (IMSI): GSM uses the IMSI for internal unique
identification of a subscriber. IMSI consists of a mobile country code (MCC) (e.g., 240 for
Sweden, 208 for France), the mobile network code (MNC) (i.e., the code of the network
provider), and finally the mobile subscriber identification number (MSIN).
 Temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI): To hide the IMSI, which would give
away the exact identity of the user signaling over the air interface, GSM uses the 4 byte
TMSI for local subscriber identification. TMSI is selected by the current VLR and is only
valid temporarily and within the location area of the VLR (for an ongoing communication
TMSI and LAI are sufficient to identify a user; the IMSI is not needed). Additionally, a
VLR may change the TMSI periodically.
 Mobile station7 roaming number (MSRN): Another temporary address that hides the
identity and location of a subscriber is MSRN. The VLR generates this address on request
from the MSC, and the address is also stored in the HLR. MSRN contains the current visitor
country code (VCC), the visitor national destination code (VNDC), the identification of
the current MSC together with the subscriber number. The MSRN helps the HLR to find a
subscriber for an incoming call.
3.5.2 Calling procedure

All these numbers are needed to find a subscriber and to maintain the connection with a mobile
station. The interesting case is the mobile terminated call (MTC), i.e., a situation in which a

61
station calls a mobile station (the calling station could be outside the GSM network or another
mobile station).
Figure 3.5.1 : Mobile call terminated operation Figure 3.5.2 :Mobile call originated operation
Figure 3.5.3 : Message Flow for MTC & MOC during connection set up between MS and BTS
Figure 3.5.1 shows the basic steps needed to connect the calling station with the mobile user.
 (1), a user dials the phone number of a GSM subscriber.

 (2)The fixed network (PSTN) notices (looking at the destination code) that the number
belongs to a user in the GSM network and forwards the call setup to the Gateway MSC.
 (3). The GMSC identifies the HLR for the subscriber (which is coded in the phone number)
and signals the call setup to the HLR .
 (4). The HLR now checks whether the number exists and whether the user has subscribed to
the requested services, and requests an MSRN from the current VLR.
 (5). After receiving the MSRN

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 (6) The HLR can determine the MSC responsible for the MS and forwards this information
to the GMSC .
 (7). The GMSC can now forward the call setup request to the MSC indicated.
 (8). From this point on, the MSC is responsible for all further steps. First, it requests the
current status of the MS from the VLR.
 (9). If the MS is available
 (10). The MSC initiates paging in all cells it is responsible for (i.e. the location area, LA).
 (11). The BTSs of all BSSs transmit this paging signal to the MS .
 If the MS answers (12 and 13).the VLR has to perform security checks (set up encryption
etc.).
 The VLR then signals to the MSC to set up a connection to the MS (steps 15 to 17).
Mobile originated call (MOC) is much simpler as compared to a MTC (see Figure 3.5.2).
 (1).The MS transmits a request for a new connection .
 (2).The BSS forwards this request to the MSC.
 (3 and 4)The MSC then checks if this user is allowed to set up a call with the requested
service and checks the availability of resources through the GSM network and into the
PSTN. If all resources are available, the MSC sets up a connection between the MS and the
fixed network.
3.6 GSM Signal Processing (Voice Coding & Channel Coding)
Coding is the information processing in GSM Signal processing that involves preparing the basic
data signals so that they are protected and put in a form that the radio link can handle. Generally the
coding process includes the Logical EXclusive OR (EXOR). Coding is included in −
 Speech coding or Trans coding

 Channel coding or Forward Error Correction coding
 Interleaving
 Encryption
3.6.1 Speech coding or Trans coding
Coding in GSM involves various processes and it is Burst Formatting as Human speech is band
limited between 300Hz to 3400Hz and undergoes Frequency Modulation in analog systems. In

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digital fixed PSTN systems band limited speech is sampled at the rate of 8KHz and each sampled is
encoded into 8 bits leading to 64Kbps (PCM A-Law of encoding). Digital cellular radio cannot
handle the high bit rate used for PSTN systems. Smart techniques for signal analysis and processing
have been developed for reduction of the bit rate.
Speech Properties
Human speech can be distinguished in elementary sounds (Phonemes). Depending on the language,
there are 30 to 50 different phonemes. The human voice is able to produce up to 10 phonemes per
second, so that about 60 bit/s are required to transfer the speech. However, all individual features
and intonations would disappear. To preserve the individual features, the real amount of
information to be sent is a number of times higher, but still a fraction of the 64 Kbit/s used for
PCM.
Based upon the phoneme production mechanism of the human organs of speech, a simple speech
production model can be made. It appears that during a short time interval of 10-30 ms, the model
parameters like pitch-period, voiced/unvoiced, amplification gain, and filter parameters remain
about stationary (quasi stationary). The advantage of such a model is the simple determination of
the parameters by means of linear prediction.
Speech Coding Techniques
There are 3 classes of speech coding techniques

a) Waveform Coding − Speech is transmitted as good as possible in wave form coding. PCM
is an example of waveform coding. Bit rate ranges from 24 to 64kbps and the quality of
speech is good and the speaker can be recognized easily.
b) Parameter Coding − Only a very limited quantity of information is sent. A decoder built up
according to the speech production model will regenerate the speech at the receiver. Only 1
to 3kbps is required for the speech transmission. The regenerated speech is intelligible but it
suffers from noise and often the speaker cannot be recognized.
c) Hybrid Coding − Hybrid Coding is a mix of waveform coding and parameter coding. It
combines the strong points of both techniques and GSM uses a hybrid coding technique
called RPE-LTP (Regular Pulse Excited-Long Term Prediction) resulting in 13Kbps per
voice channel.
Speech Coding in GSM (Transcoding)

The 64kbits/s PCM transcoded from the standard A-law quantized 8bits per sample into a linearly
quantized 13bits per sample bit stream that correspond to a 104kbits/s bit rate. The 104kbits/s
stream is fed into the RPE-LTP speech encoder which takes the 13 bits samples in a block of 160
samples (every 20ms). RPE-LTP encoder produces 260bits in every 20 ms, resulting in a bit rate of
13kbits/s. This provides a speech quality acceptable for mobile telephony and comparable with
wireline PSTN phones. In GSM 13Kbps speech coding is called full rate coders. Alternatively half
rate coders (6.5Kbps) are also available to enhance the capacity.
 GSM speech coder is RELP (Residually Excited Predictive Coder), which is enhanced by
including a Long Term Predictor (LTP).
 The coder provides 260 bits for 20ms blocks of speech, which yields a bit rate of 13kbps.

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 GSM system operates in Discontinuous Transmission mode (DTX) by incorporating a Voice
Activity Detector (VAD) in speech coder. This mode provides a longer battery life and
reduces instantaneous radio interference since GSM transmitter is not active during silent
periods.
 A Comfort Noise Subsystem (CNS) is used at receiver which adds background acoustic
noise to compensate for the annoying switched muting which occurs due to DTX.
3.6.2 Channel coding: Channel coding, also known as forward error control coding (FECC), is a
process of detecting and correcting bit errors in digital communication systems. Channel coding is
performed both at the transmitter and at the receiver. Figure 3.6.2 shows the conceptual block
diagram of a modern wireless communication system, where the channel coding block is shown in
the inset of the dotted block. At the transmit side, channel coding is referred to as encoder, where
redundant bits (parity bits) are added with the raw data before modulation. At the receive side,
channel coding is referred to as the decoder. This enables the receiver to detect and correct errors, if
they occur during transmission due to noise, interference and fading. Since error control coding
adds extra bits to detect and correct errors, transmission of coded information requires more
bandwidth.
3.6.2 Types of Channel Coding
a) Automatic repeat request (ARQ)

b) Forward error control coding (FECC)
a). Automatic repeat request (ARQ):

In ARQ, the receiver does not attempt to correct the error, but rather it sends an alert to the Trans-
mitter in order to inform it that an error was detected and a retransmission is needed. This is known
as a negative acknowledgement (NAK), and the transmitter retransmits the message upon receipt. If
the message is error-free, the receiver sends an acknowledgement (ACK) to the transmitter. This
form of error control is only capable of detecting errors; it has no ability to correct errors that have
been detected.
b).Forward error control coding (FECC)
In a system which utilizes FECC coding, the data are encoded with the redundant bits to allow the
receiver to not only detect errors, but to correct them as well. In this system, a sequence of data
signals is transformed into a longer sequence that contains enough redundancy to protect the data.
This type of error control is also classified as channel coding, because these methods are often used to
correct errors that are caused by channel noise. The goal of all FECC techniques is to detect and

65
correct as many errors as possible without greatly increasing the data rate or the bandwidth. FECC
codes are generally classified in two broad categories :
• Block codes
• Convolutional codes
• Concatenated codes
• Orthogonal codes
Usually the convolutional coder and decoder used at the time if signal processing and especially in
channel coding process
The rate of this coding scheme is given by
Where r is the rate of coding

k are data bits
n are coded information bits(n )
n – k are known as redundant bits or parity bits
M are Rows and N are Columns
Figure 3.6.4 : Channel coding frame structure

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 The outputs of the speech coder are ordered into for error protection, based upon their
significance in contributing groups to speech quality.
 Out of 260 bits in a frame, the most important 50 bits called type Ia bits, have 3 parity check
(CRC) bits added to them to detect non-correctable errors at the receiver.
 The next 132 bits with first 53 are appended by 4 trailing zero bits, thus providing a data
block of 189 bits. This block is then encoded for error protection using a rate ½ convolution
encoder with constant length K=5, thus providing a sequence of 378 bits.
 The least important 78 bits do not have error protection and concatenated to existing
sequence to form a block of 456 bits in 20ms frame, data rate of speech signal becomes
22.8kbps.
C. Interleaving:
 To minimize the effect of sudden fades on the received data, the total of 456 encoded bits
within each 20ms speech frame or control message frame are broken into eight 57 bits sub
blocks and they are numbered even odd according to block number. These eight consecutive
blocks are spread over eight consecutive TCH time slot.
 If a burst is lost due to interference or fading, channel coding ensures that enough bits will
still be received correctly to allow the error correction to work.
 Each TCH time slot carries two 57 bits blocks of data from two different 20ms speech
blocks. Time slot of first 4 frames contains even data blocks of present speech frame and
odd data block of previous speech frame. Time slot of next 4 frames contains odd blocks of
present speech frame and even data block of next speech frame.
D. Burst formatting:
 Burst formatting adds binary data to the data block to help synchronization and equalization
of the received signal.
E. Ciphering:
 Ciphering modifies the contents of the eight interleaved blocks by encryption techniques
known only to the particular mobile station and base transceiver station.
 The A3 ciphering algorithm is used to authenticate each mobile by verifying the user
password within the SIM with the cryptographic key at the MSC.
 The A5 ciphering algorithm is used for encryption. It provides scrambling for 114 coded bits
sent in each TS.
 The A8 is used for ciphering key.
F. Modulation:
 The modulation scheme used by GSM system is 0.3GMSK where 0.3 describes 3db
bandwidth of the Gaussian pulse shaping filter.
 The channel data rate of GSM is 270.833 kbps which is four times the RF frequency shift.
This minimizes bandwidth of the modulation spectrum and hence improves channel
capacity.
 MSK modulated signal is then passed through Gaussian filter to smooth the rapid frequency
transitions which would otherwise spread energy in adjacent channels.
G. Demodulation:

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 The portion of the transmitted forward channel signal which is of interest to a particular user
is determined by the assigned TS and ARFCN. The appropriate TS is demodulated with aid
of synchronization data provided by the burst formatting.
 After demodulation the binary information is deciphered, de-interleaved, channel decoded
and speech decoded.
3.7 Handover in GSM

Single cells do not cover the whole service area, but, e.g., only up to 35 km around each antenna on
the countryside and some hundred meters in cities therefore cellular systems require handover
procedures, . The smaller the cell size and the faster the movement of a mobile station through the
cells (up to 250 km/h for GSM), the more handovers of ongoing calls are required. However, a
handover should not cause a cut-off, also called call drop. GSM aims at maximum handover
duration of 60 ms. There are two basic reasons for a handover (about 40 have been identified in the
standard):
● The mobile station moves out of the range of a BTS or a certain antenna of a BTS respectively.
The received signal level decreases continuously until it falls below the minimal requirements for
communication. The error rate may grow due to interference, the distance to the BTS may be too
high (max. 35 km) etc. – all these effects may diminish the quality of the radio link and make
radio transmission impossible in the near future.
● The wired infrastructure (MSC, BSC) may decide that the traffic in one cell is too high and shift
some MS to other cells with a lower load (if possible). Handover may be due to load balancing.
Figure 3.7.1 shows four possible handover scenarios in GSM:
Figure 3.7.1: Types of Hand over

I. Intra-cell handover: Within a cell, narrow-band interference could make transmission at a
certain frequency impossible. The BSC could then decide to change the carrier frequency
II. Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover: This is a typical handover scenario. The mobile station
moves from one cell to another, but stays within the control of the same BSC. The BSC
then performs a handover, assigns a new radio channel in the new cell and releases the old
one .
III. Inter-BSC, intra-MSC handover: As a BSC only controls a limited number of cells; GSM
also has to perform handovers between cells controlled by different BSCs. This handover
then has to be controlled by the MSC ..
IV. Inter MSC handover: A handover could be required between two cells belonging to
different MSCs. Now both MSCs perform the handover together.

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To provide all the necessary information for a handover due to a weak link, MS and BTS both
perform periodic measurements of the downlink and uplink quality respectively. (Link quality
comprises signal level and bit error rate.) Measurement reports are sent by the MS about every half-
second and contain the quality of the current link used for transmission as well as the quality of
certain channels in neighbouring cells (the BCCHs)
3.8 GSM Security

GSM offers several security services using confidential information stored in the AuC and in the
individual SIM (which is plugged into an arbitrary MS). The SIM stores personal, secret data and is
protected with a PIN against unauthorized use. (For example, the secret key Ki used for
authentication and encryption procedures is stored in the SIM.) The security services offered by
GSM are explained below:
 Access control and authentication: The first step includes the authentication of a valid
user for the SIM. The user needs a secret PIN to access the SIM. The next step is the
subscriber authentication (see Figure3.5.3).
 Confidentiality: All user-related data is encrypted. After authentication, BTS and MS apply
encryption to voice, data, and signaling . This confidentiality exists only between MS and
BTS, but it does not exist end-to-end or within the whole fixed GSM/telephone network.
 Anonymity: To provide user anonymity, all data is encrypted before transmission, and user
identifiers (which would reveal an identity) are not used over the air. Instead, GSM
transmits a temporary identifier (TMSI), which is newly assigned by the VLR after each
location update. Additionally, the VLR can change the TMSI at any time.
Three algorithms have been specified to provide security services in GSM. Algorithm A3 is used
for authentication, A5 for encryption, and A8 for the generation of a cipher key. In the GSM
standard only algorithm A5 was publicly available, whereas A3 and A8 were secret, but
standardized with open interfaces.
3.9 GSM Authentication

Before a subscriber can use any service from the GSM network, he or she must be authenticated.
Authentication is based on the SIM, which stores the individual authentication key Ki, the user
identification IMSI, and the algorithm used for authentication A3. Authentication uses a challenge-

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response method: the VLR sends the random value RAND(Random number) to the SIM. Both
sides, network and subscriber module, perform the same operation with RAND and the key Ki,
called A3. The MS sends back the SRES (signed response) generated by the SIM; the VLR can now
compare both values. If they are the same, the VLR accepts the subscriber, otherwise the subscriber
is rejected. Figure 3.7.1 show the process of GSM Authentication.
3.10 GSM Encryption

To ensure privacy, all messages containing user-related information are encrypted in GSM over the
air interface. After authentication, MS and BSS can start using encryption by applying the cipher
key Kc (the precise location of security functions for encryption, BTS and/or BSC are vendor
dependent). Kc is generated using the individual key Ki and a random value by applying the
algorithm A8. Note that the SIM in the MS and the network both calculate the same Kc based on
the random value RAND. The key Kc itself is not transmitted over the air interface.
MS and BTS can now encrypt and decrypt data using the algorithm A5 and the cipher key Kc. As
Figure 3.7.2 shows, Kc should be a 64 bit key – which is not very strong, but is at least a good
protection against simple eavesdropping. However, the publication of A3 and A8 on the internet
showed that in certain implementations 10 of the 64 bits are always set to 0, so that the real length
of the key is thus only 54 consequently, the encryption is much weaker.

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Chapter 3B
3.1 CDMA Technology
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital cellular technology used for mobile
communication. CDMA is the base on which access methods such as cdma One, CDMA2000, and
WCDMA are built. CDMA cellular systems are deemed superior to FDMA and TDMA, which is
why CDMA plays a critical role in building efficient, robust, and secure radio communication
systems.
Salient Features of CDMA
CDMA, which is based on the spread spectrum technique has following salient features −
 In CDMA, every channel uses the full available spectrum.
 Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital sequence and then
transmitted using a wide frequency range.
 CDMA consistently provides better capacity for voice and data communications, allowing
more subscribers to connect at any given time.
 CDMA is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built. For 3G, CDMA uses 1x
EV-DO and EV-DV.
Third Generation Standards
CDMA2000 uses Frequency Division Duplexing-Multicarrier (FDD-MC) mode. Here, multicarrier

implies N × 1.25 MHz channels overlaid on N existing IS-95 carriers or deployed on unoccupied
spectrum. CDMA2000 includes −
 1x — uses a spreading rate of 1.2288 Mcps.
 3x — uses a spreading rate of 3 × 1.2288 Mcps or 3.6864 Mcps.
 1xEV-DO (1x Evolution – Data Optimized) — uses a spreading rate of 1.2288 Mcps,
optimized for the data.
 WCDMA/FDD-DS — Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) Frequency Division Duplexing-Direct
Sequence spreading (FDD-DS) mode. This has a single 5 MHz channel. WCDMA uses a
single carrier per channel and employs a spreading rate of 3.84 Mcps.
WCDMA is based on DS-CDMA (direct sequence code division multiple access) technology in
which user-information bits are spread over a wide bandwidth (much larger than the information
signal bandwidth) by multiplying the user data with the spreading code. The chip (symbol rate) rate
of the spreading sequence is 3.84 Mcps, which, in the WCDMA system deployment is used together
with the 5-MHz carrier spacing. The processing gain term refers to the relationship between the
signal bandwidth and the information bandwidth. Thus, the name wideband is derived to
differentiate it from the 2G CDMA (IS-95), which has a chip rate of 1.2288 Mcps. In a CDMA
system, all users are active at the same time on the same frequency and are separated from each
other with the use of user specific spreading codes. The wide carrier bandwidth of WCDMA allows
supporting high user-data rates and also has certain performance benefits, such as increased
multipath diversity. The actual carrier spacing to be used by the operator may vary on a 200-kHz
grid between approximately 4.4 and 5 MHz, depending on spectrum arrangement and the
interference situation.

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In WCDMA each user is allocated frames of 10 ms duration, during which the user-data rate is kept
constant. However, the data rate among the users can change from frame to frame. This fast radio
capacity allocation (or the limits for variation in the uplink) is controlled and coordinated by the
radio resource management (RRM) functions in the network to achieve optimum throughput for
packet data services and to ensure sufficient quality of service (QoS) for circuit-switched users.
WCDMA supports two basic modes of operation: FDD and TDD. In the FDD mode, separate 5-
MHz carrier frequencies with duplex spacing are used for the uplink and downlink, respectively,
whereas in TDD only one 5-MHz carrier is time shared between the up-link and the downlink.
WCDMA uses coherent detection based on the pilot symbols and/or common pilot. WCDMA
allows many performance- enhancement methods to be used, such as transmit diversity or advanced
CDMA receiver concepts. The support for handovers (HO) between GSM and WCDMA is part of
the first standard version. This means that all multimode WCDMA/GSM terminals will support
measurements from the one system while camped on the other one. This allows networks using both
WCDMA and GSM to balance the load between the networks and base the HO on actual
measurements from the terminals for different radio conditions in addition to other criteria
available.
The world's first commercial W-CDMA service, FoMA, was launched by NTT DoCoMo in Japan
in 2001. FoMA is the short name for Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access, is the brand name for
the 3G services being created by Japanese mobile phone operator NTT DoCoMo.Elsewhere, W-
CDMA deployments have been exclusively UMTS based. UMTS or W-CDMA, assures backward
compatibility with the second generation GSM, IS-136 and PDC TDMA technologies, as well as all
2.5G TDMA technologies. The network structure and bit level packaging of GSM data is retained
by W-CDMA, with additional capacity and bandwidth provided by a new CDMA air interface.
3.1.2 CDMA Development Group (CDG)
The CDMA Development Group (CDG), founded in December 1993, is an international consortium
of companies. It works together to lead the growth and evolution of advanced wireless
telecommunication systems.
CDG is comprised of service providers, infrastructure manufacturers, device vendors, test
equipment vendors, application developers, and content providers. Its members jointly define the
technical requirements for the development of complementary systems CDMA2000 and 4G.
Further, the interoperability with other emerging wireless technologies are meant to increase the
availability of wireless products and services to consumers and businesses worldwide.
3G CDMA2000
Code division multiple access 2000 is the natural evolution of IS-95 (cdma One). It includes
additional functionality that increases its spectral efficiency and data rate capability.(code division
multiple access) is a mobile digital radio technology where channels are defined with codes (PN
sequences). CDMA permits many simultaneous transmitters on the same frequency channel. Since
more phones can be served by fewer cell sites, CDMA-based standards have a significant economic
advantage over TDMA- or FDMA-based standards. This standard is being developed by
telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) of US and is is standardized by 3GPP2 The main
CDMA2000 standards are: CDMA2000 1xRTT,CDMA 2000 1xEV and CDMA2000 EV-DV.
These are the approved radio interfaces for the ITU's IMT-2000 standard. In the following, a brief
discussion about all these standards is given.
CDMA2000 1xRTT: RTT stands for Radio Transmission Technology and the designation "1x",
meaning "1 times Radio Transmission Technology", indicates the same RF bandwidth as IS- 95.The
main features of CDMA2000 1X are as follows:

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Supports an instantaneous data rate up to 307kpbs for a user in packet mode and a typical
throughput rates of 144kbps per user, depending on the number of user, the velocity of user and the
propagating conditions. Supports up to twice as many voice users a the 2G CDMA standard
provides the subscriber unit with up to two times the standby time for longer lasting battery life.
ECE department CDMA2000 EV: This is an evolutionary advancement of CDMA with the
following characteristics:
 Provides CDMA carriers with the option of installing radio channels with data only
(CDMA2000 EV-DO) and with data and voice (CDMA2000 EV-DV .
 The cdma2000 1xEV-DO supports greater than 2.4Mbps of instantaneous high-speed packet
throughput per user on a CDMA channel, although the user data rates are much lower and
highly dependent on other factors.
 CDMA2000 EV-DV can offer data rates up to 144kbps with about twice as many voice
channels as IS-95B.
 CDMA2000 3x is (also known as EV-DO Rev B) is a multi-carrier evolution. It has higher
rates per carrier (up to 4.9 Mbit /s on the downlink per carrier). Typical deployments are
expected to include 3 carriers for a peak rate of 14.7 Mbit /s. Higher rates are possible by
bundling multiple channels together. It enhances the user experience and enables new
services such as high definition Video streaming
 Uses statistical multiplexing across channels to further reduce latency, enhancing the
experience for latency-sensitive services such as gaming, video telephony, remote console
sessions and web browsing.
 It provides increased talk-time and standby time. The interference from the adjacent sectors
is reduced by hybrid frequency re-use and improves the rates that can be offered, especially
to users at the edge of the cell. It has efficient support for services that have asymmetric
download and upload requirements (i.e. different data rates required in each direction) such
as le transfers, web browsing, and broadband multimedia content delivery.
3G TD-SCDMA
Time Division-Synchronous Code Division Multiple Access, or TD-SCDMA, is a 3G mobile
telecommunications standard, being pursued in the People's Republic of China by the Chinese
Academy of Telecommunications Technology (CATT). This proposal was adopted by ITU as one
of the 3G options in late 1999. TD-SCDMA is based on spread spectrum technology.
TD-SCDMA uses TDD, in contrast to the FDD scheme used by W-CDMA. By dynamically Adjust-
ting the number of timeslots used for downlink and uplink, the system can more easily accommodate
asymmetric traffic with different data rate requirements on downlink and uplink than FDD schemes.
Since it does not require paired spectrum for downlink and uplink, spectrum allocation flexibility is
also increased. Also, using the same carrier frequency for uplink and downlink means that the
channel condition is the same on both directions, and the base station can deduce the downlink
channel information from uplink channel estimates, which is helpful to the application of beam
forming techniques.
TD-SCDMA also uses TDMA in addition to the CDMA used in WCDMA. This reduces the
number of users in each timeslot, which reduces the implementation complexity of multiuser
detection and beam forming schemes, but the non-continuous transmission also reduces coverage
(because of the higher peak power needed), mobility (because of lower power control frequency)
and complicates radio resource management algorithms. The "S" in TD-SCDMA stands for
"synchronous", which means that uplink signals are synchronized at the base station receiver,
achieved by continuous timing adjustments. This reduces the interference between users of the same

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timeslot using different codes by improving the orthogonally between the codes, therefore
increasing system capacity, at the cost of some hardware complexity in achieving uplink
synchronization.
Beyond 3G networks, or 4G (Fourth Generation), represent the next complete evolution in wireless
communications. A 4G system will be able to provide a comprehensive IP solution where voice,
data and streamed multimedia can be given to users at higher data rates than previous generations.
There is no formal definition for 4G ; however, there are certain objectives that are projected for
4G. It will be capable of providing between 100 Mbit/s and 1 Gbit/s speeds both indoors and
outdoors, with premium quality and high security. It would also support systems like multicarrier
communication, MIMO and UWB.
3.1.3 IMT-2000 System (International Mobile Telecommunication- 2000)
3.2 CDMA – Channels
CDMA channels can be broadly categorized as Forward channel and Reverse channel. This chapter
explains the functionalities of these channels.
3.2.1Forward Channel
The Forward channel is the direction of the communication or mobile-to-cell downlink path. It
includes the following channels −
 Pilot Channel − Pilot channel is a reference channel. It uses the mobile station to acquire the
time and as a phase reference for coherent demodulation. It is continuously transmitted by
each base station on each active CDMA frequency. And, each mobile station tracks this
signal continuously.
 Sync Channel − Synchronization channel carries a single, repeating message, which gives
the information about the time and system configuration to the mobile station. Likewise, the
mobile station can have the exact system time by the means of synchronizing to the short
code.

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 Paging Channel − Paging Channel‘s main objective is to send out pages, that is,
notifications of incoming calls, to the mobile stations. The base station uses these pages to
transmit system overhead information and mobile station specific messages.
 Forward Traffic Channel − Forward Traffic Channels are code channels. It is used to
assign calls, usually voice and signaling traffic to the individual users.
Reverse Channel
The Reverse channel is the mobile-to-cell direction of communication or the uplink path. It consists
of the following channels −
 Access Channel − Access channel is used by mobile stations to establish a communication
with the base station or to answer Paging Channel messages. The access channel is used for
short signaling message exchanges such as call-ups, responses to pages and registrations.
 Reverse Traffic Channel − Reverse traffic channel is used by the individual users in their
actual calls to transmit traffic from a single mobile station to one or more base stations.
3.3 CDMA - Multiple Access Methods

The possibility to operate in either FDD or TDD mode is allowed for efficient use of available
spectrum according to frequency allocation in different regions.
3.3.1Time Division Duplex
Time division duplex is a technique by which the Uplink and the Downlink transmissions are
carried over the same frequency by using synchronized time intervals. The carrier uses a 5 MHz
band, although there is a low chip rate solution under study by the 3GPP (1.28 Mcps). The available
frequency bands for TDD will be 1900–1920 MHz and 2010 – 2025 MHz.
Duplex Methods of Radio Links
In case of Time Division Duplex, the forward link frequency is same as the reverse link frequency.
In each link, signals are transmitted continuously in turns − just like a Ping-Pong game.
TDD uses a single frequency band for both to transmit and to receive. Further, it shares the band by
assigning alternate timeslots for transmitting and receiving operations. The information to be
transmitted can be voice, video, or computer data in bit-serial format. Each time interval can be 1
byte long or may be a part of several bytes.

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Figure 3.3.1 : Example of TDD System
TDD alternates the transmission and reception station data over time. Timeslots can be of variable
length. Due to the nature of high-speed data, the communicating parties cannot mean that the
transmissions are intermittent. Transmissions that appear as simultaneous are actually competing
each other. Digitally converted into analog voice, no one can say that it is not a full duplex.
In some TDD systems, alternative time intervals are of same duration or having both DL and UL;
however, the system does not need to be symmetric 50/50. The system may be asymmetrical as
required.
For example, while accessing the Internet, the download speed is usually higher than the upload
speed. Most of the equipment work on asynchronous mode where the download speed is higher
than the upload speed. When the download speed is higher than the upload speed, less timeslots are
needed for uploading. Some TDD formats offer dynamic bandwidth allocation when the number of
time intervals or durations is changed on the fly as needed.
Figure 3.3.2 :Block Diagram of TDD System
The real advantage of TDD is that it is only a single channel of the frequency spectrum and it
doesn‘t require band guards or channel separations as the intervals take place using timeslots. The
disadvantage is that the successful implementation of TDD requires a timing system. The precise
timing to both the transmitter and the receiver is needed to ensure that the time intervals do not
overlap or interfere with another.
Timing is often synchronized to GPS atomic clock standards specific derivative. The guard time is
also needed between timeslots to avoid duplication. This time is generally equal to the transmission-
reception processing time (transmission-reception switching time) and the transmission delays
(latency) on the communications channel.

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3.3.2 Frequency Division Duplex
In Frequency Division Duplex (FDD), the forward link frequency is not the same as the reverse link
frequency. In each link, signals are continuously transmitted in parallel.
Figure 3.3.3 : Example of FDD System
FDD requires two symmetrical segments of spectrum for the uplink and downlink channels.
In a cell phone with a transmitter and receiver, operating simultaneously in such close proximity,
the receiver has to filter as much of the signal from the transmitter as possible. More separation of
the spectrum, the most effective filters.
Figure 3.3.4 : Block Diagram of FDD System
FDD uses a lot of frequency spectrum, generally twice of the required TDD spectrum. In addition,
there must be adequate spectrum separation between transmission and reception of the channels.
These bands keep saying − it cannot be used, they are unnecessary. Given the scarcity and cost of
the spectrum, they are real disadvantages.
Use of FDD
FDD is widely used in different cellular telephone systems. In some systems, the band 869-894
MHz is used as the downlink (DL) spectrum from the cell site tower to the device. And, the band
824-849 MHz is used as the uplink (UL) spectrum of the handset at the cell site.
FDD also works on a cable where transmit and receive channels are given different parts of the
cable spectrum, as in cable TV systems. And, filters are used to keep the channels separate.
A duplex method whereby the Uplink and the Downlink transmissions use two separate frequency
bands −

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 Uplink − 1920 MHz to 1980 MHz
 Downlink − 2110 MHz to 2170 MHz
 Bandwidth − Each carrier is located on the center of a 5 MHz wide band
Channel Separation
Nominal value of 5 MHz that can be adjusted.
Channel Raster
200 kHz (center frequency must be a multiple of 200 kHz).
Tx-Rx Frequency Separation
Nominal value of 190 MHz. This value can be either fixed or variable (minimum of 134.8 and
maximum of 245.2 MHz).
Channel Number
The carrier frequency is designated by the UTRA Absolute Radio Frequency Channel
Number (UARFCN). This number is sent by the network (for the uplink and downlink) on the
BCCH logical channel and is defined by Nu = 5 * (Frequency uplink MHz) and ND = 5 *
(Frequency downlink MHz).
Disadvantage of FDD
The drawback of FDD is that it does not allow special techniques like multiple antennas, multiple
input-output (MIMO), and beam forming. These technologies are an essential element of the new
strategies Long Term Evolution (LTE) 4G cell phone to increase the data rate. It is difficult to make
broad enough bandwidth to cover both sets of antenna spectrum. Circuit complex dynamic
adjustment is required.
3.3.3 Multiple Access Methods
The radio channel is a communication medium shared by several users in a geographic area. Mobile
stations are in competition with one another for the frequency resource to transmit their information
flow. Without other measures to control concurrent access of several users, collisions can occur.
Since collisions are undesirable for connection oriented communication such as mobile phones,
personal/mobile subscriber stations need to be allocated the dedicated channels on request.
Figure 3.3.5 : Multiple access methods
The mobile communication, sharing wireless resources on all users, must be communicated to
identify the user. While identifying the user, it is referred to as "multiple access" (Multiple Access)

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that is receiving a radio wave of a number of transmitting stations in a receiving station (as shown
in the following image).
3.4 CDMA - Techniques
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a sort of multiplexing that facilitates various signals to
occupy a single transmission channel. It optimizes the use of available bandwidth. The technology
is commonly used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone systems, bands ranging
between the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz.
3.4.1 CDMA Overview
Code Division Multiple Access system is very different from time and frequency multiplexing. In
this system, a user has access to the whole bandwidth for the entire duration. The basic principle is
that different CDMA codes are used to distinguish among the different users.
Techniques generally used are direct sequence spread spectrum modulation (DS-CDMA),
frequency hopping or mixed CDMA detection (JDCDMA). Here, a signal is generated which
extends over a wide bandwidth. A code called spreading code is used to perform this action. Using
a group of codes, which are orthogonal to each other, it is possible to select a signal with a given
code in the presence of many other signals with different orthogonal codes.
3.4.2 How Does CDMA Work?
CDMA allows up to 61 concurrent users in a 1.2288 MHz channel by processing each voice packet
with two PN codes. There are 64 Walsh codes available to differentiate between calls and
theoretical limits. Operational limits and quality issues will reduce the maximum number of calls
somewhat lower than this value.
In fact, many different "signals" baseband with different spreading codes can be modulated on the
same carrier to allow many different users to be supported. Using different orthogonal codes,
interference between the signals is minimal. Conversely, when signals are received from several
mobile stations, the base station is capable of isolating each as they have different orthogonal
spreading codes.
The following figure shows the technicality of the CDMA system. During the propagation, we
mixed the signals of all users, but by that you use the same code as the code that was used at the
time of sending the receiving side. You can take out only the signal of each user.
Figure 3.4.1: CDMA Operation

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3.4.3 CDMA Capacity
The factors deciding the CDMA capacity are −
 Processing Gain
 Signal to Noise Ratio
 Voice Activity Factor
 Frequency Reuse Efficiency
Capacity in CDMA is soft, CDMA has all users on each frequency and users are separated by code.
This means, CDMA operates in the presence of noise and interference.
In addition, neighbouring cells use the same frequencies, which means no re-use. So, CDMA
capacity calculations should be very simple. No code channel in a cell, multiplied by no cell. But it
is not that simple. Although not available code channels are 64, it may not be possible to use a
single time, since the CDMA frequency is the same.
Centralized Methods
 The band used in CDMA is 824 MHz to 894 MHz (50 MHz + 20 MHz separation).
 Frequency channel is divided into code channels.
 1.25 MHz of FDMA channel is divided into 64 code channels.
3.4.4 Processing Gain
CDMA is a spread spectrum technique. Each data bit is spread by a code sequence. This means,
energy per bit is also increased. This means that we get a gain of this.
P (gain) = 10log (W/R)
W is Spread Rate
R is Data Rate
For CDMA P (gain) = 10 log (1228800/9600) = 21dB
This is a gain factor and the actual data propagation rate. On an average, a typical transmission
condition requires a signal to the noise ratio of 7 dB for the adequate quality of voice.
Translated into a ratio, signal must be five times stronger than noise.
Actual processing gain = P (gain) - SNR
= 21 – 7 = 14dB
CDMA uses variable rate coder
The Voice Activity Factor of 0.4 is considered = -4dB.
Hence, CDMA has 100% frequency reuse. Use of same frequency in surrounding cells causes some
additional interference.
In CDMA frequency, reuse efficiency is 0.67 (70% eff.) = -1.73dB

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Figure 3.4.2 : CDMA Operation
Advantages of CDMA
CDMA has a soft capacity. The greater the number of codes, the more the number of users. It has
the following advantages −
 CDMA requires a tight power control, as it suffers from near-far effect. In other words, a
user near the base station transmitting with the same power will drown the signal latter. All
signals must have more or less equal power at the receiver
 Rake receivers can be used to improve signal reception. Delayed versions of time (a chip or
later) of the signal (multipath signals) can be collected and used to make decisions at the bit
level.
 Flexible transfer may be used. Mobile base stations can switch without changing operator.
Two base stations receive mobile signal and the mobile receives signals from the two base
stations.
 Transmission Burst − reduces interference.
Disadvantages of CDMA
The disadvantages of using CDMA are as follows −

 The code length must be carefully selected. A large code length can induce delay or may
cause interference.
 Time synchronization is required.
 Gradual transfer increases the use of radio resources and may reduce capacity.
 As the sum of the power received and transmitted from a base station needs constant tight
power control. This can result in several handovers.
3.5 CDMA - Network

CDMA Network is the system meant to regulate CDMA technology. It includes all aspects and
functionality starting from the base station, transmitting antenna, receiving antenna, to mobile
switching centers.
CDMA Network Overview
A base station is an essential element of the CDMA network. A base station covers a small
geographical area called a cell. A cell may be omnidirectional or sectoral. Each base station has a
transmitting antenna and two receiving antennas for each cell. Two receiving antennas are used per

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cell for the purpose of spatial diversity. In many applications, it is a BSC (Base Station Controller),
which controls several base stations.
As the rate of the mobile phone data is either 13kbps or 8kbps, which is non ISDN, but the switches
which are the mobile switching center (MSC) are generally switched to 64 kbps. Therefore, before
it is switched, it is necessary to convert this mobile data rates to 64 kbps. This is accomplished by a
member, which is the transcoder. The transcoder may be a separate element or it can be collocated
in each base station or MSC.
All base stations are connected to the MSC, which is the mobile switching center. MSC is the entity
that manages the establishment, connection, maintenance, and disposal of calls within the network
and also with the outside world.
MSC also has a database called HLR/AC, which is a home location register/authentication center.
HLR is the database, which maintains the database of all network subscribers. AC Authentication
Centre is the part of the security of the HLR, which some algorithms to examine mobile phones.
The MSC is connected to the outside world, i.e. the fixed line network. MSC can also be connected
to several other MSCs.
CDMA Identities
Network Identities −
 SID (System Identity)

 NID (Network Identity)
Mobile Station Identities −
 ESN (Electronic Serial Number)

 Permuted ESN
 IMSI (International Mobile Station Identity)
 IMSI_S
 IMSI_11_12
 Station Class Mark
System and Network Identity
A base station is a member of a cellular system and a network. A network is a subset of a system.
The systems are installed with an identification called Identification System (CIS). The networks
with a system receiving is Network identification (NID). It is a uniquely identified network pair of
(SID, NID). The mobile station has a list of one or more home (non-roaming) pairs (SID, NID).
SID
A system identification indicator 15 bits (SID) is stored in a mobile station. It is used to determine
the host system of the mobile stations. The bit allocation of the system identification indicator is
shown below.

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The distribution of international codes (INTL) (bits 14 and 13) is also shown in the table. Bits 12-0
is assigned to each US system by the FCC for non-US countries. The bit allocation will be made by
local regulatory authorities.
NID
NID has a range of 0-65535 reserved values. Value of 65535 in a SID means, NID pair is to
indicate that the Mobile Station considers the entire SID as home.
Systems and Networks

A mobile station has a list of one or more home (non-roaming) pairs (SID, NID). A mobile station
is roaming when the base station broadcast (SID, NID) pair does not match with one of the non-
roaming mobile stations (SID, NID) pairs.
A mobile station is a foreign NID roamer −
 if the mobile station is roaming and there are some (SID, NID) pair in the mobile stations
(SID, NID) list that corresponds to SID.
 if the mobile station is roaming and there are some (SID, NID) pair in the mobile stations
(SID, NID) list for which no matching SID is available (means a mobile station has roaming
customer foreign SID).
Electronic Serial Number (ESN)
ESN is a 32-bit binary number that uniquely identifies the mobile station in a CDMA cellular
system. It should be set at the factory and cannot be easily changed in the field. Changing the ESN
will require special equipment, not normally available to subscribers. The bit allocation of ESN is
shown below −
The circuit that provides the ESN must be isolated so that no one can contact and tamper. Attempts
to change the ESN circuit should make the mobile station inoperative. At the time of the issuance of
the initial acceptance, the manufacturer must be assigned a code Manufacturers (MFR) in the eight
most significant bits (bits 31-24 bits) 32-bit serial number. Bits 23-18 are reserved (initially zero).
And, every manufacturer only allocates 17 bits to 0. When a manufacturer has used almost all
possible combinations of serial numbers in bits 17-0, the manufacturer may submit a notification to
the FCC. The FCC will assign the next sequential binary number in the reserve block (bits 23
through).
Permuted ESN
CDMA is a spread spectrum technique where multiple users to access the system at the same
example in a cell, and of course on the same frequency. Therefore, it discriminates the users on the
reverse link (i.e. information from MS to the base station). It spreads information using codes that
are unique to the mobile station in all the CDMA cellular systems. This code has an element that is
the ESN, but it doesn‘t use the ESN in the same format instead, it uses an ESN swapped.

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If there are two mobiles in a cell of the same brand and have consecutive serial numbers and for the
receiver of the base station, it becomes difficult to connect them. Therefore, to avoid a strong
correlation between the long codes corresponding to successive ESN, we use permuted ESNs.
International Mobile Station Identity (IMSI)
Mobile stations are identified by the identity of the international mobile station Identity (IMSI). The
IMSI consists of up to 10 to 15 numeric digits. The first three digits of the IMSI are the country
code of the mobile (MCC), the remaining digits are the National NMSI mobile station identity. The
NMSI consists of the mobile network code (MNC) and the mobile station identification number
(SIDS).
MCC MSN MSIN
NMSI
IMSI ≤15 digits
 MCC: Mobile Country Code

 MNC: Mobile Network Code
 MSIN: Mobile Station Identification
 NMSI: National Mobile Station Identity
An IMSI that is 15 digits in length is called a class 0 IMSI (NMSI is the 12 digits in length). IMSI,
which is less than 15 digits in length, is called a class 1 IMSI (NMSI the length is less than 12
counts). For CDMA operation, the same IMSI may be registered in multiple mobile stations.
Individual systems may or may not allow these capabilities. The management of these functions is a
function of the base station and the system operator.
3.6 CDMA - Techniques
In wireless communications, fading is the deviation of the signal attenuation affecting a certain
propagation media. Discoloration may vary with time, the geographical position or frequency of the
radio, which is often modelled as a random process. A fading channel is a communication channel
experiencing fading.
Figure 3.6.1: Fading in CDMA System

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Multipath Fading
In wireless systems, fading can be either due to multipath, called as multipath fading or due
to shadowing from obstacles affecting the wave propagation, known as shadow fading. Here in
this chapter, we will discuss how multipath fading affects the reception of signals in CDMA.
CDMA systems use a signal fast chip rate for spreading the spectrum. It has a high time resolution,
due to which it receives a different signal from each path separately. The RAKE receiver prevents
signal degradation by summing all the signals.
3.6.2 Rake Receiver system
Because CDMA has high time-resolution, different paths delay the CDMA signals, which can be
discriminated. Therefore, energy from all paths can be summed by adjusting their phases and path
delays. This is a principle of RAKE receiver. By using a RAKE receiver, it is possible to improve
the loss of the received signal due to fading. It can ensure a stable communication environment.in
CDMA systems, multi-path propagation improves the signal quality by using RAKE receiver.
Due to the reflection on the challenges of a broadband, radio channel can consists of many copies
(multipath), signals originally transmitted with different amplitude, phase, and delay. If the signal
components arrive over a chip period of each other, a rake receiver may be used to adjust and
combine. The Rake receiver uses a principle of diversity through multiple paths. The figure given
below shows the Rake receiver scheme.
The Rake receiver processes several multipath signals components. The correlator outputs are
combined to achieve better reliability and communication performance. Bit decision on the basis of
a single correlation can produce a large bit error rate as multipath component processed by the fact
that the correlator can be damaged by discoloration. If the output of a correlator is corrupted by
fading, the other cannot be, and the corrupt signal can be reduced by the weighting process.
The Rake receiver processes several multipath signals components. The correlator outputs are
combined to achieve better reliability and communication performance. Bit decision on the basis of
a single correlation can produce a large bit error rate as multipath component processed by the fact
that the correlator can be damaged by discoloration. If the output of a correlator is corrupted by
fading, the other cannot be, and the corrupt signal can be reduced by the weighting process.

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Working of Rake Receiver:
1. The received signal from multiple paths arrives at the antenna with different delays and
phases.
1. The signal is first passed through a bank of matched filters, each of which corresponds to a
specific path.
2. The output of each matched filter is sampled at the symbol rate and the resulting samples are
combined.
3. The combining process is done using a technique called maximum ratio combining (MRC)
which gives more weight to the signals that have higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
4. The combined signal is then demodulated to obtain the transmitted symbols.
5. The rake receiver also performs channel estimation by estimating the complex gains of each
path using a technique called pilot symbols.
6. The channel estimates are used to adjust the weights in the combining process to ensure
optimal performance.
7. The rake receiver also uses a technique called diversity combining to reduce the effect of
fading by combining the signals from multiple antennas.
8. The combined signal from each antenna is then passed through the matched filter and
combined using maximum ratio combining.
9. The rake receiver is able to recover the transmitted signal even in the presence of severe
multipath fading and interference.
Some key applications of Rake receiver are:
 CDMA Systems: Rake receivers are extensively used in CDMA systems, where they are used
to combat the effects of multipath fading.
 Wireless Networks: Rake receivers are also used in wireless networks to improve the
performance of the system, especially in environments where the signal is weak.
 Satellite Communications: In satellite communication systems, Rake receivers are used to
detect and extract weak signals that have travelled long distances.
 Mobile Communications: Rake receivers are used in mobile communication systems to
improve the quality of the received signal by minimizing the effects of multipath fading.
 High-Speed Data Transmission: Rake receivers are used in high-speed data transmission
systems to reduce errors caused by the transmission of signals over long distances.

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Some key advantages of rake receiver are:
 Multipath mitigation: The rake receiver mitigates the effect of multipath propagation by
combining multiple replicas of the same signal, which have been transmitted over different
paths.
 Diversity gain: By combining multiple replicas of the same signal, the rake receiver provides
diversity gain, which helps to improve the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and reduce the bit error
rate (BER) of the received signal.
 Interference rejection: The rake receiver can also be used to reject interference from other
signals that are transmitted over the same frequency band.
 Simple implementation: The rake receiver is a simple and effective technique that can be
implemented using digital signal processing (DSP) algorithms.
 Compatibility: The rake receiver is compatible with different modulation schemes and can be
used in various wireless communication systems, such as code division multiple access
(CDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), and frequency division multiple access
(FDMA).
 Improvement in system capacity: The use of a rake receiver in a wireless communication
system can increase the system capacity by allowing the use of more frequency bands or by
increasing the number of users that can be supported.
Some key disadvantages of rake receiver are:
 Complex implementation: The Rake receiver is a complex receiver with a large number of
matched filters, which makes it difficult to implement.
 High power consumption: The Rake receiver requires a lot of power to operate, which can
be a problem in battery-powered devices.
 Limited performance in deep fades: The Rake receiver is not very effective in deep fades,
where the signal is severely attenuated. In such cases, other techniques such as diversity
combining may be more effective.
 Sensitivity to multipath delay spread: The Rake receiver is designed to work in the presence
of multipath, but it is sensitive to the delay spread of the channel. In channels with large delay
spreads, the performance of the Rake receiver may degrade.
 Limited applicability to narrowband systems: The Rake receiver is designed to work with
wideband systems that have significant multipath propagation. In narrowband systems with
little or no multipath, the Rake receiver may not be necessary or effective.
The Rake receiver is an important solution to the problem of multipath fading in wireless
communication. It is designed to improve the signal quality and reduce the effects of fading by
using multiple copies of the transmitted signal that arrive at the receiver at different times.
Although the Rake receiver is more complex, more power-consuming, and more expensive than
other types of receivers, it provides better coverage and improved data rates, making it an
attractive solution for high-speed wireless communication.
3.6.3 Walsh Code
Walsh Codes are most commonly used in the orthogonal codes of CDMA applications. These codes
correspond to lines of a special square matrix called the Hadamard matrix. For a set of Walsh codes
of length N, it consists of n lines to form a square matrix of n × n Walsh code.
The IS-95 system uses 64 Walsh function matrix 64. The first line of this matrix contains a string of
all zeros with each of the following lines containing different combinations of bit 0 and 1. Each line
is orthogonal and equal representation for binary bits. When implemented with the CDMA system,
each mobile user uses one of the 64 sequences of rows in the matrix as a spreading code. And, it
provides zero cross-correlation among all the other users. This matrix is defined recursively as
follows −

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Where n is a power of 2 and indicates the different dimensions of the matrix W. Further, n
represents the logic NOT operation on all bits in this matrix. The three matrices W 2, W4, and
W8, respectively show the Walsh function for the dimension 2, 4, and 8.
Each line of the 64 Walsh matrix 64 corresponds to a channel number. The channel number 0 is
mapped to the first row of the Walsh matrix, which is the code of all zeros. This channel is also
known as the pilot channel and is used to form and to estimate the impulse response of a mobile
radio channel. Take a look at the following Diagram 3 .6.2 It shows how multiplexing is carried out
using Walsh Code.
Figure 3.6.3: Walsh coding process
To calculate the cross-correlation between the sequences, we will need to convert the bits into the
matrix to form the antithesis of ± 1 values. However, all users on the same CDMA channel can be
synchronized with an accuracy of one chip interval using a common long PN sequence. It also
functions as a data scrambler.
 Walsh Code is a group of spreading codes having good autocorrelation properties and poor
cross correlation properties. Walsh codes are the backbone of CDMA systems and are used
to develop the individual channels in CDMA.
 For IS-95, there are 64 codes available.
o Code `0‘ is used as the pilot and code `32‘ is used for synchronization.

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o Codes 1 through 7 are used for control channels, and the remaining codes are
available for traffic channels. Codes 2 to 7 are also available for traffic channels if
they are not needed.
 For cdma2000, multitude of Walsh codes exist, which vary in length to accommodate the
different data rates and Spreading Factors of the different Radio Configurations.
 One of the 64 orthogonal bit pattern at a rate of 1.2288 Mcps.
 Walsh codes are used to identify the data for each individual transmission. In the forward
link, they define forward code channels within a CDMA frequency.
 In the reverse link, all 64 codes are used by each reverse channel to carry information.
3.7 CDMA - Spread Spectrum

All technical modulation and demodulation strive for greater power and/or efficiency of bandwidth
in a white Gaussian additive stationary noise channel. Since bandwidth is a limited resource, one of
the primary design goals of all the modulation schemes is to minimize the bandwidth required for
transmission. On the other hand, spread spectrum techniques use a transmission bandwidth that is
order of the magnitude greater than the bandwidth required the minimum signal.
The advantage of spread spectrum technique is that — many users can simultaneously use the same
bandwidth without interfering with each other. Therefore, spread spectrum is not economic when
the number of users is less.
 Spread spectrum is a form of wireless communications in which the frequency of the
transmitted signal is deliberately varied resulting higher bandwidth.
 Spread-spectrum is apparent in the Shannon and Hartley channel-capacity theorem −
C = B × log2 (1 + S/N)
 In the given equation, `C‘ is the channel capacity in bits per second (bps), which is the
maximum data rate for a theoretical bit-error rate (BER). ‗B‘ is the required channel
bandwidth in Hz, and S/N is the signal-to-noise power ratio.
 Spread spectrum uses wideband, noise-like signals that are hard to detect, intercept, or
demodulate. Additionally, spread-spectrum signals are harder to jam (interfere with) than
narrow band signals.
 Since spread-spectrum signals are so wide, they transmit at a much lower spectral power
density, measured in watts per hertz, than narrow band transmitters. Spread-spectrum and
narrowband signals can occupy the same band, with little or no interference. This capability
is the main attraction for all the interest in spread spectrum today.
Points to Remember −
 The transmitted signal bandwidth is greater than the minimal information bandwidth, which
is needed to transmit the signal successfully.
 Some function other than the information itself is normally employed to determine the
resultant transmitted bandwidth.
Following are the two types of spread spectrum techniques −
 Direct Sequence and

 Frequency Hopping.
Direct Sequence is adopted by CDMA.
3.7.1 Direct Sequence (DS)

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Direct Sequence Code Division Multiple Access (DS-CDMA) is a technique to multiplex users by
different codes. In this technique, the same bandwidth is used by different users. Each user is
assigned with one its own spreading code. These sets of codes are divided into two classes −
 Orthogonal Codes and

 Non-Orthogonal Codes
Walsh sequences come into the first category which is Orthogonal Codes whereas other sequences
i.e. PN, Gold, and Kasami are shift register sequences.
Orthogonal codes are assigned to the users, the output of the correlator in the receiver will be zero
except the desired sequence. In synchronous direct sequence, the receiver receives the same code
sequence which was transmitted so that there is no time shift between the users.
Demodulating DS Signals - 1
In order to demodulate DS signals, you need to know the code that was used at the time of
transmission. In this example, by multiplying the code used in the transmission to the reception
signal, we can get the transmitted signal.
In this example, multiple codes were used at the time of transmission (10,110,100) to the received
signal. Here, we have calculated by using the law of two additives (Modulo 2 Addition). It is further
demodulated by multiplying the code that was used at the time of this transmission, called
the reverse diffusion (de-spreading). In the diagram given below, it can be seen that during the

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transmission of the data to the narrow band (Narrow Band) spectrum, the spectrum of the signal is
dispread.
Demodulating DS Signals − 2
On the other hand, if we do not know the code that was used at the time of transmission, you will
not be able to demodulate. Here, you are trying to demodulation in the code of different (10101010)
and the time of transmission, but it has failed.
Even looking at the spectrum, it is spreading during the time of transmission. When it is passed
through a band-pass filter (Band Path Filter), only this small signal remains and these are not
demodulated.
Features of Spread Spectrum
As shown in the following figure, the power density of Spread Spectrum signals could be lower
than the noise density. This is a wonderful feature that can keep the signals protected and maintain
privacy.
By spreading the spectrum of the transmitted signal, one can reduce its power density such that it
becomes less than the power density of the noise. In this way, it is possible to hide the signal in the
noise. It can be demodulated if you know the code that was used to send the signal. In case the code
is not known, then the received signal will remain hidden in the noise even after the demodulation.

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DS-CDMA
DS code is used in CDMA. So far, it has been explained basic part of the spread spectrum
communication. From here, we will explain how Direct Sequence Code Division Multiple Access
(DS-CDMA) works.
The signal which is spread spectrum, can be demodulated only by a code used for transmission. By
using this, the transmission signal of each user can be identified by the separate code when it
receives the signal. In the given example, the spread signal of the user A at the code A, and diffused
signal of user B at code B. Each of the signal when it receives are mixed. However, by the inverse
diffuser (Despreadder), it identifies the signal of each user.
Spreading Code Cross-Correlation

Correlation is a method of measurement of how precisely a given signal matches with a desired
code. In CDMA technology, each user is assigned with a different code, the code which is being
assigned or chosen by the user is very important to modulate the signal because it is related to the
performance of the CDMA system.
One will get best performance when there will be clear separation between the signal of desired
users and signals of the other users. This separation is made by correlating the desired signal code
which was locally generated and other received signals. If the signal matches with the code of the
user, then the correlation function will be high and the system can extract that signal. If the user's
desired code has nothing in common with the signal, the correlation should be as close to zero as
possible (thus eliminating the signal); also known as cross correlation. So, there is a self-
correlation (Self-Correlation) and cross-correlation (Cross-Correlation).

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Properties of self-correlation and code are shown in the diagram given below where correlation
between spreading code ‗A‘ and spreading code ‗B‘ is shown. In this example, the calculated
correlation of spreading code ‗A (1010110001101001) and spreading code ‗B‘
(1010100111001001) is given, while performing calculations in below example, the result has come
to 6/16.
Preferable Codes
Preferable code is used in CDMA. There are different codes that can be used depending on the type
of a system of CDMA. There are two types of system −
 Synchronous (Synchronous) System and

 Asynchronous (Asynchronous) System.
In a synchronous system, orthogonal codes (Orthogonal Code) can be used. In asynchronous system
for this, such as pseudo-random code (Pseudo-random Noise) or Gold code is used.
In order to minimize mutual interference in DS-CDMA, the spreading codes with less cross-
correlation should be chosen.
Synchronous DS-CDMA
 Orthogonal Codes are appropriate. (Walsh code etc.)

Asynchronous DS-CDMA
 Pseudo-random Noise (PN) codes/Maximum sequence

 Gold Codes
Synchronous DS-CDMA
Synchronous CDMA Systems are realized in Point to Multi-point Systems. For example, Forward
Link (Base Station to Mobile Station) in Mobile Phone.
Synchronization system is used in one-to-many (Point to Multipoint) systems. For example, at a

given time, in a mobile communication system, a single base station (BTS) can communicate with
multiple cell phones (forward link/downlink).
In this system, a transmission signal for all the users can communicate in synchronization. Means,
"Synchronization" on this point is a sense that can be sent to align the top of each user signal. In this
system, it is possible to use orthogonal codes and it is also possible to reduce mutual interference.
And orthogonal codes, it is the sign, such as cross-correlation i.e. 0.

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Asynchronous DS-CDMA
In asynchronous CDMA system, orthogonal codes have bad cross-correlation.
Unlike the signal from the base station, the signal from the mobile station to the base station,
becomes the asynchronous system.
In an asynchronous system, somewhat mutual interference increases, but it uses the other codes
such as PN code or Gold code.
Advantages of Spread Spectrum
Since the signal is spread over a wide frequency band, the power spectral density becomes very
low, so other communication systems do not suffer from this kind of communication. However, the
Gaussian noise increases. Given below is a list of a few major advantages of Spread Spectrum −
 Multipath can be agreed with, as a large number of codes can be generated, allowing a large
number of users.
 In spread spectrum, there is no limit of users whereas there is limitations of users in FDMA
technology.
 Security − without knowing the spreading code, it is hardly possible to recover the
transmitted data.
 Descending rejection − as large bandwidth is used the system; it is less susceptible to
deformation.
PN Sequence
The DS-CDMA system uses two types of spreading sequences, i.e., PN sequences and orthogonal
codes. As mentioned above, the PN sequence is generated by the pseudo-random noise generator. It
is simply a binary linear feedback shift register, consisting of XOR gates and a shift register. This
PN generator has the ability to create a sequence identical for both the transmitter and the
receiver, and retaining the desirable properties of the noise randomness bit sequence.
A PN sequence has many features such as having an almost equal number of zeros and ones, very
low correlation between shifted versions of the sequence, and very low cross-correlation with other
signals such as interference and noise. However, it is able to correlate well with itself and its
inverse. Another important aspect is the autocorrelation of the sequence as it determines the ability
to synchronize and lock the spreading code for the received signal. This fight effectively effects the
multiple interference and improves the SNR. M-sequences, Gold codes, and Kasami sequences are
the examples of this class of sequences.
 A Pseudo-random Noise (PN) sequence is a sequence of binary numbers, e.g. ±1, which
appears to be random; but it is in fact, perfectly deterministic.
 PN sequences are used for two types of PN spread spectrum techniques −
o Direct Signal Spread Spectrum (DS-SS) and
o Frequency Hop spread Spectrum (FH-SS).
 If ‗u‘ uses PSK for modulating the PN sequence, it results in DS-SS.
 If ‗u‘ uses FSK for modulating the PN sequence, it results in FH-SS.
3.7.2 Frequency Hopping Technology

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Frequency hopping is a spread spectrum in which the propagation takes place by hopping in
frequency over a wide band. The precise order in which the break occurs is determined by a
hopping table generated by using a pseudo-random code sequence.
Hopping rate is a function of the speed information. The order of frequencies is selected by the
receiver and is dictated by the pseudo-random noise sequence. Although the transmission of a
frequency hopping signal spectrum is quite different from that of a direct sequence signal, it suffices
to note that the data is distributed over a signal band is larger than necessary to carry. In both the
cases, the resulting signal will appear as noise and the receiver uses a similar technique, which is
used in the transmission to recover the original signal.
3.7.3 CDMA - Near-Far Problem
Near-far problem is one of the major problems that hurts mobile communications badly. In a
CDMA system, mutual interference will determine the majority of SN ratio of each user.
How Near-Far Problem Affects Communication?
The following illustration shows how near-far problem affects communication.
Figure 3.7.8 : Near Far Problem
As shown in the illustration, user A is far away from the receiver and user B is close to the receiver,
there will be big difference between desired signal power and interfered signal power. Desired
signal power will be much higher than the interfered signal power and hence SN ratio of user A will
be smaller and communication quality of user A will be severely degraded.
3.8 CDMA - Handoff
Whenever a cellular subscriber passes through one base station to another, the network
automatically switches to the other respective base station and maintains the coverage
responsibility. This behaviour called "hand-off" (Handoff) or "hand-over" (Handover).
Whereas in FDMA and TDMA systems, it uses a different frequency to communicate with the base
station of that area. It means, there will be a frequency switch from one frequency to another, and
during the switching, there will be slightly communication cut, which is called as "hard
handoff" (Hard Handoff) or "hard handover" (Hard Handover).
3.8.1 Hard Handoff

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In FDMA or TDMA cellular system, a new communication can be established after breaking the
current communication at the moment of handoff. Communication between MS and BS breaks at
the time of switching the frequency or timeslot.
3.8.2 Soft Handoff
Cellular systems track mobile stations in order to maintain their communication links. When mobile
station goes to a neighbour cell, the communication link switches from the current cell to the
neighbour cell.
When a mobile enters in a new area (from the base station to another base station), the mobile is the
second pilot of sufficient power by sending the message to the strength of the driver to the first base
station. The base station notifies the MTSO and then the MTSO requests new Walsh code
assignment of the second base station.
 The first base station controls with new progressive transfer Walsh assignment MTSO then
sends land link to the second base station. Mobile is powered by two base stations and
MTSO selects the best quality status for every 20 ms.
 The power goes low at the mobile station by the first BS and mobile sends a pilot strength
message then the first BS transmission stops and releases the channel. And, traffic channel
continues on the second base station.
 In CDMA cellular system, communication does not break even at the moment doing
handoff, because switching frequency or timeslot is not required.
Note − A Walsh sequence is a part of Orthogonal Codes, whereas other sequences such as PN,
Gold, and Kasami are shift register sequences. In case orthogonal codes are assigned to the users,
the output of the correlator in the receiver will be zero except the desired sequence, whereas
synchronous direct sequence receiver receives the same code sequence which was transmitted, so
there is no time shift between the users.
3.9 CDMA - Interferences
A CDMA signal experiences high interference signals other than the CDMA users. This takes two
forms of interference — interference from other users in the same minicell and interference from
the adjacent cells. The total interference also includes the background noise and other spurious
signals.

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CDMA is based on the use of a spread spectrum form of modulation to encode a signal for its
transmission and retrieval.
Noise Sources
In the spread spectrum technology, the radio signals are distributed on a single 1.23 MHz wide
frequency band. Each subscriber has assigned PN codes. Signals corresponding to the PN codes are
decoded and processed. Signals that do not contain the code matches are treated as noise and
ignored.
Signal Processing: Receive
CDMA starts with an encoded narrowband signal; this spreads with the use of the PN codes to a
bandwidth of 1.23 MHz.
When the signal is received, it is filtered and processed to recover the desired signal. A correlator
eliminates sources of interference because they are uncorrelated with the desired signal treatment.
Using this method, the number of CDMA calls can occupy the same frequency spectrum
simultaneously.
Frame Error Rate
The number of transmission errors, measured in terms of frame error rate (FER). It increases with
the number of calls. To overcome this problem, the minicell and mobile site can increase the power
until either the mobile or the minicell site can power up more further to reduce FER to an
acceptable amount. This event provides a soft limit calls from a particular minicell and depends on
 The noise floor naturally occurring and man-made interference.

 Interference from calls on this minicell.
 Interference from calls on other cells.
Power per Walsh Code
The power control bit is used during call processing to maintain the relative power of each
individual active traffic channel and power up or down to maintain acceptable FER measurements
by the mobile on the channel. This power is expressed in terms of digital gain units.
The following actions can be seen in the transmit path −
 The low bit rate digital voice packet from PSU2 (packet switch unit 2 in the 5ESS switch) is
spread by a Walsh code in the minicell.
 The RF transmit carrier frequency is modulated by the spread signal.
 The direct sequence spread spectrum signal is transmitted.
The following actions can be seen in the receive path −
 The direct sequence spread spectrum signal is received.
 The signal is demodulated by using the RF receive carrier frequency.
 The signal dispreads by using the same Walsh code.
 A bit detector restores the decoded signal to a reasonable representation of original speech
pattern.

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Chapter 3C
3.1 Mobile Computing Issues Challenges & benefits
3.1.1.Threat and Security Issues in Mobile Computing
Mobile computing provides a variety of wireless devices that has the mobility to allow people to
connect to the internet. It provides wireless transmission to access data and information from the
locations they are stored.
There are mainly three aspects of Mobile computing
o Mobile communication: This aspect specifies the communication issues in ad-hoc,

infrastructure networks, communication properties, protocols, data formats and concrete
technologies.
o Mobile hardware: This aspect specifies the mobile devices or device components that are
used in mobile computing.
o Mobile software: This aspect specifies all the necessary files and software related to the
computer used in mobile computing.
As we know that mobile computing is the communication between computing devices without any
physical connection between them, we use wireless networks to establish connections in mobile
computing. So there are always some chances of threats and security issues due to wireless
connections.
There are mainly five fundamental goals of security used in the information system to deal with
security issues. They are:
a) Confidentiality
This is used to prevent unauthorized users from gaining access to any particular user's critical
and confidential information.
b) Integrity
This is used to ensure that any type of unauthorized modification, destruction or creation of
information cannot be done.
c) Availability
The availability is used to ensure that authorized users get the required access whenever they
need it.
d) Legitimate
This is used to ensure that only authorized, and legitimate users have access to the services.

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e) Accountability
Accountability is used to ensure that the users will be responsible for their security-related
activities by arranging the users and their activities in a linked form.
We have to achieve these goals according to the security policy used by the service providers.
Mobile Computing faces many improper and unethical practices and problems such as hacking,
industrial espionage, pirating, online fraud and malicious destruction etc. The threats and security
issues of mobile computing can be divided into two categories:
1.Wireless Security Issues
2.General Security Issues
1.Wireless Security Issues
Wireless security issues are considered as the primary security issues of mobile computing. These
are related to wireless networks. These issues occur when the hackers intercept the radio signals.
Most wireless networks are dependent on other private networks, which are managed by others, so
after these issues, the users have less control of security procedures. These security issues are:
a) Denial of Service (DOS) attacks
The denial of services or DOS attacks is one of the most common attacks of all kinds of
networks and especially in a wireless network. It prevents users from using network services
because the attacker sends a large amount of unnecessary data or connection requests to the
communication server. It causes a slow network, and therefore the users cannot get benefitted
from using its service.
b) Traffic Analysis
Traffic analysis is used to identify and monitor communication between users. In this process,
the service provider listens the traffic flowing in the wireless channel to access the private
information of users affected by the attacker.
c) Eavesdropping
It specifies that the attacker can log on to the wireless network and access sensitive data if the
wireless network was not secure enough. This can also be done if the information is not
encrypted.
d) Session Interception and Messages Modification
It specifies that the attacker can intercept the session and modify the transmitted data in this
session. This scenario is called "man in the middle." It inserts the attacker's host between the
sender and receiver host.

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e) Spoofing
In this security issue, the attacker impersonates him as an authorized account of another user
and tries to access the sensitive data and unauthorized services.
f) Captured and Retransmitted Messages
In this security issue, the attacker can get some of the network services by getting unauthorized
access. After capturing the message, he/she can reply to it with some modifications to the same
destination or another.
g) Device Security Issues
Mobile devices are very prone to new types of security attacks and fraud issues. These issues
are not only because of the mobile devices' vulnerability but also because of the sensitive data
that the mobile devices have stored. These security issues and threats such as Virus, Spyware
and Trojan may damage or destroy the mobile devices and steal the information stored on them.
A virus is a part of malicious software or spyware that tends to gather information about the
user without his/her knowledge.
2.General Security Issues
Following is a list of some General mobile computing security issues we face using mobile devices:
a) Push Attacks
In the push attack, the attacker creates a malicious code at the user's mobile device by hacking it
and then he/she may spread it to affect other elements of the network.
b) Pull Attacks
The pull attack is a type of attack where the attacker controls the device and handles it in his/her
way. He can decide which emails they want to receive. In this attack, the user can decide about
the obtained data by the device itself.
c) Forced De-authentication
In this security issue, the attackers convince the mobile end-point or the mobile user to drop its
connection and re-connection to get a new signal. Within this process, they insert their device
between the mobile device and the network and steal the information or do the fraud.
d) Multi-protocol Communication
The multi-protocol communication provides the ability of many mobile devices to operate using
multiple protocols. For example, A cellular provider's network protocol. Most of the protocols
have some security loopholes, which help the attacker to exploit this weakness and access to the
device.
e) Mobility

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This security issue may occur because of the mobility of the users and the mobile devices. You
may face these security threats due to a user's location, so you must replicate the user profiles at
different locations to allow roaming via different places without any concern regarding access to
personal and sensitive data in any place and at any time. This repetition of sensitive data on
different sites can increase seethe chances of security threats.
f) Disconnections
These types of security issues occur when mobile devices go to different places. It occurs in the
form of frequent disconnections caused by external parties resulting in the handoff.
g) Personnel security issues or insider attacks
These are the non-technical attacks. They are occurred due to the lack of awareness of security
policies. Due to this reason, many times, security breaches occur. Even though corporate has
standard policies for mobile device security, many employees don't understand its risks. It is
found in a study that most of the security risks and threats (almost 72%) occur because of
careless employees than hackers (28%). It shows the importance of implementing a strong
combination of technology and security awareness within an organization.
How to handle security issues?
The biggest issue in mobile computing is the credential verification of users. Because the users
share the username and passwords, it may become a significant threat to security. Due to this
sensitive issue, most companies are very reluctant to implement mobile computing. Some
recommendations can be followed by companies or mobile users to keep their mobile devices and
the data stored in the devices secure.
o The company should hire qualified personnel.

o You should install security hardware and software.
o You should ensure that the data stored in the mobile devices are encrypted and audited.
o Educate the users on proper mobile computing ethics and security issues.
o You must ensure that the mobile devices are configured with a power-on authentication to
prevent unauthorized access if lost or stolen.
o You must ensure that anti-virus software is installed on mobile devices.
o Make sure that the firewall client is installed on mobile devices.
o Make your mobile devices encrypted with a strong password.
o Encrypt your data stored in the secondary storage devices such as Memory Sticks, Data
card, removable USB etc.
o Ensure that the Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, etc. enabled mobile devices are turned off when you are
not using them.
o Make periodic backups of your mobile devices on a data server.

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3.1.2 Technical Challenges of Mobile Computing
Mobile Computing is defined as a computing environment which is mobile and moves along with
the user. There are various number of challenges that affected mobile computing and it has to
overcome them. Some of the major technical challenges faced by mobile computing are:
1. Mobility
2. Wireless Medium
3. Portability
These are explained as following below:

1. Mobility: It is the most important aspect of mobile computing, but it has to face the certain
challenges which are :
 Auto configuration of the system, as the environment of the system is developing

continuously. Hence for every change, it has to configure itself to the new situation.
 Location management is also a big objection in mobility. To manage the location,
following tasks are to be performed regularly over a fixed period of time.
 Track user‘s call.
 Update user‘s position and data.
 To maintain the heterogeneity is also a big task as the system is keep moving in a large
variation of situations
 Range of spectrum.
 Verification of security.
2. Wireless Medium: The transmission medium in mobile computing is wireless, therefore the
following points are considered:
 Various interferences occurs in the mobile computing by the different elements in the
environment.
 Accuracy and quantity of bandwidth should be sufficient.
 Network cost is feasible.
3. Portability: This means that the communication device moves, for eg. mobile phones. The
following mobile constraints are to be considered as the devices are also mobile:
 Minimum number of resources are used.

 Security is very less, as security risks include the processing of fake transactions,
unauthorized access of data and program files, and the physical theft or damage of the
device.
 Restrictions of the battery.
3.1.3 Mobile Computing - Major Advantages
 Location Flexibility
This has enabled users to work from anywhere as long as there is a connection established. A
user can work without being in a fixed position. Their mobility ensures that they are able to
carry out numerous tasks at the same time and perform their stated jobs.

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 Saves Time
The time consumed or wasted while travelling from different locations or to the office and back,
has been slashed. One can now access all the important documents and files over a secure
channel or portal and work as if they were on their computer. It has enhanced telecommuting in
many companies. It has also reduced unnecessary incurred expenses.
 Enhanced Productivity
Users can work efficiently and effectively from whichever location they find comfortable. This
in turn enhances their productivity level.
 Ease of Research
Research has been made easier, since users earlier were required to go to the field and search for
facts and feed them back into the system. It has also made it easier for field officers and
researchers to collect and feed data from wherever they are without making unnecessary trips to
and from the office to the field.
 Entertainment
Video and audio recordings can now be streamed on-the-go using mobile computing. It's easy to
access a wide variety of movies, educational and informative material. With the improvement
and availability of high speed data connections at considerable cost, one is able to get all the
entertainment they want as they browse the internet for streamed data. One is able to watch
news, movies, and documentaries among other entertainment offers over the internet. This was
not possible before mobile computing dawned on the computing world.
 Streamlining of Business Processes & E - Commerce
Business processes are now easily available through secured connections. Looking into security
issues, adequate measures have been put in place to ensure authentication and authorization of
the user accessing the services. all banking services are available with Mobile Banking the
online payment after corona pandemic has been desperately increased and all trade activities in
physical or from share markets are being done with the help of mobile computing.
Some business functions can be run over secure links and sharing of information between
business partners can also take place. Meetings, seminars and other informative services can
be conducted using video and voice conferencing. Travel time and expenditure is also
considerably reduced.
 Online education & Social media
all these activities now became integral part of the mobile and its computing as far as education
and learning is concern these are available online instantly with ease of cost and streamed with
e learning contents and all bachelors and master‘s degree courses are available online .
Apart from Education millions of people are joined with social media platform to exchange the
ideas and thoughts and informations with the help of mobile computing.
 Medical & health sector

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 This field has been highly benefitted with the expansion of mobile computing the health services
the medicines and availability of these things in remote are being done with the help of Mobile
computing and there are many ways by which involvement of mobile has been taken placed .
3.2 Network Programming:

Network programming is the act of using computer code to write programs or processes that can
communicate with other programs or processes across a network. Programmers use various
programming languages, code libraries, and protocols to do the work.
Infrastructure as a code (IaC)
IaC is a method to define and provision network infrastructure by using definition files that contain
code. It's necessary for automating networks and making them programmable. IaC is enabled
through application programming interfaces (APIs). It makes the tasks of unifying separate
processes and automating infrastructure provisioning simpler, faster, and more reliable.
Network programmability
Networking programmability generally refers to tools and best practices for deploying, managing,
and troubleshooting network devices. More precisely, network programmability is the process of
using code, concepts based on the software development lifecycle, and other tools to make networks
perform actions.
How is a network "programmable"? A modern network is more than just routers and switches. It's a
collection of interconnected systems that include applications and other software, virtual machines,
cloud instances, containers, and more. A programmable network has APIs in its infrastructure that
developers can use to program applications and other components to interact directly with the
network.
Some network programmability use cases
Network programmability, combined with task automation, helps businesses deploy new apps and
services faster, even at the network edge. Services also can be orchestrated centrally instead of
provisioned separately.Another use case for network programmability is mitigating security threats.
Using APIs, a network can be programmed to block malware or other malicious traffic without
disrupting users as network security engineers diagnose and remediate the issue.
programmable networks demand new skills or at least an expansion of core skill sets for network
programming. It's becoming increasingly important for network engineers to become familiar with
network programmability basics.
The programmable network is taking center stage in today's application-centric organizations,
which are embracing software-defined networking, 5G connectivity, Internet of Things (IoT)
applications, and more. IT professionals who want to advance their network programming skills and
programmability knowledge can earn certifications, attend education programs, or engage in other
learning opportunities.
3.2.1 Key network-programming skills and knowledge

Main types of networks to program in Network programming is a rapidly evolving discipline.
However, engineers programming networks still need traditional skills and other knowledge. That

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knowledge includes understanding the main types of networks that many of today's businesses use,
such as the following:
 LAN (local-area network)
A LAN is a collection of devices connected in one location, such as a building, an office, or a
home. A LAN can be small or large, ranging from a home network with one user to an
enterprise network with thousands of users and devices.
 MAN (metropolitan-area network)

A MAN is a network that may serve a town, city, university campus, or a small geographic
region. A MAN is typically larger than a LAN.
 WAN (wide-area network)
In its simplest form, a WAN is a collection of LANs or other networks that communicate with
one another. A WAN is essentially a network of networks. The internet is the world's largest
WAN.
 WLAN (wireless LAN)
A WLAN implements a flexible data communication system, frequently augmenting rather than
replacing a wired LAN within a building or campus. WLANs use radio frequency to transmit
and receive data over the air, reducing the need for wired connections.
 VPN (virtual private network)
A VPN is an encrypted internet connection between a user device and a network. The encrypted
connection helps to ensure that sensitive data is transmitted safely. It prevents unauthorized
people from accessing the traffic.VPN technology is widely used in corporate environments,
often to support remote workers and hybrid work models.
 SAN (storage-area network)
A SAN is a dedicated high-speed network that makes storage devices accessible to servers by
attaching storage directly to an operating system. It centralizes storage devices, so they are
easier to manage and communicate faster over media.
The OSI model and the 7 layers

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model serves as a guide for network engineers,
developers, and others involved with network programming to understand how products and
software programs can communicate and interoperate.
This conceptual framework outlines the functions of a networking system. OSI includes seven
layers that show how data flows across and within networks. The layers are: physical, data link,
network, transport, session, presentation, and application.
Network programming languages

Network programming for network engineers and other IT pros typically requires use of an array of
programming languages and tools, such as:
 Python (open-source programming language)

 Java (general-purpose, object-oriented programming language)
 Perl (general-purpose programming language)
 Bash (command-line-interface tool)

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 Go (statically typed, compiled programming language)
 Tcl (Tool Command Language, general-purpose dynamic programming language)
Other valuable network programming skills

Because of the accelerating trend in business toward using programmable networks, network
professionals who want to gain network programmability expertise may also consider building
skills and knowledge in the following areas:
 REST (representational state transfer) APIs
 JSON (open-standard file format and data-interchange format)
 XML (Extensible Markup Language)
 git/GitHub (open-source version control software/web-based interface)

 Linux networking and other skills
 Ansible (open-source tool for IaC)
 Docker (open-source containerization platform)
 NETCONF (protocol)
 YANG (data-modeling language)
 NFV (network functions virtualization)

Other valuable skills for network programmability initiatives include container networking, cloud
networking, IoT networking, experience with DevOps practices, and knowledge of network
controllers, which are used to orchestrate network functions.
3.3:Process Communication Techniques:

Process communication or Interprocess communication is the mechanism provided by the
operating system that allows processes to communicate with each other. This communication could
involve a process letting another process know that some event has occurred or the transferring of
data from one process to another.
A diagram that illustrates Interprocess communication is as follows −
A process can be of two types:

 Independent process.
 Co-operating process.

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An independent process is not affected by the execution of other processes while a co-operating
process can be affected by other executing processes. Though one can think that those processes,
which are running independently, will execute very efficiently, in reality, there are many situations
when co-operative nature can be utilized for increasing computational speed, convenience, and
modularity. Inter-process communication (IPC) is a mechanism that allows processes to
communicate with each other and synchronize their actions. The communication between these
processes can be seen as a method of co-operation between them. Processes can communicate with
each other through the both:
1. Shared Memory
2. Message passing
Figure 3.2.2 below shows a basic structure of communication between processes via the shared
memory method and via the message passing method.
An operating system can implement both methods of communication. First, we will discuss the
shared memory methods of communication and then message passing. Communication between
processes using shared memory requires processes to share some variable, and it completely
depends on how the programmer will implement it. One way of communication using shared
memory can be imagined like this: Suppose process1 and process2 are executing simultaneously,
and they share some resources or use some information from another process. Process1 generates
information about certain computations or resources being used and keeps it as a record in shared
memory. When process2 needs to use the shared information, it will check in the record stored in
shared memory and take note of the information generated by process1 and act accordingly.
Processes can use shared memory for extracting information as a record from another process as
well as for delivering any specific information to other processes.
ii) Messaging Passing Method
In this method, processes communicate with each other without using any kind of shared
memory. If two processes p1 and p2 want to communicate with each other, they proceed as
follows:
 Establish a communication link (if a link already exists, no need to establish it again.)
 Start exchanging messages using basic primitives. We need at least two primitives:
– send(message, destination) or send(message)
– receive(message, host) or receive(message)

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The message size can be of fixed size or of variable size. If it is of fixed size, it is easy for an OS
designer but complicated for a programmer and if it is of variable size then it is easy for a
programmer but complicated for the OS designer. A standard message can have two parts: header
and body. The header part is used for storing message type, destination id, source id, message
length, and control information. The control information contains information like what to do if
runs out of buffer space, sequence number, priority. Generally, message is sent using FIFO style.
A link has some capacity that determines the number of messages that can reside in it temporarily
for which every link has a queue associated with it which can be of zero capacity, bounded
capacity, or unbounded capacity. In zero capacity, the sender waits until the receiver informs the
sender that it has received the message. In non-zero capacity cases, a process does not know
whether a message has been received or not after the send operation. For this, the sender must
communicate with the receiver explicitly. Implementation of the link depends on the situation, it
can be either a direct communication link or an in-directed communication link.
Direct Communication links are implemented when the processes use a specific process
identifier for the communication, but it is hard to identify the sender ahead of time.
For example the print server.

In-direct Communication is done via a shared mailbox (port), which consists of a queue of
messages. The sender keeps the message in mailbox and the receiver picks them up.
Message Passing through Exchanging the Messages.
Synchronous and Asynchronous Message Passing:
A process that is blocked is one that is waiting for some event, such as a resource becoming
available or the completion of an I/O operation. IPC is possible between the processes on same
computer as well as on the processes running on different computer i.e. in networked/distributed
system. In both cases, the process may or may not be blocked while sending a message or
attempting to receive a message so message passing may be blocking or non-blocking. Blocking
is considered synchronous and blocking send means the sender will be blocked until the
message is received by receiver. Similarly, blocking receive has the receiver block until a
message is available. Non-blocking is considered asynchronous and Non-blocking send has the
sender sends the message and continue. Similarly, Non-blocking receive has the receiver receive a
valid message or null. After a careful analysis, we can come to a conclusion that for a sender it is
more natural to be non-blocking after message passing as there may be a need to send the
message to different processes. However, the sender expects acknowledgment from the receiver
in case the send fails. Similarly, it is more natural for a receiver to be blocking after issuing the
receive as the information from the received message may be used for further execution. At the

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same time, if the message send keep on failing, the receiver will have to wait indefinitely. That is
why we also consider the other possibility of message passing. There are basically three preferred
combinations:
 Blocking send and blocking receive

 Non-blocking send and Non-blocking receive
 Non-blocking send and Blocking receive (Mostly used)
In Direct message passing, The process which wants to communicate must explicitly name the
recipient or sender of the communication. e.g. send(p1, message) means send the message to p1.
Similarly, receive(p2, message) means to receive the message from p2. In this method of
communication, the communication link gets established automatically, which can be either
unidirectional or bidirectional, but one link can be used between one pair of the sender and
receiver and one pair of sender and receiver should not possess more than one pair of links.
Symmetry and asymmetry between sending and receiving can also be implemented i.e. either both
processes will name each other for sending and receiving the messages or only the sender will
name the receiver for sending the message and there is no need for the receiver for naming the
sender for receiving the message. The problem with this method of communication is that if the
name of one process changes, this method will not work.
In Indirect message passing, processes use mailboxes (also referred to as ports) for sending and
receiving messages. Each mailbox has a unique id and processes can communicate only if they
share a mailbox. Link established only if processes share a common mailbox and a single link can
be associated with many processes. Each pair of processes can share several communication links
and these links may be unidirectional or bi-directional. Suppose two processes want to
communicate through Indirect message passing, the required operations are: create a mailbox, use
this mailbox for sending and receiving messages, then destroy the mailbox. The standard
primitives used are: send(A, message) which means send the message to mailbox A. The
primitive for the receiving the message also works in the same way e.g. received (A, message).
There is a problem with this mailbox implementation. Suppose there are more than two processes
sharing the same mailbox and suppose the process p1 sends a message to the mailbox, which
process will be the receiver? This can be solved by either enforcing that only two processes can
share a single mailbox or enforcing that only one process is allowed to execute the receive at a
given time or select any process randomly and notify the sender about the receiver. A mailbox can
be made private to a single sender/receiver pair and can also be shared between multiple
sender/receiver pairs. Port is an implementation of such mailbox that can have multiple senders
and a single receiver. It is used in client/server applications (in this case the server is the
receiver). The port is owned by the receiving process and created by OS on the request of the
receiver process and can be destroyed either on request of the same receiver processor when the
receiver terminates itself. Enforcing that only one process is allowed to execute the receive can be
done using the concept of mutual exclusion. Mutex mailbox is created which is shared by n
process. The sender is non-blocking and sends the message. The first process which executes the
receive will enter in the critical section and all other processes will be blocking and will wait.
Now, let‘s discuss the Producer-Consumer problem using the message passing concept. The
producer places items (inside messages) in the mailbox and the consumer can consume an item
when at least one message present in the mailbox.
Examples of IPC systems
1. Posix : uses shared memory method.

2. Mach : uses message passing

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3. Windows XP : uses message passing using local procedural calls
Methods in Interprocess Communication

Interprocess communication (IPC) refers to the mechanisms and techniques used by operating
systems to allow different processes to communicate with each other. There are several methods
of IPC, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Some common methods of IPC include:
1. Pipes: A pipe is a unidirectional communication channel used for IPC between two related
processes. One process writes to the pipe, and the other process reads from it.
2. Message Queues: Message queues are used to send and receive messages between processes.
They can be used for both one-to-one and one-to-many communication.
3. Shared Memory: Shared memory is a technique where multiple processes can access the
same region of memory. This allows for high-speed communication between processes.
4. Semaphores: Semaphores are used for controlling access to shared resources. They are used
to prevent multiple processes from accessing the same resource simultaneously, which can
lead to data corruption.
5. Sockets: Sockets are used for network communication between processes running on different
hosts. They provide a standard interface for communication, which can be used across
different platforms and programming languages.
Remote Procedure Calls (RPC): RPC is a technique used for distributed computing. It allows
processes running on different hosts to call procedures on each other as if they were running on
the same host.
Each method of IPC has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of which method
to use depends on the specific requirements of the application. For example, if high-speed
communication is required between processes running on the same host, shared memory may be
the best choice. On the other hand, if communication is required between processes running on
different hosts, sockets or RPC may be more appropriate.
Advantages of IPC:
1. Enables processes to communicate with each other and share resources, leading to increased
efficiency and flexibility.
2. Facilitates coordination between multiple processes, leading to better overall system
performance.
3. Allows for the creation of distributed systems that can span multiple computers or networks.
4. Can be used to implement various synchronization and communication protocols, such as
semaphores, pipes, and sockets.
Disadvantages of IPC:
1. Increases system complexity, making it harder to design, implement, and debug.

2. Can introduce security vulnerabilities, as processes may be able to access or modify data
belonging to other processes.
3. Requires careful management of system resources, such as memory and CPU time, to ensure
that IPC operations do not degrade overall system performance.
Can lead to data inconsistencies if multiple processes try to access or modify the same data at
the same time.

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4. Overall, the advantages of IPC outweigh the disadvantages, as it is a necessary mechanism for
modern operating systems and enables processes to work together and share resources in a
flexible and efficient manner. However, care must be taken to design and implement IPC
systems carefully, in order to avoid potential security vulnerabilities and performance issues.
3.4:Remote login`
Remote Login is a process in which user can login into remote site i.e. computer and use services
that are available on the remote computer. With the help of remote login a user is able to
understand result of transferring and result of processing from the remote computer to the local
computer. It is implemented using Telnet.
Figure 3.2.4: Remote login
Procedure of Remote Login :
Figure 3.2.5 : Remote login procedure
1. When the user types something on local computer, then local operating system accepts
character.
2. Local computer does not interpret the characters, it will send them to TELNET client.
3. TELNET client transforms these characters to a universal character set called Network
Virtual Terminal (NVT) characters and it will pass them to the local TCP/IP protocol
Stack.
4. Commands or text which is in the form of NVT, travel through Internet and it will arrive at
the TCP/IP stack at remote computer.

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5. Characters are then delivered to operating system and which later on passed to TELNET
server.
6. Then TELNET server changes that characters to characters which can be understandable by
remote computer.
7. Remote operating system receives character from a pseudo-terminal driver, which is a piece
of software that pretends that characters are coming from a terminal.
8. Operating system then passes character to the appropriate application program.
NVT Character Set :

 With NVT Character set, TELNET client translates characters into NVT form and deliver to
network.
 TELNET server translates data and commands from NVT form to the other form that will be
understandable by remote computer.
 NVT uses 2 sets of characters, one for data and other for control. Size of both characters is 8-
bit bytes.
 For data, NVT is an 8-bit character set in which 7 lowest bits are same as ASCII and highest
order bit is 0.
 For control characters, NVT uses an 8-bit character set in which the highest bit is set to 1.
Figure 3.2.7: NVT Character Set
3.5 : File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

File transfer protocol (FTP) is an Internet tool provided by TCP/IP. The first feature of FTP is
developed by Abhay Bhushan in 1971. It helps to transfer files from one computer to another by
providing access to directories or folders on remote computers and allows software, data, text file
to be transferred between different kinds of computers. The end-user in the connection is known
as localhost and the server which provides data is known as the remote host.
FTP is a standard communication protocol. There are various other protocols like HTTP which
are used to transfer files between computers, but they lack clarity and focus as compared to FTP.
Moreover, the systems involved in connection are heterogeneous systems, i.e. they differ in
operating systems, directory, structures, character sets, etc the FTP shields the user from these
differences and transfer data efficiently and reliably. FTP can transfer ASCII, EBCDIC, or image
files. The ASCII is the default file share format, in this, each character is encoded by NVT ASCII.
In ASCII or EBCDIC the destination must be ready to accept files in this mode. The image file
format is the default format for transforming binary files.
The goals of FTP are:
 It encourages the direct use of remote computers.
 It shields users from system variations (operating system, directory structures, file structures,
etc.)
 It promotes sharing of files and other types of data.
FTP Clients
FTP works on a client-server model. The FTP client is a program that runs on the user‘s computer
to enable the user to talk to and get files from remote computers. It is a set of commands that

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establishes the connection between two hosts, helps to transfer the files, and then closes the
connection. Some of the commands are: get filename(retrieve the file from server), mget
filename(retrieve multiple files from the server ), ls(lists files available in the current directory of
the server). There are also built-in FTP programs, which makes it easier to transfer files and it
does not require remembering the commands.
Types of FTP Connections

FTP connections are of two types:
Active FTP connection: In an Active FTP connection, the client establishes the command
channel and the server establishes the data channel. When the client requests the data over the
connection the server initiates the transfer of the data to the client. It is not the default connection
because it may cause problems if there is a firewall in between the client and the server.
Passive FTP connection: In a Passive FTP connection, the client establishes both the data
channel as well as the command channel. When the client requests the data over the connection,
the server sends a random port number to the client, as soon as the client receives this port
number it establishes the data channel. It is the default connection, as it works better even if the
client is protected by the firewall.
Anonymous FTP
Some sites can enable anonymous FTP whose files are available for public access. So, the user
can access those files without any username or password. Instead, the username is set to
anonymous and the password to the guest by default. Here, the access of the user is very limited.
For example, the user can copy the files but not allowed to navigate through directories.
FTP Working
The FTP connection is established between two systems and they communicate with each other
using a network. So, for the connection, the user can get permission by providing the credentials to
the FTP server or can use anonymous FTP.
When an FTP connection is established, there are two types of communication channels are also
established and they are known as command channel and data channel. The command channel is
used to transfer the commands and responses from client to server and server to client. FTP uses the
same approach as TELNET or SMTP to communicate across the control connection. It uses the
NVT ASCII character set for communication. It uses port number 21. Whereas the data channel is
used to actually transfer the data between client and server. It uses port number 20. The figure
below shows the working of FTP.

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The FTP client using the URL gives the FTP command along with the FTP server address. As soon
as the server and the client get connected to the network, the user logins using User ID and
password. If the user is not registered with the server, then also he/she can access the files by using
the anonymous login where the password is the client‘s email address. The server verifies the user
login and allows the client to access the files. The client transfers the desired files and exits the
connection.
Types of mode
FTP transfer files using any of the following modes:
 Stream Mode: It is the default mode. In steam mode, the data is transferred from FTP to TCP
in stream bytes. Here TCP is the cause for fragmenting data into small segments. The
connection is automatically closed if the transforming data is in the stream bytes. Otherwise, the
sender will close the connection.
 Block Mode: In block mode, the data is transferred from FTP to TCP in the form of blocks, and
each block followed by a 3-byte header. The first byte of the block contains the information
about the block so it is known as the description block and the other two bytes contain the size
of the block.
 Compressed Mode: This mode is used to transfer big files. As we know that, due to the size
limit we can not transfer big files on the internet, so the compressed mode is used to decrease
the size of the file into small and send it on the internet.
Applications of FTP
The following are the applications of FTP:
 FTP connection is used by different big business organizations for transferring files in between
them, like sharing files to other employees working at different locations or different branches
of the organization.
 FTP connection is used by IT companies to provide backup files at disaster recovery sites.
 Financial services use FTP connections to securely transfer financial documents to the
respective company, organization, or government.
 Employees use FTP connections to share any data with their co-workers.
Advantages
 Multiple transfers: FTP helps to transfer multiple large files in between the systems.
 Efficiency: FTP helps to organize files in an efficient manner and transfer them efficiently over
the network.
 Security: FTP provides access to any user only through user ID and password. Moreover, the
server can create multiple levels of access.
 Continuous transfer: If the transfer of the file is interrupted by any means, then the user can
resume the file transfer whenever the connection is established.
 Simple: FTP is very simple to implement and use, thus it is a widely used connection.
 Speed: It is the fastest way to transfer files from one computer to another.
Disadvantages
 Less security: FTP does not provide an encryption facility when transferring files. Moreover,
the username and passwords are in plain text and not a combination of symbols, digits, and
alphabets, which makes it easier to be attacked by hackers.
 Old technology: FTP is one of the oldest protocols and thus it uses multiple TCP/IP
connections to transfer files. These connections are hindered by firewalls.

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 Virus: The FTP connection is difficult to be scanned for viruses, which again increases the risk
of vulnerability.
 Limited: The FTP provides very limited user permission and mobile device access.
 Memory and programming: FTP requires more memory and programming efforts, as it is
very difficult to find errors without the commands.
3.6 Socket programming

Socket programming in Perl (Practical Extraction and Reporting Language) is a way of
connecting two nodes on a network to communicate with each other. Basically, it is a one-way
Client and Server setup where a Client connects, sends messages to the server and the server
shows them using socket connection. One socket (node) listens on a particular port at an IP, while
other socket reaches out to the other to form a connection. The server forms the listener socket
while the client reaches out to the server. Before going deeper into Server and Client code, it is
strongly recommended to go through TCP/IP Model.
Any computer system that is on a network needs a local port to transfer data over the internet.
This data is directed to the designated system with the use of it‘s IP Address. Each and every
system receives and sends this data over the network by the ports designated for the respective
process. For example, port 80 is the default port to receive information sent from the server. This
port needs not to be same always, it can be decided by the user as well.
Therefore, a socket is an IP address and a port together, which enables the network connection to
send/receive information to other networks or systems.
Socket Programming can be better understood by creating a Server and a client on two different
consoles by running Perl scripts and then transferring data between both via a secure connection.
Above image illustrates the calls that are must for running server side and client side scripts in
Socket programming.

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Stages for Server-side Programming
To create a server in socket programming, the following stages are performed step by step:
-> Creating a socket using the socket() call function. Perl provides a predefined
module Socket.pm which needs to be included in the code using ‗use‗ pragma.
use Socket;
This module will help creation of a socket at the server end
-> bind() call is used to bind the socket with a port number. Without a port, the socket will be of
no use. The server uses this bind() function to assign a port to a socket.
bind(socket, port_address)
-> listen() call is to enable the port to wait for any incoming requests. This call is done by the
server to provide a limit of the connection requests allowed with the server.
listen(socket, size)
Here, size is used to pass request limit.
-> accept() call is used to issue a request to the access() function to accept the incoming
connections.
accept(new_socket, socket)
If the access() call is successful then a new socket is returned for future connections with the
respective client.
Stages for Client-side Programming

To create a client in socket programming, the following stages are performed step by step:
-> Creating a socket using the socket() call function. Perl provides a predefined
module Socket.pm which needs to be included in the code using ‗use‗ pragma.
use Socket;
This module will help creation of a socket at the client end
-> connect() call is used to connect the socket with the server by using a specific address.
connect(socket, address)
Here, address is similar to as in bind() call except that it contains the IP address of the remote
server.
Socket Programming Example:
Script to be run for Server creation: Output:
#!/usr/bin/perl -w
use IO::Socket;
use strict;
use warnings;
my $socket = new IO::Socket::INET (
LocalHost => 'localhost',
LocalPort => '6666',
Proto => 'tcp',
Listen => 1,
Reuse => 1,
);
die "Could not create socket: $!n" unless $socket;
print "Waiting for data from the client end\n";
my $new_socket = $socket->accept();
while(<$new_socket>)
{
print $_;
}
close($socket);

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Script to be run for Client creation: Output:
use strict;
use warnings;
use IO::Socket;
my $socket = new IO::Socket::INET (

PeerAddr => 'localhost',
PeerPort => '6666',
Proto => 'tcp',
);
die "Could not create socket: $!n" unless $socket;
print "Enter data to send:\n";

my $data = <STDIN>;
chomp $data;
print $socket "Data received from user: '$data'\n";
close($socket);
Providing Input to test for Socket Programming:
Client End: Server End:
3.7 : RPC (Remote Procedure Call)

0 , RMI, Client – server programming.
RPC is a remote procedure call (or a function call that carries out tasks on a different computer).
RPC enumeration is the process of discovering what services are running on what port numbers.
Enumerating RPC services can aid in finding information leaks because it allows an attacker to
map which systems are most vulnerable, potentially to be exploited at some point. Many people
often confuse RPC enumeration with finger pointing or scanning for vulnerabilities. They all
involve digging for specific information about the target system, but they don‘t work exactly the
same way. Finger pointing requires a list of systems to scan, while patching is usually done to the
server‘s software, so it can be more secure. RPC enumeration, on the other hand, involves finding
out what type of information is stored in a given system and where that system falls in the
network.

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Types of RPC services:
 Machine dependencies: Machine dependencies are special files that an application requires in
order to work properly. Client-specific dependencies are specific for a client machine on which
an application runs. Server-specific dependencies are files that only run on an individual server
machine to make sure the requested application runs properly once it is started up.
 Client-specific dependencies: RPC servers make calls to their client‘s applications via the RPC
interface, which is identified by a transport layer protocol (TCP/IP) port number. This allows
the RPC server to use a single port number for both client and server applications. Some RPC
services operate on a single port number, while others operate on different ports. For example,
RPC services that run on TCP/80 are identified by the port numbers 80 or 8080.
Important Points:
1. RPC services or RPC calls have to be saved to a file in order for them to be of use. RPC
servers are not necessarily required for the software to run, and client-side applications
are not necessarily required for an RPC server to exist.
2. RPC is a term used by clients and servers for remote procedure calls within an operating
system (OS) or network application, such as an API. It is also a file type in UNIX
systems, but it is not required in UNIX OS (such as Linux).
3. One point of confusion between RPC dependency enumeration and ―finger pointing‖ is
that you are aiming at the machine rather than the service which might be running on the
machine.
4. RPC is a protocol that makes use of the remote procedure call (RPC) framework. Thus,
it is differentiated from other protocols due to its focus on services rather than
applications. RPC applications are similar to services, but they are more specific.
5. Clients connect to an application over a network in order to run it, while they connect to
service once the connection is done. Also, the services that run on a machine via RPC
might not necessarily be RPC applications.
6. RPC is also an acronym for ―Real-time Publish/Subscribe.‖ This is relevant because
Real-time Publish/Subscribe can be used in conjunction with RPC services as well. Also,
RPC ports cannot be trusted, so it is possible that there could be another application
running on that port aside from the one you intend.
RPC service enumeration is not the same as finding out what your target‘s vulnerabilities are. It is
more about taking note of specific information about the network in general. This can involve
approaching an RPC server and learning more about it, but you cannot do so without having to first
check for vulnerabilities. Every other method for digging for information about something or
someone usually involves vulnerability analysis first.
3.8:RMI (Remote Method Invocation)
The RMI (Remote Method Invocation) is an API(Application Programming Interface) that provides
a mechanism to create distributed application in java. The RMI allows an object to invoke methods
on an object running in another JVM. The RMI provides remote communication between the
applications using two objects stub and skeleton.
Architecture of an RMI Application
In an RMI application, we write two programs, a server program (resides on the server) and
a client program (resides on the client).
 Inside the server program, a remote object is created and reference of that object is made
available for the client (using the registry).

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 The client program requests the remote objects on the server and tries to invoke its methods.
The following diagram shows the architecture of an RMI application.
Figure 3.2.11 : The Architecture of an RMI application
The components of this architecture are:

 Transport Layer − This layer connects the client and the server. It manages the existing
connection and also sets up new connections.
 Stub − A stub is a representation (proxy) of the remote object at client. It resides in the client
system; it acts as a gateway for the client program.
 Skeleton − This is the object which resides on the server side. stub communicates with this
skeleton to pass request to the remote object.
 RRL(Remote Reference Layer) − It is the layer which manages the references made by the
client to the remote object.
Working of an RMI Application −

 When the client makes a call to the remote object, it is received by the stub which eventually
passes this request to the RRL.
 When the client-side RRL receives the request, it invokes a method called invoke() of the
object remoteRef. It passes the request to the RRL on the server side.
 The RRL on the server side passes the request to the Skeleton (proxy on the server) which
finally invokes the required object on the server.
 The result is passed all the way back to the client.
Marshalling and Unmarshalling

Whenever a client invokes a method that accepts parameters on a remote object, the parameters are
bundled into a message before being sent over the network. These parameters may be of primitive
type or objects. In case of primitive type, the parameters are put together and a header is attached to
it. In case the parameters are objects, then they are serialized. This process is known
as marshalling.
At the server side, the packed parameters are unbundled and then the required method is invoked.
This process is known as unmarshalling.
RMI Registry

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RMI registry is a namespace on which all server objects are placed. Each time the server creates an
object, it registers this object with the RMIregistry (using bind() or reBind() methods). These are
registered using a unique name known as bind name.
To invoke a remote object, the client needs a reference of that object. At that time, the client fetches
the object from the registry using its bind name (using lookup() method).
The following illustration explains the entire process −
Figure 3.2.12: RMI Registry Process
Following are the goals of RMI −
 To minimize the complexity of the application.

 To preserve type safety.
 Distributed garbage collection.
 Minimize the difference between working with local and remote objects
3.9 : Client server Programming
The Client-server model is a distributed application structure that partitions task or workload
between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service requesters called
clients. In the client-server architecture, when the client computer sends a request for data to the
server through the internet, the server accepts the requested process and deliver the data packets
requested back to the client. Clients do not share any of their resources. Examples of Client-
Server Model are Email, World Wide Web, etc.
Client-Server Model operation
In this article we are going to take a dive into the Client-Server model and have a look at how
the Internet works via, web browsers. This article will help us in having a solid foundation of the
WEB and help in working with WEB technologies with ease.
 Client: When we talk the word Client, it mean to talk of a person or an organization using a
particular service. Similarly in the digital world a Client is a computer (Host) i.e. capable of
receiving information or using a particular service from the service providers (Servers).
 Servers: Similarly, when we talk the word Servers, It mean a person or medium that serves
something. Similarly in this digital world a Server is a remote computer which provides
information (data) or access to particular services.

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So, its basically the Client requesting something and the Server serving it as long as its present in
the database.
Figure 3.2.13:The client server operation

Server-side Programming :
It is the program that runs on server dealing with the generation of content of web page.
1) Querying the database
2) Operations over databases
3) Access/Write a file on server.
4) Interact with other servers.
5) Structure web applications.
6) Process user input. For example if user input is a text in search box, run a search algorithm on
data stored on server and send the results.
Examples :
The Programming languages for server-side programming are :
1) PHP
2) C++
3) Java and JSP
4) Python
5) Ruby on Rails
Client-side Programming :
It is the program that runs on the client machine (browser) and deals with the user
interface/display and any other processing that can happen on client machine like reading/writing
cookies.
1) Interact with temporary storage
2) Make interactive web pages
3) Interact with local storage
4) Sending request for data to server
5) Send request to server
6) work as an interface between server and user
The Programming languages for client-side programming are :
1) Javascript
2) VBScript
3) HTML
4) CSS
5) AJAX

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Chapter 4
4.1 Process Migration
A process is essentially a program in execution. The execution of a process should advance in a
sequential design. A process is characterized as an entity that addresses the essential unit of work to
be executed in the system.
Process migration is a particular type of process management by which processes are moved
starting with one computing environment then onto the next.
Figure 4.1.1: Process Migration
There are two types of Process Migration:

 Non-preemptive process: If a process is moved before it begins execution on its source node
which is known as a non-preemptive process.
 Preemptive process: If a process is moved at the time of its execution that is known as
preemptive process migration. Preemptive process migration is all the more expensive in
comparison to the non-preemptive on the grounds that the process environment should go with
the process to its new node.
The Advantages of process migration are:
 Dynamic Load Balancing: It permits processes to exploit less stacked nodes by relocating
from overloaded ones.
 Accessibility: Processes that inhibit defective nodes can be moved to other perfect nodes.
 System Administration: Processes that inhabit a node if it is going through system
maintenance can be moved to different nodes.
 The locality of data: Processes can exploit the region of information or other extraordinary
abilities of a specific node.
 Mobility: Processes can be relocated from a hand-operated device or computer to an automatic
server-based computer before the device gets detached from the network.
 Recovery of faults: The component to stop, transport and resume a process is actually valuable
to support in recovering the fault in applications that are based on transactions.
The steps involved in Process Migration

The steps which are involved in migrating the process are:
 The process is chosen for migration.
 Choose the destination node for the process to be relocated.

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 Move the chosen process to the destination node.
The subcategories to migrate a process are:
 The process is halted on its source node and is restarted on its destination node.
 The address space of the process is transferred from its source node to its destination node.
 Message forwarding is implied for the transferred process.
 Managing the communication between collaborating processes that have been isolated because
of process migration.
Methods of Process Migration
The methods of Process Migration are:
1. Homogeneous Process Migration: Homogeneous process migration implies relocating a
process in a homogeneous environment where all systems have a similar operating system as well
as architecture. There are two unique strategies for performing process migration. These are i) User-
level process migration ii) Kernel level process migration.
 User-level process migration: In this procedure, process migration is managed without
converting the operating system kernel. User-level migration executions are more simple to
create and handle but have usually two issues: i) Kernel state is not accessible by them. ii) They
should cross the kernel limit utilizing kernel demands which are slow and expensive.
 Kernel level process migration: In this procedure, process migration is finished by adjusting
the operating system kernel. Accordingly, process migration will become more simple and more
proficient. This facility permits the migration process to be done faster and relocate more types
of processes.
Homogeneous Process Migration Algorithms:
There are five fundamental calculations for homogeneous process migration:
 Total Copy Algorithm
 Pre-Copy Algorithm
 Demand Page Algorithm
 File Server Algorithm
 Freeze Free Algorithm
2. Heterogeneous Process Migration: Heterogeneous process migration is the relocation of the
process across machine architectures and operating systems. Clearly, it is more complex than the
homogeneous case since it should review the machine and operating designs and attributes, as well
as send similar data as homogeneous process migration including process state, address space, file,
and correspondence data. Heterogeneous process migration is particularly appropriate in the
portable environment where is almost certain that the portable unit and the base help station will be
different machine types. It would be attractive to relocate a process from the versatile unit to the
base station as well as the other way around during calculation. In most cases, this couldn‘t be
accomplished by homogeneous migration. There are four essential types of heterogeneous
migration:
 Passive object: The information is moved and should be translated
 Active object, move when inactive: The process is relocated at the point when it isn‘t
executing. The code exists in the two areas, and just the information is moved and translated.
 Active object, interpreted code: The process is executing through an interpreter so just
information and interpreter state need to be moved.
 Active object, native code: Both code and information should be translated as they are
accumulated for a particular architecture.

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4.2 Application taxonomy:
Taxonomy provides a data model for analytics and acts as a crucial enabler to providing context and
relationships between concepts. The taxonomy normalizes synonyms and common concepts to aid
in data visualizations as well as clustering, trending, and modeling.
Mobile Application Taxonomy

The term "mobile application" or "mobile app" refers to a self-contained computer program
designed to execute on a mobile device. Today, the Android and iOS operating systems
cumulatively comprise more than 99% of the mobile OS market share. Additionally, mobile
Internet usage has surpassed desktop usage for the first time in history, making mobile browsing
and apps the most widespread kind of Internet-capable apps.In this guide, we'll use the term "app"
as a general term for referring to any kind of application running on popular mobile OSes.
In a basic sense, apps are designed to run either directly on the platform for which they‘re designed,
on top of a smart device‘s mobile browser, or using a mix of the two. Throughout the following
chapter, we will define characteristics that qualify an app for its respective place in mobile app
taxonomy as well as discuss differences for each variation.
Native App
Mobile operating systems, including Android and iOS, come with a Software Development Kit
(SDK) for developing apps specific to the OS. Such apps are referred to as native to the system for
which they have been developed. When discussing an app, the general assumption is that it is a
native app implemented in a standard programming language for the respective operating system -
Objective-C or Swift for iOS, and Java or Kotlin for Android.
The most obvious downside of native apps is that they target only one specific platform. To build
the same app for both Android and iOS, one needs to maintain two independent code bases, or
introduce often complex development tools to port a single code base to two platforms. The
following frameworks are an example of the latter and allow you to compile a single codebase for
both Android and iOS.
 Xamarin
 Google Flutter
 React Native
Apps developed using these frameworks internally use the APIs native to the system and offer
performance equivalent to native apps. Also, these apps can make use of all device capabilities,
including the GPS, accelerometer, camera, the notification system, etc. Since the final output is very
similar to previously discussed native apps, apps developed using these frameworks can also be
considered as native apps.
Web App
Mobile web apps (or simply, web apps) are websites designed to look and feel like a native app.
These apps run on top of a device‘s browser and are usually developed in HTML5, much like a
modern web page. Launcher icons may be created to parallel the same feel of accessing a native
app; however, these icons are essentially the same as a browser bookmark, simply opening the
default web browser to load the referenced web page.

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Web apps have limited integration with the general components of the device as they run within the
confines of a browser (i.e. they are "sandboxed") and usually lack in performance compared to
native apps. Since a web app typically targets multiple platforms, their UIs do not follow some of
the design principles of a specific platform. Web apps have limited integration with the general
components of the device as they run within the confines of a browser (i.e. they are "sandboxed")
and usually lack in performance compared to native apps. Since a web app typically targets multiple
platforms, their UIs do not follow some of the design principles of a specific platform.
Hybrid App
Hybrid apps attempt to fill the gap between native and web apps. A hybrid app executes like a
native app, but a majority of the processes rely on web technologies, meaning a portion of the app
runs in an embedded web browser (commonly called "WebView"). As such, hybrid apps inherit
both pros and cons of native and web apps.
A web-to-native abstraction layer enables access to device capabilities for hybrid apps not
accessible to a pure web app. Depending on the framework used for development, one code base
can result in multiple apps that target different platforms, with a UI closely resembling that of the
original platform for which the app was developed.
Following is a non-exhaustive list of more popular frameworks for developing hybrid apps:
 Apache Cordova
 Framework 7
 Ionic
 jQuery Mobile
 Native Script
 Onsen UI
 Sencha Touch
Progressive Web App
Progressive Web Apps (PWA) load like regular web pages, but differ from usual web apps in
several ways. For example it's possible to work offline and access to mobile device hardware is
possible, that traditionally is only available to native mobile apps.
PWAs combine different open standards of the web offered by modern browsers to provide benefits
of a rich mobile experience. A Web App Manifest, which is a simple JSON file, can be used to
configure the behaviour of the app after "installation"
4.3 DEMOS /MP:

DEMOS/MP is a message-based operating system, with communication as the most basic
Mechanism. A kernel implements the primitive objects of the system: executing processes,
messages, including inter-processor messages, and message paths, called links. Most of the system
functions are implemented in server processes, which are accessed through the communication
mechanism.
The DEMOS/MP operating system has moved from a super computer with a simple addressing
structure to a network of microcomputers. This transformation was done without significant
changes to the semantics of the original DEMOS, i.e., existing DEMOS programs should run on
DEMOS/MP. The DEMOS operating system began on a Cray 1 computer and has since
transitioned several computing environments. Its current home is a collection of Z8000 processors
connected by a network. This distributed version of DEMOS is known as DEMOS/MP.

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There are two goals of the DEMOS/MP
 The first goal is to provide the software base for the OSMOSIS† distributed systems project.
 The second goal is to experiment with the design of a distributed operating system.
4.3.1 :DEMOS/MP SYSTEM TASKS

DEMOS/MP uses system server processes for process management, memory management, file
services, clock services, and naming and connection services. The initial version of DEMOS/MP
required almost no changes to the system processes to be operational. The one significant change is
that the low level process manager needs to communicate with multiple kernels. There are
following types of system tasks related to DEMOS/MP.
1. Resource Naming and the Switchboard
DEMOS/MP provides a two level version of the flat name space provided by the original
DEMOS. In DEMOS, a single name server, the switchboard, aids in establishing connections
between processes in much the same way a telephone operator sets up a call between two
people. Any process with a link to the switchboard may announce itself by a process sends a
message to the switchboard containing a link to itself and a name to assign to the link. When
another process sends a request message to the switchboard containing that name, the
switchboard returns the link to the announced process. Since the switchboard is one of the first
processes started, it is simple to provide a link to the switchboard to each new process that needs
it.
There are two types of switchboard processes, global and local. There is only one global
switchboard. Its location is broadcast across the network as part of the network‘s routing
protocol. As new processors are added to the network, they are told of the switchboard‘s
location. Local switchboards may exist on each processor in the network. Their locations are not
broadcast. When a process sends a message using a switchboard link, the message kernel sends
that message to the local switchboard if one exists or to the global switchboard if there is no
local one. Switchboard requests from the local switchboards are sent to the global switchboard.
This effectively implements a two level naming hierarchy.
The hierarchical design solves two problems,
 scaling the name space
 locating the switchboard.
The scaling problem is caused by the potentially larger number of names and resources in a
multiple machine environment. The locating problem is caused by not having a switchboard
process on every machine.
2. Process and Memory Management

The DEMOS/MP memory manager performs the low-level memory policy and process
management decisions. The memory manager has a link to the process and memory kernel
process in each DEMOS/MP kernel. At this level, the existence of multiple machines is visible.
Each time a new machine is booted, it posts a link to the switchboard. The memory manager
always has an outstanding request to the switchboard for these links, and in this way becomes
aware of machines entering or re-entering the network. Multiple memory managers can exist by
partitioning the machines, with one memory manager to each partition. These partitions
correspond to the allocation of switchboards. High-level process management functions are
performed in the process manager process. Each process manager can talk with one or more
memory manager processes. The number of memory managers to which a process manager
talks is a function of the number of machines over which it can control, the replication level for
fault tolerance, and administrative divisions.

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3. File System
The DEMOS/MP file system ran with little change from the DEMOS version. The four file
system processes can be distributed over many machines. For performance reasons, the buffer
manager and disk interface processes are typically on the same machine as the device that they
control. Multiple disk interface/buffer manager pairs can be used if there are multiple disks
connected to different machines. It is possible, though, to have all disks controlled from a single
pair
4.3.2 : A Case Study of DEMOS/MP

It incorporates the idea of an intermachine address and intermachine communications at the lowest
level of the kernel. This allows the operating system, above the communications level, to ignore
machine boundaries when desired. Ignoring machine boundaries simplifies the implementation of
functions such as remote paging (described in the Virtual Memory section). The DEMOS/MP
design is in contrast to the Accent system, which provides only local naming in the kernel. Remote
messages must be interpreted by an agent (process) outside the kernel .
All interactions between one process and another or between a process and the system are via
communication-oriented kernel calls. Most system services are provided by system processes that
are accessed by message communication. The kernel implements the message operations and a few
special services. Messages are sent to the kernel to access all services except message
communication itself. A copy of the kernel resides on each processor. Although each kernel
independently maintains its own resources (CPU, real memory, and I/O ports), all kernels cooperate
in providing a location-transparent, reliable, Interprocess message facility. In fact, different
modules of the kernel on the same processor, as well as kernels on different processors, use the
message mechanism to communicate with each other.
In DEMOS/MP, messages are sent using links to specify the receiver of the message. Links can be
thought of as buffered, one-way message channels, but are essentially protected global process
addresses accessed via a local name space. Links may be created, duplicated, passed to other
processes, or destroyed. Links are manipulated much like capabilities; that is, the kernel participates
in all link operations, but the conceptual control of a link is vested in the process that the link
addresses (which is always the process that created it). Addresses in links are context-independent;
if a link is passed to a different process, it will still point to the same destination process. A link
may also point to a kernel. Messages may be sent to or by a kernel in the same manner as a process.

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The most important part of a link is the message process address (see Figure 4.1.3). This is the field
that specifies to which process messages sent over that link are delivered. The address has two
components. The first is a system-wide, unique, process identifier. It consists of the identifier of the
processor on which the process was created, and- a unique local identifier generated by that
machine. The second is the last known location of the process. During the lifetime of a link, the first
component of its address never changes but the second the address of second component may be
changed.
The success of the DEMOS/MP implementation is due to the simplicity of the organization of the
system. DEMOS/MP uses message passing as the basic structuring tool for both the operating
system and the users. Message passing is implemented at the lowest level of the system and
therefore is available for use by both the system and users.
Several features of the DEMOS/MP design prove noteworthy.
a) The first feature is the link data area. At first glance, these data areas appear to be an escape
mechanism to allow processes to share memory. These are better viewed as separating the
two common forms of communications: short control messages and bulk data transfers.
Messages are used for short, control functions, and link data areas are used for large data
transfers. The data areas contribute to the ease in implementing process migration and
remote paging.
b) The second feature is the use of DELIVERTOKERNEL links. These links provide control
of processes across machine boundaries, while requiring a minimum of additional
mechanism. In all cases, control messages for a process are directed to the correct machine
by using the standard message routing.
c) The third feature is the structure of the intermachine protocols. Through the use of type
abstractions in a strongly typed language, layers of protocol were constructed with small
performance penalty for interactions between the abstractions (layers) of the protocol.
It is not difficult to design an operating system that will run in a distributed environment. The main
point is to avoid uncontrolled sharing of data between components of the operating system. In
DEMOS/MP, each component (kernel, system processes) of the operating system only maintains
state that is local to that component and uses links as the only means to reference state that is
maintained by another component. For example, when a process opens a file, it receives a link that
represents the resource of the open file. All of the state regarding the state of the open file is
maintained in the file server process(es). If a user process moves, the only requirement is that the
link still be valid at the process‘s new location; no other changes are needed to local system state.
It is not difficult to distribute an operating system, but to make a reliable distributed system is
difficult. Even given a reliable network communication protocol, a system must still handle
machine crashes, network failures, and the resulting loss of system function. It is not difficult to

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place different parts of the file service on different machines, but this placement increases the
probability of losing part of the file service. The design of a service that can survive failures is
difficult.
4.4 Mobile IP and cellular IP in mobile computing, 4.5 case study of CODA.
Both cellular IP and mobile IP are open standards published by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF). The difference between the two is their zone of operation. Cellular IP is similar to a Local
Area Network (LAN) whereas Mobile IP is analogous to a Wide Area Network (WAN). Cellular IP
was first proposed in January 2000, but has never been accepted as a formal standard. Mobile IP
was defined in August 2002.
4.4.1 Mobile Internet Protocol (or Mobile IP)

Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol, IP) that allows
the users to move from one network to another with the same IP address. It ensures that the
communication will continue without the user‘s sessions or connections being dropped.
Terminologies:
1. Mobile Node (MN) is the hand-held communication device that the user carries e.g. Cell
phone.
2. Home Network is a network to which the mobile node originally belongs as per its assigned
IP address (home address).
3. Home Agent (HA) is a router in-home network to which the mobile node was originally
connected
4. Home Address is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node (within its home
network).
5. Foreign Network is the current network to which the mobile node is visiting (away from its
home network).
6. Foreign Agent (FA) is a router in a foreign network to which the mobile node is currently
connected. The packets from the home agent are sent to the foreign agent which delivers them
to the mobile node.
7. Correspondent Node (CN) is a device on the internet communicating to the mobile node.
8. Care-of Address (COA) is the temporary address used by a mobile node while it is moving
away from its home network.
9. Foreign agent COA, the COA could be located at the FA, i.e., the COA is an IP address of
the FA. The FA is the tunnel end-point and forwards packets to the MN. Many MN using the
FA can share this COA as a common COA.
10. Co-located COA, the COA is co-located if the MN temporarily acquired an additional IP
address which acts as COA. This address is now topologically correct, and the tunnel endpoint
is at the MN. Co-located addresses can be acquired using services such as DHCP.
Mobile IP Working:
The correspondent node sends the data to the mobile node. Data packets contain the
correspondent node‘s address (Source) and home address (Destination). Packets reach the home
agent. But now mobile node is not in the home network, it has moved into the foreign network.
The foreign agent sends the care-of-address to the home agent to which all the packets should be
sent. Now, a tunnel will be established between the home agent and the foreign agent by the
process of tunneling.

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Mechanisms in Mobile IP:
1. Agent Discovery: Agents advertise their presence by periodically broadcasting their agent
advertisement messages. The mobile node receiving the agent advertisement messages observes
whether the message is from its own home agent and determines whether it is in the home
network or foreign network.
2. Agent Registration: Mobile node after discovering the foreign agent sends a registration
request (RREQ) to the foreign agent. The foreign agent, in turn, sends the registration request to
the home agent with the care-of-address. The home agent sends a registration reply (RREP) to
the foreign agent. Then it forwards the registration reply to the mobile node and completes the
process of registration.
3. Tunneling: It establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an
endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism
called encapsulation. It takes place to forward an IP datagram from the home agent to the care-
of-address. Whenever the home agent receives a packet from the correspondent node, it
encapsulates the packet with source address as home address and destination as care-of-address.
Route Optimization in Mobile IP:
The route optimization adds a conceptual data structure, the binding cache, to the correspondent
node. The binding cache contains bindings for the mobile node‘s home address and its current care-
of-address. Every time the home agent receives an IP datagram that is destined to a mobile node
currently away from the home network, it sends a binding update to the correspondent node to
update the information in the correspondent node‘s binding cache. After this, the correspondent
node can directly tunnel packets to the mobile node. Mobile IP is provided by the network
providers.
Figure 4.1.4 : Mobile IP
Tunneling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an
endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism
called encapsulation. Now, the home agent encapsulates the data packets into new packets in
which the source address is the home address and destination is the care-of-address and sends it
through the tunnel to the foreign agent. Foreign agent, on another side of the tunnel, receives the
data packets, decapsulates them, and sends them to the mobile node. The mobile node in response
to the data packets received sends a reply in response to the foreign agent. The foreign agent
directly sends the reply to the correspondent node.

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4.4.2 Cellular Internet Protocol (Cellular IP)
Five key requirements of wireless access networks motivate the design of the Cellular IP
protocol:
1. easy global migration;
2. cheap passive connectivity;
3. flexible handoff support;
4. efficient location management; and
5. simple memoryless mobile host behaviour
Cellular IP is a "micro-mobility" proposed protocol. This routes IP traffic within a fixed range over
wireless devices. Cellular IP competes with other micro-mobility solutions. A parallel with fixed
wire routing is that the Border Gateway Protocol is mandatory for routing over the Internet, but a
variety of routing protocols are available for LANs. The primary design objective of Cellular IP is to
provide maximum scalability and robustness with minimal complexity. A Cellular IP network is
fully distributed where
• nodes are unaware of the network topology;

• no centralized data bases or other single points of failure exist; and
• no element in the network must increase in complexity as the coverage area (and hence the potential
number of connected hosts) increases.
Functions of Cellular IP
a) Mappings
For simplicity and scalability, in a Cellular IP network none of the nodes know the exact
location of a mobile host. Packets addressed to a mobile host are routed to its current base
station on a hop-by-hop basis where each node only needs to know on which of its outgoing
ports to forward packets. This limited routing information is local to the host and does not
assume that nodes have any knowledge of the wireless access network‘s topology. We refer to
these information elements as mappings because they map mobile host identifiers (IP addresses)
to node ports. Mappings are created by packets transmitted by mobile hosts. These packets
travel in the access network toward the gateway router, routed on a hop-by-hop basis. By
monitoring these packets and by mapping sender address to incoming port, nodes of the access
network create a hop by-hop reverse path for future packets addressed to the given host.
b) Paging
Idle mobile hosts periodically generate short control packets, called paging-update packets
sending them to the nearest available base station. The paging-update packets travel in the
access network toward the gateway router (GW), routed on a hop-by-hop basis. Nodes equipped

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with Paging Cache monitor passing paging-update packets and maintain the cache that maps
mobile host identifiers to the port through which the paging-update packet arrived. The gateway
router discards paging-update packets isolating Cellular IP specific operations from the Internet.
c) Routing
Data packets transmitted by the mobile host are routed to the GW on a hop-by-hop basis. Nodes
that contain Routing Cache monitor these passing data packets and use them to create a
mapping of host identifiers to port numbers. Packets addressed to the mobile host are routed
along the reverse path, hop-by-hop, by these Routing Caches and are broadcast where no
routing information is available. The structure and basic operation of routing is much the same
as that of paging. Routing deals with active hosts only (i.e. hosts receiving or transmitting data)
and it is updated at a packet time scale. This allows Paging Caches to operate at a mobility time
scale and hence avoid very frequent paging-updates by idle hosts.
d) Handoff
Handoff in Cellular IP is always initiated by the mobile host. As the host approaches a new base
station, it redirects its data packets from the old to the new base station. The first of these
redirected packets will automatically configure a new path of RC mappings for the host, this
time to the new base station. For a time equal to the timeout of RC mappings, packets addressed
to the mobile host will be delivered at both the old and new base stations. This guarantees that if
the host‘s radio device is capable of listening to two logical channels, the handoff will be soft. If
the host can not listen to both base stations at the same time then the performance of hard
handoff will depend on the radio device. After a while, the path to the old base station will time
out and clear, while packets will continue to be delivered to the host at its current location via
the new base station.
The Cellular IP architecture relies on the separation of local mobility from wide area mobility. A set
of key requirements, namely easy global migration, cheap passive connectivity, flexible handoff
support, efficient location management and simple memory less mobile hosts as motivating factors
in design. Cellular IP is optimized for wireless access networks and has been designed to satisfy
these key requirements. Two further advantages of the protocol are its simplicity and robustness. A
Cellular IP network scales well, using the same simple low-cost nodes for small indoor systems to
metropolitan or large rural areas. The simplicity of a Cellular IP node and the capability of smooth
interworking with Mobile IP eases the introduction of Cellular IP making it backward compatible,
while the network can be easily extended in an incremental way.
4.5 Case study of CODA

Context delivery architecture(CODA)
The general goal of a file system is to support efficient, transparent, and consistent access to files,
no matter where the client requesting files or the server(s) offering files are located. Efficiency is of
special importance for wireless systems as the bandwidth is low so the protocol overhead and
updating operations etc. should be kept at a minimum. Transparency addresses the problems of
location- dependent views on a file system. To support mobility, the file system should provide
identical views on directories, file names, access rights etc., independent of the current location.
Therefore consistency is occurred as main problem .
The predecessor of many distributed file systems that can be used for mobile operation is the
Andrew file system (AFS, (Howard, 1988)). Coda is the successor of AFS and offers two different
types of replication: server replication and caching on clients. when clients are disconnected cache
is only working as applications use only cached replicated files. Figure 4.1.6 shows the cache
between an application and the server. Coda is a transparent extension of the client‘s cache

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manager. This very general architecture is valid for most of today‘s mobile systems that utilise a
cache.
Figure 4.1.6 : The cache between an application and the server(CODA)
Context delivery architecture(CODA) is a distributed file system with its origin in AFS2. It
has many features that are very desirable for network file systems. Currently, Coda has
several features not found elsewhere.
1. disconnected operation for mobile computing

2. is freely available under a liberal license
3. high performance through client side persistent caching
4. server replication
5. security model for authentication, encryption and access control
6. continued operation during partial network failures in server network
7. network bandwidth adaptation
8. good scalability
9. well defined semantics of sharing, even in the presence of network failures
To provide all the necessary files for disconnected work, Coda offers extensive mechanisms for pre-
fetching of files while still connected, called hoarding . If the client is connected to the server with
a strong connection (see Figure 4.1.7), hoarding transparently pre-fetches files currently used. This
automatic data collection is necessary for it is impossible for a standard user to know all the files
currently used.
Figure 4.1.7: States of a client in Coda
As soon as the client is disconnected, applications work on the replicates (see Figure 4.1.7,
emulating). Coda follows an optimistic approach and allows read and write access to all files. The
system keeps a record of changed files, but does not maintain a history of changes for each file.
The cache always has only one replicate (possibly changed). After reconnection, Coda compares the
replicates with the files on the server . If Coda notices that two different users have changed a file,
reintegration of this file fails and Coda saves the changed file as a copy on the server to allow for
manual reintegration

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The success of Coda relies on the fact that files in UNIX are seldom written by more than one user.
Most files are just read, only some files are changed. Experiences with Coda showed that only 0.72
per cent of all file accesses resulted in write conflicts . Considering only user files this is reduced to
0.3 per cent. However, this low conflict rate is not applicable to arbitrary shared files as used in,
e.g., computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW). The tool application specific resolver (ASR)
was developed to automate conflict resolution after failed reintegration.
Another problem of Coda is the definition of a conflict. Coda detects only write conflicts, i.e., if two
or more users change a file. Now consider two files f1and f2. One client uses values from files f1
and f2 to calculate something and stores the result in file f1. The other client uses values from files
f1 and f2 to calculate something else and stores the result in file f2. Coda would not detect any
problem during reintegration of the files. However, the results may not reflect the correct values
based on the files. The order of execution plays an important role. To solve this problem, a simple
transaction mechanism was introduced into Coda as an option, the so-called isolation-only
transactions (IOT). IOT allows grouping certain operations and checks them for serial execution.
Coda models the patience of a user and weighs it against the cost of fetching the file required by the
user.

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Chapter 5
5.1 Wireless LANs
A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a wireless computer network that links two or more devices
using wireless communication to form a local area network (LAN) within a limited area such as a
home, school, computer laboratory, campus, or office building. This gives users the ability to move
around within the area and remain connected to the network. Through a gateway, a WLAN can also
provide a connection to the wider Internet.
Some advantages of WLANs are:
● Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without further restriction. Radio
waves can penetrate walls, senders and receivers can be placed anywhere (also non-visible, e.g.,
within devices, in walls etc.). Sometimes wiring is difficult if firewalls separate buildings (real
firewalls made out of, e.g., bricks, not routers set up as a firewall). Penetration of a firewall is only
permitted at certain points to prevent fire from spreading too fast.
● Planning: Only wireless adhoc networks allow for communication without previous planning,
any wired network needs wiring plans. As long as devices follow the same standard, they can
communicate. For wired networks, additional cabling with the right plugs and probably
interworking units (such as switches) have to be provided.
● Design: Wireless networks allow for the design of small, independent devices which can for
example be put into a pocket. Cables not only restrict users but also designers of small PDAs,
notepads etc. Wireless senders and receivers can be hidden in historic buildings, i.e., current
networking technology can be introduced without being visible.
● Robustness: Wireless networks can survive disasters, e.g., earthquakes or users pulling a plug. If
the wireless devices survive, people can still communicate. Networks requiring a wired
infrastructure will usually break down completely.
● Cost: After providing wireless access to the infrastructure via an access point for the first user,
adding additional users to a wireless network will not increase the cost. This is, important for e.g.,
lecture halls, hotel lobbies or gate areas in airports where the numbers using the network may vary
significantly. Using a fixed network, each seat in a lecture hall should have a plug for the network
although many of them might not be used permanently. Constant plugging and unplugging will
sooner or later destroy the plugs. Wireless connections do not wear out.
WLANs disadvantages:
● Quality of service: WLANs typically offer lower quality than their wired counterparts. The main
reasons for this are the lower bandwidth due to limitations in radio transmission (e.g., only 1–10
Mbit/s user data rate instead of 100–1,000 Mbit/s), higher error rates due to interference (e.g., 10–4
instead of 10–12 for fiber optics), and higher delay/delay variation due to extensive error correction
and detection mechanisms.
● Proprietary solutions: Due to slow standardization procedures, many companies have come up
with proprietary solutions offering standardized functionality plus many enhanced features
(typically a higher bit rate using a patented coding technology or special inter-access point
protocols). However, these additional features only work in a homogeneous environment, i.e., when
adapters from the same vendors are used for all wireless nodes.
● Restrictions: All wireless products have to comply with national regulations. Several
government and non-government institutions worldwide regulate the operation and restrict
frequencies to minimize interference. Consequently, it takes a very long time to establish global
solutions like, e.g., IMT-2000, which comprises many individual standards. WLANs are limited to
low-power senders and certain license-free frequency bands, which are not the same worldwide.

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● Safety and security: Using radio waves for data transmission might interfere with other high-
tech equipment in, e.g., hospitals. Senders and receivers are operated by laymen and, radiation has
to be low. Special precautions have to be taken to prevent safety hazards.
5.1.1 IEEE 802.11

Wireless LANs based on the IEEE 802.11 standards are the most widely used computer networks in
the world. These are commonly called Wi-Fi, which is a trademark belonging to the Wi-Fi Alliance.
They are used for home and small office networks that link together laptop
computers, printers, smartphones, Web TVs and gaming devices with a wireless router, which links
them to the internet. Hotspots provided by routers at restaurants, coffee shops, hotels, libraries, and
airports allow consumers to access the internet with portable wireless devices.
All components that can connect into a wireless medium in a network are referred to as stations. All
stations are equipped with wireless network interface controllers. Wireless stations fall into two
categories: wireless access points (WAPs) and clients. WAPs are base stations for the wireless
network. They transmit and receive radio frequencies for wireless-enabled devices to communicate
with. Wireless clients can be mobile devices such as laptops, personal digital assistants, VoIP
phones and other smartphones, or non-portable devices such as desktop computers, printers,
and workstations that are equipped with a wireless network interface.
Figure 5.1.1 : An example of a Wi-Fi network
5.1.2 Wireless distribution system

A wireless distribution system (WDS) enables the wireless interconnection of access points in an
IEEE 802.11 network. It allows a wireless network to be expanded using multiple access points
without the need for a wired backbone to link them, as is traditionally required. The notable
advantage of a WDS over some other solutions is that it preserves the MAC addresses of client
packets across links between access points.
An access point can be either a main, relay, or remote base station. A main base station is typically
connected to the wired Ethernet. A relay base station relays data between remote base stations,

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wireless clients or other relay stations to either a main or another relay base station. A remote base
station accepts connections from wireless clients and passes them to relay or main stations.
Because data is forwarded wirelessly, consuming wireless bandwidth, throughput in this method is
halved for wireless clients not connected to a main base station. Connections between base stations
are done at layer-2 and do not involve or require layer-3 IP addresses. WDS capability may also be
referred to as repeater mode because it appears to bridge and accept wireless clients at the same
time (unlike traditional bridging). All base stations in a WDS must be configured to use the same
radio channel, and share WEP keys or WPA keys if they are used. They can be configured to
different service set identifiers. WDS also requires that every base station be configured to forward
to others in the system as mentioned above.
5.1.3 Types of wireless LANs
The IEEE 802.11 has two basic modes of operation: infrastructure and ad hoc mode. In ad hoc
mode, mobile units communicate directly peer-to-peer. In infrastructure mode, mobile units
communicate through a wireless access point (WAP) that also serves as a bridge to other networks
such as a local area network or the Internet.
Since wireless communication uses a more open medium for communication in comparison to
wired LANs, the 802.11 designers also included encryption mechanisms: Wired Equivalent
Privacy (WEP), no longer considered secure, Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA, WPA2, WPA3), to
secure wireless computer networks. Many access points will also offer Wi-Fi Protected Setup, a
quick, but no longer considered secure, method of joining a new device to an encrypted network.
Infrastructure mode
Most Wi-Fi networks are deployed in infrastructure mode. In infrastructure mode, wireless clients,
such as laptops and smartphones, connect to the WAP to join the network. The WAP usually has a
wired network connection and may have permanent wireless connections to other WAPs.
WAPs are usually fixed and provide service to their client nodes within range. Some networks will
have multiple WAPs using the same SSID and security arrangement. In that case, connecting to any
WAP on that network joins the client to the network, and the client software will try to choose the
WAP that gives the best service, such as the WAP with the strongest signal
Ad hoc mode( Peer-to-peer)
An ad hoc network is a network where stations communicate only peer-to-peer (P2P). There is no
base and no one gives permission to talk. This is accomplished using the Independent Basic Service
Set (IBSS). A Wi-Fi Direct network is a different type of wireless network where stations
communicate peer-to-peer. In a peer-to-peer network wireless devices within range of each other
can discover and communicate directly without involving central access points.
Figure 5.1.2 : Peer-to-Peer or ad hoc wireless LAN
In a Wi-Fi P2P group, the group owner operates as an access point and all other devices are clients.
There are two main methods to establish a group owner in the Wi-Fi Direct group. In one approach,
the user sets up a P2P group owner manually. This method is also known as autonomous group

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Owner (autonomous GO). In the second method, called negotiation-based group creation, two
devices compete based on the group owner intent value. The device with higher intent value
becomes a group owner and the second device becomes a client.
IEEE 802.11 defines the PHY and medium access control (MAC) layers based on carrier-sense
multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). This is in contrast to Ethernet which
uses carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD). The 802.11 specification
includes provisions designed to minimize collisions because mobile units have to contend with
the hidden node problem where two mobile units may both be in range of a common access point,
but out of range of each other.
Figure 5.1.4 : Devices A and C are both communicating with B, but are unaware of each other
Bridge
A bridge can be used to connect networks, typically of different types. A wireless Ethernet bridge
allows the connection of devices on a wired Ethernet network to a wireless network. The bridge acts
as the connection point to the wireless LAN
Figure 5.1.4 : IEEE 802.11protocol architecture and bridging
5.2 Bluetooth & IrDA technologies

Bluetooth is universal for short-range wireless voice and data communication. It is a Wireless
Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for exchanging data over smaller

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distances. This technology was invented by Ericson in 1994. It operates in the unlicensed,
industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band from 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz. Maximum devices that
can be connected at the same time are 7. Bluetooth ranges up to 10 meters. It provides data rates
up to 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps depending upon the version. The spreading technique that it uses is
FHSS (Frequency-hopping spread spectrum). A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a
collection of interconnected piconet is called scatternet.
5.2.1 What is Bluetooth

Bluetooth simply follows the principle of transmitting and receiving data using radio waves. It
can be paired with the other device which has also Bluetooth but it should be within the estimated
communication range to connect. When two devices start to share data, they form a network
called piconet which can further accommodate more than five devices.
Points to remember for Bluetooth:
 Bluetooth Transmission capacity 720 kbps.
 Bluetooth is Wireless.
 Bluetooth is a Low-cost short-distance radio communications standard.
 Bluetooth is robust and flexible.
 Bluetooth is cable replacement technology that can be used to connect almost any device to
any other device.
 The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.
5.2.2 Bluetooth Architecture:

The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:
1. Piconet
2. Scatternet
Figure 5.1.5 : Bluetooth Architecture
Piconet:
Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called the master node
and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes. Thus, we can say that there is a total of 8
active nodes which are present at a distance of 10 meters. The communication between the
primary and secondary nodes can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Possible communication is only
between the master and slave; Slave-slave communication is not possible. It also has 255 parked

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nodes, these are secondary nodes and cannot take participation in communication unless it gets
converted to the active state.
Scatternet:
It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one piconet can act as master or
we can say primary in another piconet. This kind of node can receive a message from a master in
one piconet and deliver the message to its slave in the other piconet where it is acting as a master.
This type of node is referred to as a bridge node. A station cannot be mastered in two piconet.
5.2.3 Bluetooth protocol stack:
Figure 5.1.6: Bluetooth Protocol
1. Radio (RF) layer: It specifies the details of the air interface, including frequency, the use of
frequency hopping and transmit power. It performs modulation/demodulation of the data into
RF signals. It defines the physical characteristics of Bluetooth transceivers. It defines two
types of physical links: connection-less and connection-oriented.
2. Baseband Link layer: The baseband is the digital engine of a Bluetooth system and is
equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs. It performs the connection establishment within a
piconet, addressing, packet format, timing and power control.
3. Link Manager protocol layer: It performs the management of the already established links
which includes authentication and encryption processes. It is responsible for creating the
links, monitoring their health, and terminating them gracefully upon command or failure.
4. Logical Link Control and Adaption (L2CAP) Protocol layer: It is also known as the heart
of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the communication between upper and lower layers
of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It packages the data packets received from upper layers into
the form expected by lower layers. It also performs segmentation and multiplexing.
5. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) layer: It is short for Service Discovery Protocol. It allows
discovering the services available on another Bluetooth-enabled device.

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6. RF comm layer: It is a cabal replacement protocol. It is short for Radio Frontend Component.
It provides a serial interface with WAP and OBEX. It also provides emulation of serial ports
over the logical link control and adaption protocol(L2CAP). The protocol is based on the
ETSI standard TS 07.10.
7. OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol to exchange objects
between 2 devices.
8. WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet access.
9. TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony service. The basic
function of this layer is call control (setup & release) and group management for the gateway
serving multiple devices.
10. Application layer: It enables the user to interact with the application.
Types of Bluetooth
Various types of Bluetooth are available in the market nowadays. Let us look at them.
 In-Car Headset: One can make calls from the car speaker system without the use of mobile
phones.
 Stereo Headset: To listen to music in car or in music players at home.
 Webcam: One can link the camera with the help of Bluetooth with their laptop or phone.
 Bluetooth-equipped Printer: The printer can be used when connected via Bluetooth with
mobile phone or laptop.
 Bluetooth Global Positioning System (GPS): To use GPS in cars, one can connect their phone
with car system via Bluetooth to fetch the directions of the address.
Advantage:
 It is a low-cost and easy-to-use device.
 It can also penetrate through walls.
 It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.
 It is used for voice and data transfer.
Disadvantages:
 It can be hacked and hence, less secure.
 It has a slow data transfer rate: of 3 Mbps.
 It has a small range: 10 meters.
 Bluetooth communication does not support routing.
 The issues of handoffs have not been addressed.
Applications:
 It can be used in laptops, and in wireless PCs, printers.
 It can be used in wireless headsets, wireless PANs, and LANs.
 It can connect a digital camera wirelessly to a mobile phone.
 It can transfer data in terms of videos, songs, photographs, or files from one cell phone to
another cell phone or computer.
 It is used in the sectors of Medical health care, sports and fitness, Military.

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5.2.b IrDA (Infrared Data Association)
IrDA(Infrared Data Association) is one type of personal communication area network which is
deployed in infrared rays.
IrDA Applications:
 The data transfer takes place between a laptop(computer) and a Mobile when both come into
vicinity and line-of-sight of the IR receivers and detectors in each of them.
 To Send a document from a notebook computer to a printer.
 By Exchanging business cards which are handheld by the PCs.
 This provides the flexibility for coordinating schedules and telephone books with a desktop and
notebook computers.
 Point to shoot communication from peer to peer is a main characteristic for this protocol.
IrDA Protocol Layers:
There are different IrDA protocol layers are there
 Application Layer
 Session Layer
 IrLMIAS
 IrTinyTP
 IrLMP
 Physical Layer
Figure 5.1.7: IrDA Protocol Layers
Application Layer:
 In this application layer protocol security plays a vital role.
 Sync(PIM), Object Push(PIM) or Binary File Transfer are the functions provided by this layer.
Session Layer:
IrOBEX , IrLAN , IrBus , IrMC , TrTran , IrComm are present in this layer to perform different
tasks.
IrTinyTP:
 Segmentation and reassembly takes place in this layer .
 It provides connection to IrLMP.
IrLMP:
 It multiplexes multiple applications data as well as exclusive link access.
 It provides an Ad-hoc connection between peers.
Physical Layer:
 This layer has an ability for accessing half duplex or alternating directions duplex access.

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 It provides a value 1 m or 10 cm(For low power LED).
 Different Modes: Synchronous PPM, Synchronous Serial ,Asynchronous Serial
Session and Transport IrDA Protocol:
 For infrared LAN access IrLAN is used.
 For accessing the serial bus by joysticks, keyboard, mice and game ports IrBUS is used.
 In this protocol IrMC provides mobile communication and telephony protocol.
 IrTran is a transport protocol for image file transfers.
 IrComm protocol is used by emulating serial(Ex. RS232CCOM) or parallel port.
5.3 Introduction of Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET)

MANET stands for Mobile Adhoc Network also called a wireless Adhoc network or Adhoc
wireless network that usually has a routable networking environment on top of a Link Layer ad
hoc network.. They consist of a set of mobile nodes connected wirelessly in a self-configured,
self-healing network without having a fixed infrastructure. MANET nodes are free to move
randomly as the network topology changes frequently. Each node behaves as a router as they
forward traffic to other specified nodes in the network.
Figure 5.1.8 Mobile adhoc network
MANET may operate a standalone fashion or they can be part of larger internet. They form a
highly dynamic autonomous topology with the presence of one or multiple different transceivers
between nodes. The main challenge for the MANET is to equip each device to continuously
maintain the information required to properly route traffic. MANETs consist of a peer-to-peer,
self-forming, self-healing network MANET‘s circa 2000-2015 typically communicate at radio
frequencies (30MHz-5GHz). This can be used in road safety, ranging from sensors for the
environment, home, health, disaster rescue operations, air/land/navy defense, weapons, robots,
etc.
5.3.1 Characteristics of MANET –
 Dynamic Topologies:
Network topology which is typically multihop may change randomly and rapidly with time, it
can form unidirectional or bi-directional links.
 Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links:
Wireless links usually have lower reliability, efficiency, stability, and capacity as compared to
a wired network

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 Autonomous Behaviour:
Each node can act as a host and router, which shows its autonomous behaviour.
 Energy Constrained Operation:
As some or all the nodes rely on batteries or other exhaustible means for their energy. Mobile
nodes are characterized by less memory, power, and lightweight features.
 Limited Security:
Wireless networks are more prone to security threats. A centralized firewall is absent due to
the distributed nature of the operation for security, routing, and host configuration.
 Less Human Intervention:
They require minimum human intervention to configure the network, therefore they are
dynamically autonomous in nature.
5.3.2 Pros and Cons of MANET –

Pros:
1. Separation from central network administration.
2. Each node can play both the roles ie. of router and host showing autonomous nature.
3. Self-configuring and self-healing nodes do not require human intervention.
4. Highly scalable and suits the expansion of more network hub.
Cons:
1. Resources are limited due to various constraints like noise, interference conditions, etc.
2. Lack of authorization facilities.
3. More prone to attacks due to limited physical security.
4. High latency i.e. There is a huge delay in the transfer of data between two sleeping nodes.
Improvement in MANET:
1. Quality of Service (QoS): Researchers are working to improve the quality of service of
MANET by developing efficient routing protocols that provide better bandwidth, throughput,
and latency.
2. Security: To ensure the security of the MANET, researchers are developing efficient security
mechanisms that provide encryption, authentication, and authorization facilities.
3. Power management: To enhance the lifetime of MANET nodes, researchers are working on
developing efficient power management techniques that reduce the energy consumption of
nodes.
4. Multimedia support: Researchers are working to provide multimedia support to MANET by
developing efficient routing protocols that can handle multimedia traffic efficiently.
5. Standardization: To ensure the interoperability of different MANET devices, researchers are
working on developing standard protocols and interfaces that can be used by different
MANET devices.
Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET) is a wireless network made up of a collection of mobile nodes
connected wirelessly and free of any fixed infrastructure. It is self-configuring and self-healing.
MANET provides a lot of benefits, but it also has several drawbacks that need to be fixed.
Researchers are always trying to make MANET‘s features better in order to get over these
constraints. Future advancements in new technology and methodologies might make MANET a
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5.3.3 Advantages & Disadvantages:
Advantages:
Flexibility: MANETs are highly flexible, as they can be easily deployed in various environments
and can be adapted to different applications and scenarios. This makes them ideal for use in
emergency situations or military operations, where there may not be a pre-existing network
infrastructure.
Scalability: MANETs can easily scale to accommodate a large number of nodes, making them
suitable for large-scale deployments. They can also handle dynamic changes in network topology,
such as the addition or removal of nodes.
Cost-effective: Since MANETs do not require any centralized infrastructure, they are often more
cost-effective than traditional wired or wireless networks. They can also be used to extend the
range of existing networks without the need for additional infrastructure.
Rapid Deployment: MANETs can be rapidly deployed in areas where infrastructure is not
available, such as disaster zones or rural areas.
Disadvantages:
Security: MANETs are vulnerable to security threats, such as attacks by malicious nodes,
eavesdropping, and data interception. Since the network is decentralized, there is no central
authority to ensure the security of the network.
Reliability: MANETs are less reliable than traditional networks, as they are subject to
interference, signal attenuation, and other environmental factors that can affect the quality of the
connection.
Bandwidth: Since MANETs rely on wireless communication, bandwidth can be limited. This can
lead to congestion and delays, particularly when multiple nodes are competing for the same
channel.
Routing: Routing in MANETs can be complex, particularly when dealing with dynamic network
topologies. This can result in inefficient routing and longer delays in data transmission.
Power Consumption: Since MANETs rely on battery-powered devices, power consumption can
be a significant issue. Nodes may need to conserve power to extend the life of the battery, which
can limit the amount of data that can be transmitted.
5.3.4 The Hidden Terminal Problem
In wireless LANs ( wireless local area networks), the hidden terminal problem is a transmission
problem that arises when two or more stations who are out of range of each other transmit
simultaneously to a common recipient. This is prevalent in decentralised systems where there
aren‘t any entity for controlling transmissions. This occurs when a station is visible from a wireless
access point (AP), but is hidden from other stations that communicate with the AP.
Problem Illustration
Suppose that there are three stations labelled STA, STB, and STC, where STA and STC are
transmitting while STB is receiving. The stations are in a configuration such that the two
transmitters STA and STC are not in the radio range of each other. This is shown in the following
figure −

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Figure 5.1.8 : STA & STB Station range
The above diagram shows that station STA starts transmitting to station STB. Since station STC is
out of radio range of STA, it perceives that the channel is free and starts transmitting to STB. The
frames received by STC are garbled and collision occurs. This situation is known as the hidden
terminal problem.
Solution
The exposed terminal problem is solved by the MAC (medium access control) layer protocol IEEE
802.11 RTS/CTS, with the condition that the stations are synchronized and frame sizes and data
speed are the same. RTS stands for Request to Send and CTS stands for Clear to Send.
A transmitting station sends a RTS frame to the receiving station. The receiving station replies by
sending a CTS frame. On receipt of CTS frame, the transmitting station begins transmission.
Any station hearing the RTS is close to the transmitting station and remains silent long enough for
the CTS. Any station hearing the CTS is close to the receiving station and remains silent during the
data transmission.
In the above example, station STC hears does not hear RTS from station STA, but hears CTS frame
from station STB. So, it understands that STB is busy defers its transmission thus avoiding
collision.
5.3.5 The Exposed Terminal Problem

In wireless LANs (wireless local area networks), the exposed terminal problem is a transmission
problem that arises when a transmitting station is prevented from sending frames due to
interference with another transmitting station. This is prevalent in decentralised systems where
there aren‘t any entity for controlling transmissions. This occurs when a station is visible from a
wireless access point (AP), but not from other stations that communicate with the AP.
Problem Illustration
Suppose that there are four stations labelled STA, STB, STC, and STD, where STB and STC are
transmitters while STA and STD are receivers at some slot of time. The stations are in a
configuration such that the two receivers STA and STD are out of radio range of each other, but the

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two transmitters STB and STC are in radio range of each other. This is shown in the following
figure −
Figure 5.1.9: Transmitters station in exposed terminal
The above diagram shows that a transmission is going on from STB to STA. STC falsely concludes
that the above transmission will cause interference and so stops its transmission attempts to STD.
However, the interference would not have occurred since the transmission from STC to STD is out
of range of STB. This prevention of transmission is called exposed terminal problem.
Solution
The exposed terminal problem is solved by the MAC (medium access control) layer protocol IEEE
802.11 RTS/CTS, with the condition that the stations are synchronized and frame sizes and data
speed are the same. RTS stands for Request to Send and CTS stands for Clear to Send.
A transmitting station sends a RTS frame to the receiving station. The receiving station replies by
sending a CTS frame. On receipt of CTS frame, the transmitting station begins transmission.
Any station hearing the RTS is close to the transmitting station and remains silent long enough for
the CTS. Any station hearing the CTS is close to the receiving station and remains silent during the
data transmission.
In the above example, station STC hears RTS from station STB, but does not hear CTS from
station STA. So, it is free to transmit to station STD.
5.4 Routing protocols: DSDV, DSR, AODV
MANET Routing Protocols
In Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET), nodes do not know the topology of their network, instead
they have to discover it by their own as the topology in the ad-hoc network is dynamic topology.
The basic rules is that a new node whenever enters into an ad-hoc network, must announce its
arrival and presence and should also listen to similar announcement broadcasts made by other
mobile nodes.

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Figure 5.1.10 Mobile adhoc network protocol
5.4.1. Pro-active routing protocols: These are also known as table-driven routing protocols. Each
mobile node maintains a separate routing table which contains the information of the routes to all
the possible destination mobile nodes.
Since the topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic, these routing tables are updated
periodically as and when the network topology changes. It has a limitation that it doesn‘t work well
for the large networks as the entries in the routing table becomes too large since they need to
maintain the route information to all possible nodes.
1. Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV): It is a pro-active/table
driven routing protocol. It actually extends the distance vector routing protocol of the wired
networks as the name suggests. It is based on the Bellman-ford routing algorithm. Distance
vector routing protocol was not suited for mobile ad-hoc networks due to count-to-infinity
problem. Hence, as a solution Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol
(DSDV)came into picture. Destination sequence number is added with every routing entry in the
routing table maintained by each node. A node will include the new update in the table only if
the entry consists of the new updated route to the destination with higher sequence number.
2. Global State Routing (GSR): It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It actually extends
the link state routing of the wired networks. It is based on the Dijkstra‘s routing algorithm. Link
state routing protocol was not suited for mobile ad-hoc networks because in it, each node floods
the link state routing information directly into the whole network i.e. Global flooding which
may lead to the congestion of control packets in the network.
Hence, as a solution Global State Routing Protocol (GSR) came into the picture. Global state
routing doesn‘t flood the link state routing packets globally into the network. In GSR, each of
the mobile node maintains one list and three tables namely, adjacency list, topology table, next
hop table and distance table.
5.4.2. Reactive routing protocols: These are also known as on-demand routing protocol. In this
type of routing, the route is discovered only when it is required/needed. The process of route
discovery occurs by flooding the route request packets throughout the mobile network. It consists of
two major phases namely, route discovery and route maintenance.
a) Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR): It is a reactive/on-demand routing protocol. In this
type of routing, the route is discovered only when it is required/needed. The process of route
discovery occurs by flooding the route request packets throughout the mobile network. It
consists of two phases:

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 Route Discovery: This phase determines the most optimal path for the transmission of data
packets between the source and the destination mobile nodes.
 Route Maintenance: This phase performs the maintenance work of the route as the
topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic in nature and hence, there are many cases
of link breakage resulting in the network failure between the mobile nodes.
b) Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol (AODV): It is a reactive/on-demand routing
protocol. It is an extension of dynamic source routing protocol (DSR) and it helps to remove the
disadvantage of dynamic source routing protocol. In DSR, after route discovery, when the
source mobile node sends the data packet to the destination mobile node, it also contains the
complete path in its header. Hence, as the network size increases, the length of the complete
path also increases and the data packet‘s header size also increases which makes the whole
network slow.
Hence, Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol came as solution to it. The main
difference lies in the way of storing the path, AODV stores the path in the routing table whereas
DSR stores it in the data packet‘s header itself. It also operates in two phases in the similar
fashion: Route discovery and Route maintenance.
5.4.3. Hybrid Routing protocol: It basically combines the advantages of both, reactive and pro-
active routing protocols. These protocols are adaptive in nature and adapts according to the zone
and position of the source and destination mobile nodes. One of the most popular hybrid routing
protocol is Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP).
The whole network is divided into different zones and then the position of source and destination
mobile node is observed. If the source and destination mobile nodes are present in the same zone,
then proactive routing is used for the transmission of the data packets between them. And if the
source and destination mobile nodes are present in different zones, then reactive routing is used for
the transmission of the data packets between them.
Figure 5.1.11 Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)
Characteristics of MANET Routing Protocol:

To avoid the problems with routing in MANET, routing protocols should have following
characteristics:
 It should be widely distributed.
 It must be localized.
 Because of nodes mobility, it should be adjustable to frequent change in topology.
 It must be free of impermeable routes.
 The convergence of routes must be fast.
 Each node in the network should be required to store information about the network‘s stable
local topology.
 It should be able to provide high-quality service.

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5.5 Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less wireless network that is deployed in a
large number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used to monitor the system, physical
or environmental conditions.
Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the on board processor that manages and monitors the
environment in a particular area. They are connected to the Base Station which acts as a
processing unit in the WSN System. Base Station in a WSN System is connected through the
Internet to share data.
Figure 5.1.12 : Wireless sensor network
WSN can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.
Applications of WSN:
1. Internet of Things (IoT)

2. Surveillance and Monitoring for security, threat detection
3. Environmental temperature, humidity, and air pressure
4. Noise Level of the surrounding
5. Medical applications like patient monitoring
6. Agriculture
7. Landslide Detection
Challenges of WSN:
A modern Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) faces several challenges, including:

 Limited power and energy: WSNs are typically composed of battery-powered sensors that
have limited energy resources. This makes it challenging to ensure that the network can
function for long periods of time without the need for frequent battery replacements.
 Limited processing and storage capabilities: Sensor nodes in a WSN are typically small and
have limited processing and storage capabilities. This makes it difficult to perform complex
tasks or store large amounts of data.
 Heterogeneity: WSNs often consist of a variety of different sensor types and nodes with
different capabilities. This makes it challenging to ensure that the network can function
effectively and efficiently.
 Security: WSNs are vulnerable to various types of attacks, such as eavesdropping, jamming,
and spoofing. Ensuring the security of the network and the data it collects is a major
challenge.

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 Scalability: WSNs often need to be able to support a large number of sensor nodes and handle
large amounts of data. Ensuring that the network can scale to meet these demands is a
significant challenge.
 Interference: WSNs are often deployed in environments where there is a lot of interference
from other wireless devices. This can make it difficult to ensure reliable communication
between sensor nodes.
 Reliability: WSNs are often used in critical applications, such as monitoring the environment
or controlling industrial processes. Ensuring that the network is reliable and able to function
correctly in all conditions is a major challenge.
Elements of WSN:
1. Sensors:
Sensors in WSN are used to capture the environmental variables and which is used for data
acquisition. Sensor signals are converted into electrical signals.
2. Radio Nodes:
It is used to receive the data produced by the Sensors and sends it to the WLAN access point.
It consists of a microcontroller, transceiver, external memory, and power source.
3. WLAN Access Point:
It receives the data which is sent by the Radio nodes wirelessly, generally through the internet.
4. Evaluation Software:
The data received by the WLAN Access Point is processed by a software called as Evaluation
Software for presenting the report to the users for further processing of the data which can be
used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.
Advantages of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):

Low cost: WSNs consist of small, low-cost sensors that are easy to deploy, making them a cost-
effective solution for many applications.
Wireless communication: WSNs eliminate the need for wired connections, which can be costly
and difficult to install. Wireless communication also enables flexible deployment and
reconfiguration of the network.
Energy efficiency: WSNs use low-power devices and protocols to conserve energy, enabling
long-term operation without the need for frequent battery replacements.
Scalability: WSNs can be scaled up or down easily by adding or removing sensors, making them
suitable for a range of applications and environments.
Real-time monitoring: WSNs enable real-time monitoring of physical phenomena in the
environment, providing timely information for decision making and control.
Disadvantages of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN):
Limited range: The range of wireless communication in WSNs is limited, which can be a
challenge for large-scale deployments or in environments with obstacles that obstruct radio
signals.
Limited processing power: WSNs use low-power devices, which may have limited processing
power and memory, making it difficult to perform complex computations or support advanced
applications.
Data security: WSNs are vulnerable to security threats, such as eavesdropping, tampering, and
denial of service attacks, which can compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of
data.
Interference: Wireless communication in WSNs can be susceptible to interference from other
wireless devices or radio signals, which can degrade the quality of data transmission.

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Deployment challenges: Deploying WSNs can be challenging due to the need for proper sensor
placement, power management, and network configuration, which can require significant time
and resources.
while WSNs offer many benefits, they also have limitations and challenges that must be
considered when deploying and using them in real-world applications.
5.6 Smart Dust or Motes
Smart Dust is an advance technology made up of tiny, wireless sensors which are also called
MOTES. The devices are smart enough to talk with other sensors which are small to adjust on the
head of a pin. These are light in weight that they can be placed in the environment like any ordinary
dust particle. A Smart dust is a Millimeter-scale self-contained microelectromechanical sensor
(MEMS) devices which include sensors of the ability of computing with bi-directional wireless
communications technology and a power supply. The tiny dust particles, smart dust sensors can be
spread throughout buildings or into the atmosphere to collect and maintain data. Smart dust devices
have applications in everything from military, microbiological and medical fields.
Figure 5.1.13 : WSN with Smart Dust or Motes Sensor

Smart dust is a technology of a tiny wireless sensor network, which are made of
microelectromechanical sensors (called MEMS). The robots, usually works with sensors, which
have self-contained sensing, computation ability, communication with devices and power supply
system. The new technology is formed the combination of nano technology, wireless sensor
technology and microelectromechanical system called Smart dust. These sensors are nano sized
called motes. The collective Smart dust sensors are placed in the environment to gather the data.
These devices primarily developed for the battle place later this technology has spread in several
media. Key Specifications of Smart Dust or Mote.
 Devices that incorporate communications, processing, sensors, and batteries into a small
package.
 Atmel microcontroller with sensors and a communication unit.
 RF transceiver, laser module, or a corner cube reflector.
 Temperature, light, humidity, pressure, 3 axis magnetometers, 3 axis accelerometers.

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5.6.2. SMART DUST ARCHITECTURE
The Smart dust mote structure is shown in Figure 5.1.14 single pack of microelectromechanical
sensors (MEMS) is a semiconductor laser diode and microelectromechanical beam for active optical
transmission. A MEMS corner-cube retro-reflector used for passive optical transmission and an
optical receiver for signal processing and is to control circuitry and a power source based on thick-
film batteries and solar cells. This package will have the ability to sense and communicate and
compute with other sensors that are to be self-powered.
Figure 5.1.14 : Architecture of Smart Dust or Motes Sensor
The topological structure of wireless networks is shown in figure 5.1.15. Mesh topology and hub-
and-spoke topology is used in the development of this network. In the mesh topology, each mote
acts like an independent instrument, where as in hub-and-spoke one of the motes acts as cleaning
house for all data network, i.e. the stored old data has been deleted after sending to the nearest
subsystem. Each mote gathers nearest data and sends it to the adjacent motes
Figure 5.1.15 Motes topology in WSN

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The topological structure of wireless networks is shown in figure 5.1.15. Mesh topology and hub-
and-spoke topology is used in the development of this network. In the mesh topology, each mote
acts like an independent instrument, where as in hub-and-spoke one of the motes acts as cleaning
house for all data network, i.e. the stored old data has been deleted after sending to the nearest
subsystem. Each mote gathers nearest data and sends it to the adjacent motes The sleep-awake
protocol is used to detect sudden changes in data noted by the motes . The sleep-awake protocol is
activates once in a second. The time duration will be 0.05 millisecond per each note. In every 10
millisecond the data will be exchanged with neighbour motes . While exchanging data, the motes
did not consume power. GPS will be used to spread data from mote to mote as well as mote to the
nearest subsystem.
5.6.4 WORKING OF SMART DUST
The mote is a small type of computer which works on tiny operating system(TinyOS) . One
computer examines one or more sensors. The sensing applications are common to the motes such as
to sense temperature, light, sound, position, acceleration, stress, vibration, humidity, etc. The
computer connects with radio link to monitor sensors. The radio link transmits the sensing power
from 10 feet to 200 feet distance . Because of small size, the motes having normal radios power.
The motes run on batteries and some works with power grid in some applications. If the motes are
very small to maintain batteries, in such cases it will work on solar power. the operational
specification of motes can be given as:
1) Hardware
 UCB motes
2) Programming
 TinyOS
3) Query processing
 Tiny DB
 Directed diffusion
 Geographic hash tables
4) Power management
 MAC protocols
 Adaptive topologies
5.7 TinyOS
TinyOS is an embedded, component-based operating system and platform for low-power wireless
devices as shown in figure ( ), such as those used in wireless sensor networks (WSNs), smartdust,
ubiquitous computing, personal area networks, building automation, and smart meters. It is written
in the programming language nesC, as a set of cooperating tasks and processes. It began as a
collaboration between the University of California, Berkeley, Intel Research, and Crossbow
Technology, was released as free and open-source software under a BSD license, and has since
grown into an international consortium, the TinyOS Alliance.

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TinyOS Design Philosophy
• Sleep almost all the time.

• Wake-up (quickly) when there is something to do.
• Process it and all other concurrent or serial activities as rapidly as possible.
– Structured, event driven concurrency
• Never wait!!!
• Automatically go back to sleep
TinyOS applications are written in the programming language nesC, a dialect of the C
language optimized for the memory limits of sensor networks. Its supplementary tools are mainly in
the form of Java and shell script front-ends. Associated libraries and tools, such as the nesC
compiler and Atmel AVR binutils toolchains, are mostly written in C.
TinyOS programs are built of software components, some of which present hardware abstractions.
Components are connected to each other using interfaces. TinyOS provides interfaces and
components for common abstractions such as packet communication, routing, sensing, actuation
and storage.

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TinyOS is fully non-blocking:
 it has one call stack. Thus, all input/output (I/O) operations that last longer than a few
hundred microseconds are asynchronous and have a callback.
 To enable the native compiler to better optimize across call boundaries, TinyOS uses nesC's
features to link these callbacks, called events, statically.
 While being non-blocking enables TinyOS to maintain high concurrency with one stack, it
forces programmers to write complex logic by stitching together many small event handlers.
 To support larger computations, TinyOS provides tasks, which are similar to a Deferred
Procedure Call and interrupt handler bottom halves.
 A TinyOS component can post a task, which the OS will schedule to run later. Tasks are
non-preemptive and run in first in, first out order.
This simple concurrency model is typically sufficient for I/O centric applications, but its difficulty
with CPU-heavy applications has led to developing a thread library for the OS, named TOSThreads.
TOSThreads are unmaintained and have been deprecated.
TinyOS code is statically linked with program code and is compiled into a small binary, using a
custom GNU toolchain. Associated utilities are provided to complete a development platform for
working with TinyOS.
5.8 WSN Routing Protocol
The routing protocol is a process to select suitable path for the data to travel from source to
destination. The process encounters several difficulties while selecting the route, which depends
upon, type of network, channel characteristics and the performance metrics.
The data sensed by the sensor nodes in a wireless sensor network (WSN) is typically forwarded to
the base station that connects the sensor network with the other networks (may be internet) where
the data is collected, analyzed and some action is taken accordingly.
In very small sensor networks where the base station and motes (sensor nodes) so close that they
can communicate directly with each other than this is single-hop communication but in most WSN
application the coverage area is so large that requires thousands of nodes to be placed and this
scenario requires multi-hop communication because most of the sensor nodes are so far from the
sink node (gateway) so that they cannot communicate directly with the base station. The single-hop
communication is also called direct communication and multi-hop communication is called indirect
communication.
In multi-hop communication the sensor nodes not only produce and deliver their material but also
serve as a path for other sensor nodes towards the base station. The process of finding suitable path
from source node to destination node is called routing and this is the primary responsibility of the
network layer.
5.8.1 Classification of routing protocols
The routing protocols define how nodes will communicate with each other and how the information
will be disseminated through the network. There are many ways to classify the routing protocols of
WSN. The basic classification of routing protocols is illustrated in Figure 5.1.18.

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Basic classification of routing protocols are following:
5.8.1 Node centric

In node centric protocols the destination node is specified with some numeric identifiers and this is not
expected type of communication in Wireless sensor networks. E.g. Low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy
(LEACH).
5.8.1.a: Low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH)

LEACH is a routing protocol that organizes the cluster such that the energy is equally divided in all
the sensor nodes in the network. In LEACH protocol several clusters are produced of sensor nodes
and one node defined as cluster head and act as routing node for all the other nodes in the cluster.
As in routing protocols the cluster head is selected before the whole communication starts and the
communication fails if there is any problem occurs in the cluster head and there is much chances
that the battery dies earlier as compare to the other nodes in cluster as the fix cluster head is
working his duties of routing for the whole cluster.
LEACH protocol apply randomization and cluster head is selected from the group of nodes so this
selection of cluster head from several nodes on temporary basis make this protocol more long
lasting as battery of a single node is not burdened for long. Sensor nodes elect themselves as cluster
head with some probability criteria defined by the protocol and announce this to other nodes
5.8.2. Data-centric
In most of the wireless sensor networks, the sensed data or information is far more valuable than the
actual node itself. Therefore data centric routing techniques the prime focus is on the transmission
of information specified by certain attributes rather than collecting data from certain nodes.
In data centric routing the sink node queries to specific regions to collect data of some specific
characteristics so naming scheme based on attributes is necessary to describe the characteristics of
data. Examples are as follows:
5.8.2.a: Sensor protocols for information via negotiation (SPIN)

SPIN is abbreviation of sensor protocol for information via negotiation. This protocol is defined to
use to remove the deficiency like flooding and gossiping that occurs in other protocols. The main
idea is that the sharing of data, which is sensed by the node, might take more resources as compare
to the meta-data, which is just a descriptor about the data sensed, by the node. The resource
manager in each node monitors its resources and adapts their functionality accordingly.
Three messages namely ADV, REQ and DATA are used in SPIN. The node broadcast an ADV
packet to all the other nodes that it has some data. This advertising node ADV message includes
attributes of the data it has. The nodes having interests in data, which the advertising node has

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requested by sending REQ message, to the advertising node. On receiving the REQ message the
advertising node send data to that node. This process continues when the node on reception of data
generate an ADV message and send it. The whole model SPIN is shown in (Figure5.1.19).
5.8.3. Destination-initiated (Dst-initiated)

Protocols are called destination initiated protocols when the path setup generation originates from
the destination node. Examples are directed diffusion (DD) & LEACH.
5.8.3.a: Directed diffusion (DD)

Directed diffusion is a data centric routing technique. It uses this data centric technique for
information gathering and circulating. This routing protocol is also energy efficient and energy
saving protocol so that‘s why life time of the network is increased. All the communication in
directed diffusion routing protocol is node to node so there is no need of addressing in this protocol.
5.8.4. Source-initiated (Src-initiated)

In these types of protocols the source node advertises when it has data to share and then the route is
generated from the source side to the destination. Examples is SPIN
5.8.5 Categories of routing protocols

In order to transmit data in sensor networks, there are two techniques being used. The one is
referred to as Flooding and the other one is gossiping protocol. There is no need to use any routing
algorithm and maintenance of topology. In the flooding protocol, upon reception of a data packet by
sensor nodes, this data packet is broadcast to all other neighbour. The process of broadcasting is
continued till any one of two following conditions is satisfied; the packet has reached successfully
to its destination. And second condition is; maximum number of hops of a packet has reached .
The main advantages of flooding are ease of implementation and simplicity. The drawbacks are
blindness of resources and overlapping and implosion. The gossiping protocol is somewhat
advanced version of flooding protocol. In gossiping protocol, the sensor node, which is getting a
data packet, transmits it to the arbitrarily selected neighbour. At the next turn, the sensing nodes
again randomly pick another nodes and sends data to it. This process is continued again and again.
The broadcasting is not used in gossiping protocol as it was used in flooding. In this way, implosion
issue can be avoided easily. But delay is enhanced in this way. The main categories of the routing
protocols are depicted in Figure 5.1.20

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5.8.6. Comparison of routing protocols of WSN
A detailed comparison of WSN routing protocols is given below in tabular form is shown Table 1.
as Simulation parameters & Table 2 as Performance analysis of routing protocols.
Simulation parameters Values
No. of nodes 20, 40, 80
Simulation time 120 s
Simulation area 1000 m2
Data rate of nodes 11 Mbps
Traffic FTP (high load)
Routing protocols AODV, DSR and OLSR
Table 1
Table 2

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Chapter 6
6.1 Handheld Operating System:
An operating system is a program whose job is to manage a computer‘s hardware. Its other use is
that it also provides a basis for application programs and acts as an intermediary between the
computer user and the computer hardware. An amazing feature of operating systems is how they
vary in accomplishing these tasks. Operating systems for mobile computers provide us with an
environment in which we can easily interface with the computer so that we can execute the
programs. Thus, some of the operating systems are made to be convenient, others to be well-
organized, and the rest to be some combination of the two.
Handheld operating systems are available in all handheld devices like Smartphones and tablets. It is
sometimes also known as a Personal Digital Assistant. The popular handheld device in today‘s
world is Android and iOS. These operating systems need a high-processing processor and are also
embedded with various types of sensors.
Some points related to Handheld operating systems are as follows:
1. Since the development of handheld computers in the 1990s, the demand for software to operate
and run on these devices has increased.
2. Three major competitors have emerged in the handheld PC world with three different operating
systems for these handheld PCs.
3. Out of the three companies, the first was the Palm Corporation with their PalmOS.
4. Microsoft also released what was originally called Windows CE. Microsoft‘s recently released
operating system for the handheld PC comes under the name of Pocket PC.
5. More recently, some companies producing handheld PCs have also started offering a handheld
version of the Linux operating system on their machines.
Features of Handheld Operating System:
1. Its work is to provide real-time operations.
2. There is direct usage of interrupts.
3. Input/output device flexibility.
4. Configurability.
Advantages of Handheld Operating System:
Some advantages of a Handheld Operating System are as follows:
1. Less Cost.
2. Less weight and size.
3. Less heat generation.
4. More reliability.
Disadvantages of Handheld Operating System:
Some disadvantages of Handheld Operating Systems are as follows:
1. Less Speed.
2. Small Size.
3. Input / Output System (memory issue or less memory is available).
How Handheld operating systems are different from Desktop operating systems?
 Since the handheld operating systems are mainly designed to run on machines that have lower
speed resources as well as less memory, they were designed in a way that they use less memory
and require fewer resources.
 They are also designed to work with different types of hardware as compared to standard
desktop operating systems.

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 It happens because the power requirements for standard CPUs far exceed the power of handheld
devices.
 Handheld devices aren‘t able to dissipate large amounts of heat generated by CPUs. To deal
with such kind of problem, big companies like Intel and Motorola have designed smaller CPUs
with lower power requirements and also lower heat generation. Many handheld devices fully
depend on flash memory cards for their internal memory because large hard drives do not fit
into handheld devices.
Types of Handheld Operating Systems:

Types of Handheld Operating Systems are as follows:
1. Palm OS
2. Symbian OS
3. Linux OS
4. Windows
5. Android
6.1.1 Palm OS
Since the Palm Pilot was introduced in 1996 by Palm Incorporated, and alternatively known
as Garnet OS, Palm OS is the operating system used by the stylus-based Palm Pilot series of
handheld computers. The 6th and final update to the operating system, Palm OS Cobalt, was
released in 2004., the Palm OS platform has provided various mobile devices with essential
business tools, as well as the capability that they can access the internet via a wireless
connection.
These devices have mainly concentrated on providing basic personal-information-management
applications. The latest Palm products have progressed a lot, packing in more storage, wireless
internet, etc.
User Interface Architecture of Palm Us

 The User Interface in the architecture is used for graphical input-output.

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 The Memory Management section is used for maintaining databases, global variables, etc.
 System Management‘s job is to maintain events, calendars, dates, times, etc.
 Communication TCP/IP as the name denotes is simply used for communication.
 Microkernel is an essential tool in architecture. It is responsible for providing the mechanism
needed for the proper functioning of an operating system.
Development Cycle
For the development of the PALM OS, these are the phases it has to go through before it can be
used in the market:
 Editing the code for the operating system that is checking for errors and correcting errors.
 Compile and Debug the code to check for bugs and correct functioning of the code.
 Run the program on a mobile device or related device.
 If all the above phases are passed, we can finally have our finished product which is the
operating system for mobile devices named PALM OS.
Figure 6.1.3 Palm OS Development cycle

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Advantages
 Fewer features are designed for low memory and processor usage which means longer battery
life.
 No need to upgrade the operating system as it is handled automatically in PALM OS.
 More applications are available for users.
 Extended connectivity for users. Users can now connect to wide areas.
Disadvantages
 The user cannot download applications using the external memory in PALM OS. It will be a
disadvantage for users with limited internal memory.
 Systems and extended connectivity are less compared to what is offered by other operating
systems.
6.1.2 Symbian OS:

It has been the most widely-used smartphone operating system because of its ARM architecture
before it was discontinued in 2014. It was developed by Symbian Ltd. This operating system
consists of two subsystems where the first one is the microkernel-based operating system which
has its associated libraries and the second one is the interface of the operating system with
which a user can interact. Since this operating system consumes very less power, it was
developed for smartphones and handheld devices. It has good connectivity as well as stability. It
can run applications that are written in Python, Ruby, .NET, etc.
Advantages of Symbian OS:

 Symbian OS provides open platform to enable independent technology and software vendors
to develop third party app.
 Symbian allowed impressive battery life.
 Symbian required lower hardware requirements.

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Disadvantages of Symbian OS
 Symbian OS is dependent on Nokia
 Major drawback of SymbianOS is it provided a late response as compared to ios and Android.
 The touch of Symbian use devices are not as smooth as compared to ios and android devices.
6.1.3 Linux OS:

Linux is one of popular version of UNIX operating System. It is open source as its source code is
freely available. It is free to use. Linux was designed considering UNIX compatibility. Its
functionality list is quite similar to that of UNIX.
Components of Linux System

Linux Operating System has primarily three components
 Kernel − Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is responsible for all major activities of this
operating system. It consists of various modules and it interacts directly with the underlying
hardware. Kernel provides the required abstraction to hide low level hardware details to
system or application programs.
 System Library − System libraries are special functions or programs using which
application programs or system utilities accesses Kernel's features. These libraries
implement most of the functionalities of the operating system and do not requires kernel
module's code access rights.
 System Utility − System Utility programs are responsible to do specialized, individual level
tasks.
Kernel Mode vs User Mode

Kernel component code executes in a special privileged mode called kernel mode with full access
to all resources of the computer. This code represents a single process, executes in single address
space and do not require any context switch and hence is very efficient and fast. Kernel runs each
processes and provides system services to processes, provides protected access to hardware to
processes.

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Support code which is not required to run in kernel mode is in System Library. User programs and
other system programs works in User Mode which has no access to system hardware and kernel
code. User programs/ utilities use System libraries to access Kernel functions to get system's low
level tasks.
Basic Features
Following are some of the important features of Linux Operating System.
 Portable − Portability means software can works on different types of hardware in same
way. Linux kernel and application programs supports their installation on any kind of
hardware platform.
 Open Source − Linux source code is freely available and it is community based
development project. Multiple teams work in collaboration to enhance the capability of
Linux operating system and it is continuously evolving.
 Multi-User − Linux is a multiuser system means multiple users can access system resources
like memory/ ram/ application programs at same time.
 Multiprogramming − Linux is a multiprogramming system means multiple applications can
run at same time.
 Hierarchical File System − Linux provides a standard file structure in which system files/
user files are arranged.
 Shell − Linux provides a special interpreter program which can be used to execute
commands of the operating system. It can be used to do various types of operations, call
application programs. etc.
 Security − Linux provides user security using authentication features like password
protection/ controlled access to specific files/ encryption of data.
Architecture
The following illustration shows the architecture of a Linux system −

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The architecture of a Linux System consists of the following layers −
Hardware layer − Hardware consists of all peripheral devices (RAM/ HDD/ CPU etc).
Kernel − It is the core component of Operating System, interacts directly with hardware,
provides low level services to upper layer components.
 Shell − An interface to kernel, hiding complexity of kernel's functions from users. The shell
takes commands from the user and executes kernel's functions.
 Utilities − Utility programs that provide the user most of the functionalities of an operating
systems.
Advantages of LinuxOs
 Linux OS is an open-source operating system project which is a cross-platform system that

was developed based on UNIX
 It was developed by Linus Torvalds. It is a system software that basically allows the apps
and users to perform some tasks on the PC.
 Linux is free and can be easily downloaded from the internet and it is considered that it has the
best community support.
 Linux is portable which means it can be installed on different types of devices like mobile,
computers, and tablets.
 It is a multi-user operating system.
 Linux interpreter program which is called BASH is used to execute commands.
 It provides user security using authentication features.
6.1.4 Windows OS:

Windows is an operating system developed by Microsoft. Its interface which is
called Graphical User Interface eliminates the need to memorize commands for the command
line by using a mouse to navigate through menus, dialog boxes, and buttons .It is named
Windows because its programs are displayed in the form of a square. It has been designed for
both a beginner as well professional. It comes preloaded with many tools which help the users
to complete all types of tasks on their computer, mobiles, etc. It has a large user base so there is
a much larger selection of available software programs. One great feature of Windows is that it
is backward compatible which means that its old programs can run on newer versions as well.
Windows CE(Windows Embedded Compact)

Windows CE, is an operating system subfamily developed by Microsoft as part of its Windows
Embedded family of products. Unlike Windows Embedded Standard, which is based on Windows
NT, Windows Embedded Compact uses a different hybrid kernel. Microsoft licenses it to original
equipment manufacturers (OEMs), who can modify and create their own user interfaces and
experiences, with Windows Embedded Compact providing the technical foundation to do so. The
current version of Windows Embedded Compact supports x86 and ARM processors with board
support package (BSP) directly. The MIPS and SHx architectures had support prior to version 7.0.
7.0 still works on MIPSII architecture.
Originally, Windows CE was designed for minimalistic and small computers. However CE had its
own kernel whereas those such as Windows XP Embedded are based on NT. Windows CE was a
modular/componentized operating system that served as the foundation of several classes of devices
such as Handheld PC, Pocket PC, Auto PC, Windows Mobile, Windows Phone 7 and more. Official
mainstream support for the current and final version of Windows CE, Windows Embedded
Compact 2013 ended on October 9, 2018, and extended support will end on October 10, 2023.

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The first version – known during development under the code name "Pegasus" – featured a
Windows-like GUI and a number of Microsoft's popular apps, all trimmed down for smaller
storage, memory, and speed of the palmtops of the day. Since then, Windows CE has evolved into a
component-based, embedded, real-time operating system. It is no longer targeted solely at hand-
held computers. Many platforms have been based on the core Windows CE operating system,
including Microsoft's Auto PC, Pocket PC 2000, Pocket PC 2002, Windows Mobile
2003, Windows Mobile 2003 SE, Windows Mobile 5, Windows Mobile 6, Smartphone
2002, Smartphone 2003, Portable Media Center, Zune, Windows Phone 7 and many industrial
devices and embedded systems. A distinctive feature of Windows CE compared to other Microsoft
operating systems is that large parts of it are offered in source code form. First, source code was
offered to several vendors, so they could adjust it to their hardware.
Advantages Windows CE

Windows CE is optimized for devices that have minimal memory; a Windows CE kernel
may run with one megabyte of memory.
 Devices are often configured without disk storage, and may be configured as a "closed"
system that does not allow for end-user extension (for instance, it can be burned into ROM).
 Windows CE conforms to the definition of a real-time operating system, with a deterministic
interrupt latency.
 From Version 3 and onward, the system supports 256 priority levels and uses priority
inheritance for dealing with priority inversion.
 The fundamental unit of execution is the thread. This helps to simplify the interface and
improve execution time.
6.1.5 Android OS:

Android OS is a Linux-based mobile operating system that primarily runs on smartphones and
tablets. The Android platform includes an operating system based upon the Linux kernel, a GUI, a
web browser and end-user applications that can be downloaded. Although the initial demonstrations
of Android featured a generic QWERTY smartphone and large VGA screen, the operating system
was written to run on relatively inexpensive handsets with conventional numeric keypads.
Android was released under the Apache v2 open source license; this allows for many variations of
the OS to be developed for other devices, such as gaming consoles and digital cameras. Android is
based on open source software, but most Android devices come preinstalled with a suite of
proprietary software, such as Google Maps, YouTube, Google Chrome and Gmail.
History and development of Android OS

Android began its life as a Palo Alto-based startup company called Android Inc., in 2003.
Originally, the company set out to develop an operating system for digital cameras, but it
abandoned those efforts in lieu of reaching a broader market. Google acquired Android Inc. and its
key employees in 2005 for at least $50 million. Google marketed the early mobile platform to
handset manufacturers and mobile carriers with its major benefits as flexibility and upgradability.

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Figure 6.1.7 : Android operating System
Android OS features
1) The default UI of Android relies on direct manipulation inputs such as tapping, swiping and
pinching to initiate actions. The device provides haptic feedback to the user via alerts such
as vibrations to respond to actions. If a user presses a navigation button, for example, the
device vibrates.
2) When a user boots a device, Android OS displays the home screen, which is the primary
navigation hub for Android devices and is comprised of widgets and app icons.
3) Widgets are informational displays that automatically update content such as weather or
news.
4) The home screen display can differ based on the device manufacturer that is running the OS.
5) Users can also choose different themes for the home screen via third-party apps on Google
Play.
6) A status bar at the top of the home screen displays information about the device and its
connectivity, such as the Wi-Fi network that the device is connected to or signal strength.
7) Users can pull down the status bar with a swipe of a finger to view a notification screen.
8) Android OS also includes features to save battery usage. The OS suspends applications that
aren't in use to conserve battery power and CPU usage.
9) Android includes memory management features that automatically close inactive processes
stored in its memory.
10) Android runs on both of the most widely deployed cellular standards GSM/HSDPA
and CDMA/EV-DO. Android also supports:
 Bluetooth
 Edge
 3G communication protocols, like EV-DO and HSDPA

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 Wi-Fi
 Autocorrect
 SMS and MMS messaging
 video/still digital cameras
 GPS
 compasses
 accelerometers
 accelerated 3D graphics
 multitasking applications
Android OS versions
Google makes incremental changes to the OS with each release. This often includes security
patches and performance improvements.
I. Android 1.0. Released Sept. 23, 2008. Included a suite of Google apps, including Gmail,
Maps, Calendar and YouTube.
II. Android 1.5 (Cupcake). Released April 27, 2009. Introduced an onscreen virtual keyboard
and the framework for third-party app widgets.
III. Android 1.6 (Donut). Released Sept. 15, 2009. Introduced the ability for the OS to run on
different screen sizes and resolutions; added support for CDMA networks.
IV. Android 2.0 (Eclair). Released Oct. 26, 2009. Added turn-by-turn voice navigation, real-
time traffic information, pinch-to-zoom capability.
V. Android 2.2 (Froyo). Released May 20, 2010. Added dock at the bottom of the home
screen and voice actions, which allows users to tap an icon and speak a command. Also
introduced support for Flash to the web browser.
VI. Android 2.3 (Gingerbread). Released Dec. 6, 2010. Introduced black and green into the
UI.
VII. Android 3.0 to 3.2 (Honeycomb). Released Feb. 22, 2011. This release was exclusive to
tablets and introduced a blue, space-themed holographic design.
VIII. Android 4.0 (Ice Cream Sandwich). Released Oct. 18, 2011. Introduced a unified UI to
both tablets and smartphones; emphasized swiping as a navigational method.
IX. Android 4.1 to 4.3 (Jelly Bean). Released July 9, 2012, Nov. 13, 2012, and July 24, 2013,
respectively. Introduced Google Now, a day planner service. Added interactive notifications
and improved voice search system.
X. Android 4.4 (KitKat). Released Oct. 31, 2013. Introduced lighter colors into the UI, along
with a transparent status bar and white icons.
XI. Android 5.0 (Lollipop). Released Nov. 12, 2014. Incorporated a card-based appearance in
the design with elements such as notifications and Recent Apps list. Introduced hands-free
voice control with the spoken "OK, Google" command.
XII. Android 6.0 (Marshmallow). Released Oct. 5, 2015. This release marked Google's
adoption of an annual release schedule. Introduced more granular app permissions and
support for USB-C and fingerprint readers.
XIII. Android 7.0 and 7.1 (Nougat). Released Aug. 22, 2016 and Oct. 4, 2016, respectively.
Introduced a native split-screen mode and the ability to bundle notifications by app.
XIV. Android 8.0 and 8.1 (Oreo). Released Aug. 21, 2017 and Dec. 5, 2017, respectively. These
versions introduced a native picture-in-picture (PIP) mode and the ability to snooze
notifications. Oreo was the first version to incorporate Project Treble, an effort by OEMs to
provide more standardized software updates.
XV. Android 9.0 (Pie). Released Aug. 6, 2018. This version replaced Back, Home and
Overview buttons for a multifunctional Home button and a smaller Back button. Introduced
productivity features, including suggested replies for messages and brightness management
capabilities.

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XVI. Android 10 (Android Q). Released Sept. 3, 2019. Abandoned the Back button in favour of
a swipe-based approach to navigation. Introduced a dark theme and Focus Mode, which
enables users to limit distractions from certain apps.
XVII. Android 11 (Red Velvet Cake). Released Sept. 8, 2020. Added built-in screen recording.
Created a single location to view and respond to conversations across multiple messaging
apps. This version also updated the chat bubbles so users can pin conversations to the top of
apps and screens.
XVIII. Android 12 (Snow Cone). Released Oct. 4, 2021. Added customization options for the user
interface. The conversation widget let users store preferred contacts on their home screens.
Added more privacy options, including sharing when apps access information such as
camera, photos or microphone.
XIX. Android 12L. Released March 7, 2022.The L stands for larger screens. This update aimed
to improve the user interface and optimize for the larger screen of a tablet, foldable or
Chromebook. This update added a dual-panel notification center for tablets and foldables.
XX. Android 13 (Tiramisu). Released Aug. 15, 2022. Included more customizable options
including color, theme, language and music. Security updates included control over
information apps can access, notification permission required for all apps and clearing of
personal information on clipboard. This update enables multitasking by sharing of messages,
chats, links and photos across multiple Android devices -- including phones, tablets and
Chromebooks.
Hardware & software platform for Android
Android uses ARM for its hardware platform; later versions of Android OS support x86 and x86-64
architectures. Starting in 2012, device manufacturers released Android smartphones and tablets with
Intel processors. The minimum hardware requirements of Android depend on the device's screen size and
CPU type and density. Originally, Google required a 200 MHz processor, 32 MB of storage and 32 MB of
RAM. Google releases documentation with hardware requirements that original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs) must meet for a device to be "Google Approved," which means that it will ship with official Google
apps. The open source nature of Android, however, means that it can also run on lesser hardware, and vice
versa.
Programming Languages used in Developing Android Applications
1. Java
2. Kotlin
Developing the Android Application using Kotlin is preferred by Google, as Kotlin is made an
official language for Android Development, which is developed and maintained by JetBrains.
Previously before Java is considered the official language for Android Development. Kotlin is
made official for Android Development in Google I/O 2017
Android OS Advantages
 It is a Google Linux-based operating system that is mainly designed for touchscreen devices
such as phones, tablets, etc.
 There are three architectures which are ARM, Intel, and MIPS which are used by the
hardware for supporting Android. These lets users manipulate the devices intuitively, with
movements of our fingers that mirror some common motions such as swiping, tapping, etc.
 Android operating system can be used by anyone because it is an open-source operating
system and it is also free.
 It offers 2D and 3D graphics, GSM connectivity, etc.

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 There is a huge list of applications for users since Play Store offers over one million apps.
 Professionals who want to develop applications for the Android OS can download the
Android Development Kit. By downloading it they can easily develop apps for android.
Disadvantages of Android OS
 Fragmentation provides a very intuitive approach to user experience but it has some drawbacks,
where the development team needs time to adjust to the various screen sizes of mobile
smartphones that are now available in the market and invoke the particular features in the
application.
 The Android devices might vary broadly. So the testing of the application becomes more
difficult.
 As the development and testing consume more time, the cost of the application may increase,
depending on the application‘s complexity and features.
6.2 Conceptual study Mobile Internet and WAP
WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol. worldwide standard for providing Internet
communications and advanced telephony services on digital mobile phones, pagers, personal digital
assistants, and other wireless terminals
WAP is the set of rules governing the transmission and reception of data by computer applications
on or via wireless devices like mobile phones. WAP allows wireless devices to view specifically
designed pages from the Internet using only plain text and very simple black-and-white pictures.
WAP is a standardized technology for cross-platform, distributed computing very similar to the
Internet's combination of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP), except that it is optimized for:
 low-display capability
 low-memory
 low-bandwidth devices, such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), wireless phones, and
pagers.
WAP is designed to scale across a broad range of wireless networks like GSM, IS-95, IS-136, and
PDC.
The Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a result of joint efforts taken by companies teaming up
in an industry group called WAP Forum (www.wapforum.org).On June 26, 1997, Ericsson,
Motorola, Nokia, and Unwired Planet took the initiative to start a rapid creation of a standard for
making advanced services within the wireless domain a reality. In December 1997, WAP Forum
was formally created and after the release of the WAP 1.0 specifications in April 1998, WAP
Forum membership was opened to all.
The WAP Forum now has over 500 members and represents over 95 percent of the global handset
market. Companies such as Nokia, Motorola and Ericsson are all members of the forum. The
objective of the forum is to create a license-free standard that brings information and telephony
services to wireless devices.
Until the first WAP devices emerged, the Internet was a Internet and a mobile phone was a mobile
phone. You could surf the Net, do serious research, or be entertained on the Internet using your
computer, but this was limited to your computer.

171
Now with the appearance of WAP, the scene is that we have the massive information,
communication, and data resources of the Internet becoming more easily available to anyone with a
mobile phone or communications device.
WAP being open and secure, is well suited for many different applications including, but not
limited to stock market information, weather forecasts, enterprise data, and games.
6.2.1 WAP Microbrowser
To browse a standard internet site you need a web browser. Similar way to browse a WAP enables
website, you would need a micro browser. A Micro Browser is a small piece of software that makes
minimal demands on hardware, memory and CPU. It can display information written in a restricted
mark-up language called WML. Although, tiny in memory footprint it supports many features and
is even scriptable.
Today, all the WAP enabled mobile phones or PDAs are equipped with these micro browsers so
that you can take full advantage of WAP technology.
WAP - Key Features
1. A programming model similar to the Internet's
Though WAP is a new technology, but it reuse the concepts found on the Internet. This
reuse enables a quick introduction of WAP-based services, since both service developers
and manufacturers are familiar with these concepts today.
2. Wireless Markup Language (WML)

Using HTML language to develop your web-based application. Same way, WML is a
markup language used for authoring WAP services, fulfilling the same purpose as HTML
does on the Web. In contrast to HTML, WML is designed to fit small handheld devices.
3. WMLScript
Once again, you must be using Java Script or VB script to enhance the functionality of your
web applications. Same way, WMLScript can be used to enhance the functionality of a
service, just as Java script can be utilized in HTML. It makes it possible to add procedural
logic and computational functions to WAPbased services.
4. Wireless Telephony Application Interface (WTAI)

The WTAI is an application framework for telephony services. WTAI user agents are able
to make calls and edit the phone book by calling special WMLScript functions or by
accessing special URLs. If one writes WML decks containing names of people and their
phone numbers, you may add them to your phone book or call them right away just by
clicking the appropriate hyperlink on the screen.
5. Optimized protocol stack

The protocols used in WAP are based on well-known Internet protocols, such
as HTTP and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), but they have been optimized to address
the constraints of a wireless environment, such as low bandwidth and high latency.
6. WAP - The Model

Before we describe WAP model, first we would like you to understand how Standard
Internet works.

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6.2.2 The Internet Model
The Internet model makes it possible for a client to reach services on a large number of origin
servers, each addressed by a unique Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
The content stored on the servers is of various formats, but HTML is the predominant. HTML
provides the content developer with a means to describe the appearance of a service in a flat
document structure. If more advanced features like procedural logic are needed, then scripting
languages such as JavaScript or VB Script may be utilised.
The figure below shows how a WWW client request a resource stored on a web server. On the
Internet standard communication protocols, like HTTP and Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP) are used.
The content available at the web server may be static or dynamic. Static content is produced once
and not changed or updated very often; for example, a company presentation. Dynamic content is
needed when the information provided by the service changes more often; for example, timetables,
news, stock quotes, and account information. Technologies such as Active Server Pages (ASP),
Common Gateway Interface (CGI), and Servlets allow content to be generated dynamically.
6.2.3 The WAP Model

The figure below shows the WAP programming model. Note, the similarities with the Internet
model. Without the WAP Gateway/Proxy, the two models would have been practically
identical.WAP Gateway/Proxy is the entity that connects the wireless domain with the Internet. You
should make a note that the request that is sent from the wireless client to the WAP Gateway/Proxy
uses the Wireless Session Protocol (WSP). In its essence, WSP is a binary version of HTTP.
A markup language − the Wireless Markup Language (WML) has been adapted to develop
optimized WAP applications. In order to save valuable bandwidth in the wireless network, WML
can be encoded into a compact binary format. Encoding WML is one of the tasks performed by the
WAP Gateway/Proxy.

173
WAP works as follows −
 The user selects an option on their mobile device that has a URL with Wireless Markup
language (WML) content assigned to it.
 The phone sends the URL request via the phone network to a WAP gateway using the binary
encoded WAP protocol.
 The gateway translates this WAP request into a conventional HTTP request for the specified
URL and sends it on to the Internet.
 The appropriate Web server picks up the HTTP request.
 The server processes the request just as it would any other request. If the URL refers to a
static WML file, the server delivers it. If a CGI script is requested, it is processed and the
content returned as usual.
 The Web server adds the HTTP header to the WML content and returns it to the gateway.
 The WAP gateway compiles the WML into binary form.
 The gateway then sends the WML response back to the phone.
 The phone receives the WML via the WAP protocol.
 The micro-browser processes the WML and displays the content on the screen.

174
6.2.4 WAP - Architecture
WAP is designed in a layered fashion, so that it can be extensible, flexible, and scalable. As a result,
the WAP protocol stack is divided into five layers −
Layers of WAP Protocol
Application Layer Wireless Application Environment (WAE). This layer is of most interest to
content developers because it contains among other things, device specifications, and the content
development programming languages, WML, and WMLScript.
Session Layer Wireless Session Protocol (WSP). Unlike HTTP, WSP has been designed by the
WAP Forum to provide fast connection suspension and reconnection.
Transaction Layer Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP). The WTP runs on top of a datagram
service, such as User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and is part of the standard suite of TCP/IP
protocols used to provide a simplified protocol suitable for low bandwidth wireless stations.
Security Layer Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS). WTLS incorporates security features
that are based upon the established Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol standard. It includes
data integrity checks, privacy, service denial, and authentication services.
Transport Layer Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP). The WDP allows WAP to be bearer-
independent by adapting the transport layer of the underlying bearer. The WDP presents a
consistent data format to the higher layers of the WAP protocol stack, thereby offering the
advantage of bearer independence to application developers.
Each of these layers provides a well-defined interface to the layer above it. This means that the
internal workings of any layer are transparent or invisible to the layers above it. The layered
architecture allows other applications and services to utilise the features provided by the WAP-stack
as well. This makes it possible to use the WAP-stack for services and applications that currently are
not specified by WAP.
The WAP protocol architecture is shown below alongside a typical Internet Protocol stack.

175
Note that the mobile network bearers in the lower part of the figure above are not part of the WAP
protocol stack.
6.2.5 WAP - Environment
Wireless Application Environment (WAE), the uppermost layer in the WAP stack, provides an
environment that enables a wide range of applications to be used on the wireless devices. We have
earlier discussed about the WAP WAE programming model. In this chapter, we will focus on the
various components of WAE.
Components of WAE
Addressing Model A syntax suitable for naming resources stored on servers. WAP use the same
addressing model as the one used on the Internet that is Uniform Resource Locators (URL).
Wireless Markup Language (WML) A lightweight markup language designed to meet the
constraints of a wireless environment with low bandwidth and small handheld devices. The
Wireless Markup Language is WAP's analogy to HTML used on the WWW. WML is based on the
Extensible Markup Language (XML).
WMLScript A lightweight scripting language. WMLScript is based on ECMAScript, the same

scripting language that JavaScript is based on. It can be used for enhancing services written in
WML in the way that it to some extent adds intelligence to the services; for example, procedural
logic, loops, conditional expressions, and computational functions.
Wireless Telephony Application (WTA, WTAI) A framework and programming interface for
telephony services. The Wireless Telephony Application (WTA) environment provides a means to
create telephony services using WAP.
6.3 Mobile agents: Aglets, Tcl
In Mobile Computing, Mobile Agents are the composition of computer software and data that can
autonomously move from one computer to another computer and continue its execution on the
destination computer.
In other words, you can say that An Mobile Agent is an autonomous program that is capable of
moving from host to host in a network and interact with resources and other agents. In this process,
the chance of data loss is scarce because the state of the running program is saved and then
transported to the new host. It allows the program to continue execution from where it left off
before migration. The most significant advantage of mobile agents is the possibility of moving
complex processing functions to the location where you have enormous amounts of data and that
have to be processed. Mobile Agents are also called as transportable agents. They are classified into
two types:
 Mobile Agents with pre-defined path: They have a static migration path.
 Mobile Agents with undefined path i.e., Roamer: They have dynamic migration paths. The
mobile agents choose their path according to the present network condition.

176
6.3.1 Features of Mobile Agents
The mobile agents are autonomous with intelligence, social ability, learning, and the most important
feature is their mobility. They are independent in nature, self-driven and do not require a
corresponding node for communication. They can work efficiently even after the user gets
disconnected from the network.
 Intelligence
Mobile Agents are capable of learning and searching for knowledge about their domain.
That's why they are called intelligent agents because they possess a degree of domain
knowledge. They can also transport their state from one environment to another without
disturbing the previous holding data and be capable of performing appropriately in the new
environment.
 Autonomous
The Mobile Agents are Autonomous. It means the agents are not only motivated by the
outside actions initiated by the users or system but also they have internal events that
decided their performance and behaviour. The mobile agents can also take an autonomous
decision while selecting a node.
 Mobility
Mobile Agents contain some degree of mobility. The agent is not limited to its home node
only. They can migrate from one node to another and can carry out tasks along with them.
This feature distributes the processing and balancing of the load. Another benefit of this
capability is that when the user goes offline, the agents will still keep functioning.
 Communicative
Mobile Agents can communicate effectively with other agents, users and systems. The
mobile agents use a communication language for inter-agent communication.
6.3.2 Life Cycle of Mobile Agents The life cycle of mobile agents ensures the following
conditions:
 They can adapt to the environment. For example, either home or foreign environment.
 They are capable of switching among the positions of one node to another.
 They are autonomous and focused on the final output.

177
6.3.3 Aglets
Aglets is a Java mobile agent platform and library that eases the development of agent based
applications. An aglet is a Java agent able to autonomously and spontaneously move from one host
to another.
Originally developed at the IBM Tokyo Research Laboratory, the Aglets technology is now hosted
at sourceforge.net as open source project, where it is distributed under the IBM Public License.
Aglets is completely made in Java, granting an high portability of both the agents and the platform.
Aglets includes both a complete Java mobile agent platform, with a stand-alone server called Tahiti,
and a library that allows developer to build mobile agents and to embed the Aglets technology in
their applications. Currently, stable release of Aglets are available in the 2.0 series, and 2.0.2 is the
latest one.
Features of Aglets
 Provide an easy and comprehensive model for programming mobile agents without
requiring modifications to Java VM or native code.
 Support dynamic and powerful communication that enables agents to communicate with
unknown agents as well as well-known agents.
 Design a reusable and extensible architecture.
 Design a harmonious architecture with existing Web/Java technology.
The Aglet API

The Aglet API defines the fundamental functionality of mobile agents. The following figure shows
the major interfaces and classes defined in the Aglet API and the relationship between these
interfaces.
Figure 6.1.13 : Interfaces & Classes of Aglet API

The Aglet abstract class defines the fundamental methods (for example, dispatch(URL)) for a
mobile agent. to control their mobility and lifecycle. All mobile agents defined in Aglets have to
extends this abstract class. The Aglet. Dispatch(URL) primitive causes an aglet to move from the
local host to the destination given as the argument. The Aglet.deactivate(long time) primitive allows
an aglet to be stored in secondary storage, and the Aglet.clone() primitive spawns a new instance of
the aglet which has the state of the original aglet. Note that the object returned by
the clone primitive is not an Aglet object but an AgletProxy object.
Aglet Object and Its Life Cycle

Once created, an aglet object can be dispatched to and/or retracted from a remote host, deactivated and
placed in secondary storage, then activated later.

178
Figure 6.1.14 : Aglet life cycle
An aglet can dispatch itself to a remote host by calling the Aglet.dispatch(URL dest) primitive. To
be more precise, an aglet occupies the aglet context and can move from this context to others during
its execution. Because the runtime system may serve multiple contexts within one Java VM, these
contexts can be in the same VM. Dispatching causes an aglet to suspend its execution, serialize its
internal state and bytecode into the standard form and then to be transported to the destination. On
the receiver side, the Java object is reconstructed according to the data received from the origin, and
a new thread is assigned and executed.
System Architecture
The Aglets architecture consists of two APIs and two implementation layers.
 Aglet API
 Aglets Runtime Layer - The implementation of Aglet API
 Agent Transport and Communication Interface
 Transport Layer
Figure 6.1.15 : Aglet Architecture
The Aglets runtime layer is the implementation of Aglet API, which provides the fundamental
functionality such as creation, management or transfer of aglets. This layer defines the behaviour of
APIs such as Aglet and AgletContext, and can serve multiple AgletContext objects.
The transport layer is responsible for transporting an agent to the destination in the form of a byte
stream that contains class definitions as well as the serialized state of the agent. This layer is also
defined as an API, called Agent Transfer and Communication Interface (ATCI), which allows the

179
Aglets runtime to use the transport layer in a protocol-independent manner. The implementation of
ATCI is responsible for sending and receiving an agent and establishing a communication between
agents. The current Aglets implementation uses the Agent Transfer Protocol (ATP), which is an
application-level protocol for transmission of mobile agents. ATP is modelled on the HTTP
protocol, and can be used to transfer the content of an agent in an agent-system-independent
manner. To enable communication between agents, ATP also supports message-passing.
When an aglet issues a request to dispatch itself to a destination, the request travels down to the
Aglets runtime layer, which converts the aglet into the form of a byte array consisting of its state
data and its code. If the request is successful, the aglet is terminated, and the byte array is passed to
the ATP layer through the ATCI. The ATP, which is the implementation of ATCI, then constructs a
bit stream that contains general information such as the agent system name and agent identifier, as
well as the byte array from the Aglets runtime.
6.3.4 Mobile Agent TCL
Mobile computers have become increasingly popular as users discover the benefits of having their
electronic work available at all times. Using Internet resources from a mobile platform, however, is
a major challenge. Mobile computers do not have a permanent network connection and are often
disconnected for long periods. When the computer is connected, the connection is often prone to
sudden failure, such as when a physical obstruction blocks the signal from a cellular modem. Agent
Tcl is a mobile agent system whose agents can be written in Tcl, Java, and Scheme. Agent Tcl has
extensive navigation and communication services, security mechanisms, and debugging and
tracking tools. When we focus on Agent Tcl's architecture and security mechanisms, its RPC
system, and its docking system, which lets an agent move transparently among mobile computers,
regardless of when they are connected to the network.
Tcl Architecture
Agent Tcl Architecture (adapted from [Gray 95]) With the increase in popularity of computer
networks, there has been a shift proposed in distributed system programming from the remote
procedure call (RPC) to the remote programming (RP) paradigm, to decrease network traffic and
improve performance.
Figure 6.1.1 : Agent TCL Architecture

180
Agent Tcl is an ASE that is under development at Dartmouth College. Its goal is ―to address the
weaknesses of existing transportable-agent systems‖ [Gray 95]. An Agent Tcl agent can currently
only be written in Tcl, but Java support is being added into the system. Agent Tcl was designed to
be easily extended by adding new languages and network services. Its architecture has four levels
(see figure 1). The agents themselves form the highest level. The lowest level consists of an API for
each network service used to move agents and to provide inter-agent communication. Currently,
only TCP/IP is supported. The second level is a server that runs at each network site that maintains
running agents. The server provides the migration facilities, communication primitives, and non-
volatile store. All other services (such as scheduling, group communication, and directory) are
provided by specialized agents.
In Agent Tcl, the agent‘s state is implicitly transferred with the agent when it jumps from one
machine to another. To make this transparent state transfer possible, Agent Tcl uses a modified
version of the Tcl interpreter. The modification consists of separating the Tcl (i. e., the program
being interpreted) stack from the regular C (i. e.,the interpreter) stack so that the Tcl script and state
can be saved and sent as a message to run on another machine. Unfortunately, the modified
interpreter runs Tcl programs approximately 20 percent slower than the standard Tcl core.
An agent can send a message to another in two ways; through an event or via an established
connection. An event provides asynchronous notification of an important occurrence while a
connection is a named stream linking two agents.
Events are not yet available. The non-volatile storage permits agents to save their state, check
pointing their progress in order to make failure recovery easier. Note, however, that the failure
recovery strategy is defined and implemented by the agents. The server only supplies the
save/restore state commands.
The third architectural level consists of one execution interpreter for each available agent language.
Each interpreter has four modules: the interpreter itself, a security supervisor that prevents an agent
from performing forbidden actions, a statecapture component that catches and reconstructs agents‘
internal states on the command of the server, and an API that interacts with the server to handle
migration, communication, and checkpointing.
The end.

181
REFERENCES
1. WCY Lee, Mobile Cellular Telecommunications Systems, McGraw Hill, 1990.

2. WCY Lee, Mobile Communications Design Fundamentals, Prentice Hall, 1993.
3. Raymond Steele, Mobile Radio Communications, IEEE Press, New York, 1992.
4. AJ Viterbi, CDMA: Principles of Spread Spectrum Communications, Addison Wesley,
1995.
5. VK Garg&JE Wilkes, Wireless & Personal Communication Systems, Prentice Hall, 1996.
6. T. S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd ed. Singapore:
Pearson Education, Inc., 2002.
7. K. Feher, Wireless Digital Communications: Modulation and Spread Spectrum
Applications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1995.
8. J. G. Proakis, Digital Communications, 4th ed. NY: McGraw Hill, 2000.
9. R. Pandya, Mobile and Personal Communication Systems and Services, 4th ed. New Delhi:
PHI, 2004.
10. G. T. Stüber, Principles of mobile communications, KAP, 2001.
11. Andrea Goldsmith, Wireless Communications, Cambridge University Press, 2005.
12. PIFA for Mobile Phones – Haridas
13. Constantine A. Balanis, Antennas for Mobile Communications, John Wiley, 2008.
14. Mobile Communication_S.Selvakumar.
15. mobile computing by Rajkamal 3rd ed.
16. tutorial_Mobile-Communications-JochenSchiller
17. Internet Websites.
Thank You

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Notes by Dr.

8 2.2 Channel Assignment Strategies 30 - 31

15 3.3 Interfacing of Different GSM System Architecture 55 - 58

24 3.3 CDMA Multiple Access Methods 75 - 78

33 3.3 Process Communication Techniques 106 - 110

41 4.2 Application Taxonomy 124 - 125

54 6.2 Internet & WAP 171 - 176

Mobile Telephony Development

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1.1. b : Mobile communication :

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Path loss of radio signals

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η1sin(θ1) = η2sin(θ2)---------- Eq 1.1.1

Where η1& η2 are different Refractive index

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depends on the geometry and the frequency, and is unitless:

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1.1.c. Multi-path propagation

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Diversity Techniques Concept

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1). Microscopic diversity techniques

2). Macroscopic diversity techniques

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1. Space Diversity Technique

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Space Diversity Combining Schemes

1. a). Selective Diversity

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1. d). Equal Gain Combiner Technique

3. Time Diversity Techniques

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Diversity Schemes

Table: Summery of the advantages and disadvantages of different diversity schemes

S..No Diversity Scheme Advantages Disadvantages

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1.2.1 Space division multiplexing (SDM)

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1.2.2 Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

Figure 1.2.2 : Frequency Division Multiplexing

1.2.3 Time division multiplexing (TDM)

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1.2.4 Combined Frequency and time division multiplexing (CFTDM)

Figure 1.2.4 : Frequency and time division multiplexing

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Figure 1.2.5 : Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

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g(t) = c + ∑ sin(2πnft) + ∑ cos(2πnft)

 Antenna height is limited to few meters.

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1,3.1 Analog modulation Techniques

Wireless signals originally only had a single carrier

Phase and Frequency Modulation are the two other

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Figure 1.3.5 A illustrates amplitude shift keying (ASK),

A modulation scheme often used for wireless transmission is