Pre-Calculus

An additional learning guide to Bachelor of Engineering Mathematics (EMA105B) students at

Tshwane University Technology compiled
by
Mrs Djankou Priscille and Dr Aphane at the Department of Mathematics and Statistics
(This piece of work was done with the help of Tutors such as Balekane Fohlisa)
2023
Second Edition
The main purpose of this learning guide is to collect problems from different calculus books for
students who enrolled for Engineering Mathematics 1 (EMA105B) at Tshwane University of
Technology. The tutorial guide does not replace the prescribed book. It is still necessary for
students to buy and use the prescribed book.

The guide is structured in such a way that problems are sorted by topics and some solutions are
provided at the end of each chapter. Some examples and basic introductions are also provided at
the beginning of each chapter.

We trust that you will find the tutorial guide useful and enjoy using it. If you encounter any errors,
incorrect solutions or suggestions on how to improve this tutorial guide. Feel free to contact us on
Fossotchatatp@tut.ac.za.

©COPYRIGHT : Tshwane University of Technology

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PRETORIA

0001

All rights reserved. Apart from any reasonable quotations for the purposes of research
criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part of this book may be
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including photocopy and recording, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Contents
Chapter 1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 NUMBER SYSTEM ........................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 RADIAN MEASURE ......................................................................................................................... 7
1.3 SYSTEM OF CARTESIAN COORDINATES ................................................................................ 11
Chapter 2 ................................................................................................................................................... 16
2.1 DEFINITION OF A FUNCTION ..................................................................................................... 16
2.2 INJECTIVE, SURJECTIVE AND BIJECTIVE FUNCTIONS ....................................................... 17
2.3 MANY TO ONE FUNCTION, VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL LINE TESTS ......................... 19
2.4 COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS............................................................................................................. 20
2.5 INVERSE AND IDENTITY FUNCTIONS ..................................................................................... 21
Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................................................... 28
3.1 POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS ......................................................................................................... 28
3.2 RATIONAL FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................................... 30
3.4 SINUSOIDS OR SINUSOIDAL FORM 𝐴sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝛼) .................................................................. 35
Chapter 4 ................................................................................................................................................... 40
4.1 INEQUALITIES AND ABSOLUTE VALUES ............................................................................... 40
Chapter 5 ................................................................................................................................................... 44
5.1 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS ....................................................................................................... 44
5.2 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS ....................................................................................................... 53
5.3 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS .......................................................................................................... 56
Chapter 6 ................................................................................................................................................... 60
6.1 CONTINUOUS AND PIECEWISE CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS ............................................... 60
6.2 EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS ..................................................................................................... 62
Chapter 7 ................................................................................................................................................... 66
7.1 COMPLEX NUMBERS ................................................................................................................... 66
7.2 POLAR FORM OF COMPLEX NUMBER ..................................................................................... 72
7.3 DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM............................................................................................................. 76
Chapter 8 .................................................................................................................................................... 83
8.1 TRANSFORMATION OF FUNCTIONS ........................................................................................ 83
8.2 LIMIT AND CONTINUITY ............................................................................................................ 87
Chapter 9 ................................................................................................................................................... 92
9.1 VECTORS ........................................................................................................................................ 92
 9.2 BASIC OPERATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 93
9.3 SCALAR PRODUCT ....................................................................................................................... 95
9.4 VECTOR PRODUCT ....................................................................................................................... 97
Chapter 10 ............................................................................................................................................... 101
10.1 MATRICES .................................................................................................................................. 101
10.2 EIGENVALUE PROBLEM ......................................................................................................... 113
10.3 DIAGONALIZATION OF A MATRIX....................................................................................... 118
Chapter 11 ............................................................................................................................................... 125
11.1 LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND LINEAR INDEPENDENCE .................................................... 125
11.2 LINEAR SPACE OR VECTOR SPACE...................................................................................... 127
11.2.1 Vector subspace ..................................................................................................................... 128
11.3 BASIS OF A LINEAR SPACE .................................................................................................... 129
11.4 LINEAR TRANSFORMATION .................................................................................................. 131
Possible Solutions .................................................................................................................................... 139
Chapter 1

1.1 NUMBER SYSTEM

The Set of Real Numbers ℝ consist of two disjoint set of Numbers namely: The Set of
Rational Numbers and the Set of Irrational Numbers.

Definition: (Rational Numbers)

A Rational Number is a number that can be written in the form 𝒂/𝒃; 𝒂 and 𝒃 integers, 𝒃 ≠ 𝟎.
In other words, a Rational Number is a number that can be written in a fraction form.

Examples

i. 6, 10, 8⁄11 , − 5, − 11 etc

ii. ̅̅̅̅, 3.65

9.444, 5.1616 = 5. 16

Definition: (Irrational Numbers)

An Irrational Number is a number that cannot be written in the form 𝒂/𝒃; 𝒂 and 𝒃 integers, 𝒃
≠ 𝟎. An Irrational Number cannot be written in a fraction form. An Irrational Number has a
decimal representation that neither terminates nor repeats

Examples

i. – 4.110111011110…

ii. 𝜋, √2

Important Notations of Set of Numbers

ℝ – Denotes the set of Real numbers
ℚ – Denotes the set of Rational numbers
ℤ – Denotes the set of Integers

𝕎– Denotes the set of Whole numbers

 ℕ – Denotes the set of Natural number

Fig1
Conversion to Fraction

Example

Convert 4.567878….. into a fraction.

i. Let y = 4.567878…
ii. After observation we find that the repeating digits are ‘78’.
iii. Now we put the repeating digits ‘78’ to the left of decimal point. Hence, we
need to shift the decimal point to the right by 4 places. This can be obtained
by multiplying the given number by’10,000’.
10,000y = 45678.787878 ……………… (1)
iv. Now let us shift the repeating digits to the left of the decimal point in the
original decimal number. Hence let us multiply the original number by ‘100’.
100y = 456.787878 ………………………… (2)
v. Now let us subtract both the left hand and right-hand sides of the two
equations and equate them so that the equality remains the same.
vi. 10,000y – 100y = 45678.787878 - 456.787878
⇒ 9,900y = 45,222
45222 7537
⟹𝑦= =
9900 1650

Proportions
Definition: The variable 𝑝 is said to be directly proportional to 𝑞 if 𝑝 = 𝑘𝑞 for some non-zero
constant 𝑘. Where 𝑘 is called the constant of proportionality. The statement 𝑝 is said to be
directly proportional to 𝑞 is written symbolically as 𝑝 𝛼 𝑞.
𝑘
Definition: The variable 𝑝 is said to be inversely proportional to 𝑞 if 𝑝 = 𝑞 for some non-zero
constant 𝑘. Where 𝑘 is called the constant of proportionality. The statement 𝑝 is said to be
1
inversely proportional to 𝑞 is written symbolically as 𝑝 𝛼 𝑞.

Example
The mass, m grams of a plastic material required to mould a solid ball is directly proportional
to the cube of the radius r cm of the ball. If 40 grams of plastic is needed to make a ball of
radius 2.5 cm, what size ball can be made from 200 grams of the same type of plastic?

We have 𝑚 = 𝑘𝑟 3 , where 𝑘 is called a constant.

When 𝑚 = 40, 𝑟 = 2.5, hence 40 = 𝑘 × (2.5)3

⇒ 𝑘 = 2.56.

Thus, the formula is 𝑚 = 2.56𝑟 3.

When 𝑚 = 200, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 200 = 2.56𝑟 3

3 200
⟹𝑟= √ = 4.27𝑐𝑚.
2.56

1.2 RADIAN MEASURE

Consider the figure below:
 Fig2

Consider θ to be a central angle of a circle of radius 1.

Definition: The radian measure of θ is the length of the arc s of the sector.

Note: The circumference of a circle is 2𝜋𝑟 hence the circumference of a unit circle (of radius
1) is 2𝜋. As a result, the radian measure of an angle measuring 360° is 2𝜋. In other words,
3600 = 2𝜋 radians

Radian, (rad) is defined mathematically as a quadrant of a circle where the distance

subtended on the circumference of the circle is equal to the length of the radius (r) of the
same circle. Since the circumference of a circle is equal to 2π x radius, there must
be 2π radians around the 360o of a circle.
In other words, the radian is a unit of angular measurement and the length of one radian (r)
will fit 6.284 (2*π) times around the whole circumference of a circle. Thus one radian equals
360o/2π = 57.3o.
.

Note: Radians is the standard unit of angle measure.

The formula below is used to convert degrees to radians

Definition: A sector is that part of a circle bounded by two radii and their intercepted arc.
Its area when angle is in radians is
 𝜃
× 𝑟2
2
Definition: The area of a segment is

Fig3

Definition: The arc length L is given by

Fig4
 Example

The figure shows two concentric circular sector AOB and OCD, where O is their common
centre. Both the sectors. Both sectors subtend an angle 1.8 radians at O.
The point A lies on OC and similarly the point B lies on OD. It is further given that |𝑂𝐴| =
|𝑂𝐵| = 20𝑐𝑚 and |𝑂𝐶| = |𝑂𝐷| = 25𝑐𝑚. The finite region ACDB is shown shaded in the
above figure.
i. Determine the perimeter of ACDB.
ii. Calculate the Area of ACDB.
Solution
i. Determine the perimeter of ACDB.
𝑠𝐴𝐵 = 20 × 1.8 = 36𝑐𝑚
𝑠𝐶𝐷 = 25 × 1.8 = 45𝑐𝑚

perimeter of ACDB = 36𝑐𝑚 + 45𝑐𝑚 + 5𝑐𝑚 + 5𝑐𝑚 = 91𝑐𝑚

ii. Calculate the Area of ACDB.
𝜃 1.8
Area of sector OAB = 2 × 𝑟 2 = × (20)2 = 360𝑐𝑚2
2

𝜃 1.8
Area of sector OCD = 2 × 𝑟 2 = × (25)2 = 562.5𝑐𝑚2
2

Area of ABCD = 562.5𝑐𝑚2 − 360𝑐𝑚2 = 202.5𝑐𝑚2

1.3 SYSTEM OF CARTESIAN COORDINATES
Consider the figure below:

Fig5

• The distance OM measured along the axis of x is called the abscissa or x-coordinate.
• The distance ON measured along y-axis is called the ordinate or y-coordinate of the
point P.
• The abscissa and the ordinate taken together are called the coordinates of the point P.
• The coordinates of the point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) which represents the point P in the plane form an
ordered pair.

Quadrants
Consider the figure below

Fig6

• I quadrant: x > 0, y > 0

• II quadrant: x < 0, y > 0
• III quadrant: x < 0, y < 0
• IV quadrant: x > 0, y < 0
 Distance between two points

Let 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be two points on the cartesian plane, then the distance between
these points is given by

√(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

Section formula

INTERNAL DIVISION

Let 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be two given points on a line l such that 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦) divides 𝑃𝑄
internally in the ratio 𝑚1 : 𝑚2 , then the coordinates of R are given by
𝑚1 𝑥2 + 𝑚2 𝑥1 𝑚1 𝑦2 + 𝑚2 𝑦1
(𝑥, 𝑦) = ( , )
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2

EXTERNAL DIVISION

Let 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be two given points on a line l such that 𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦) divides 𝑃𝑄
externally in the ratio 𝑚1 : 𝑚2 , then the coordinates of R are given by
𝑚1 𝑥2 − 𝑚2 𝑥1 𝑚1 𝑦2 − 𝑚2 𝑦1
(𝑥, 𝑦) = ( , )
𝑚1 − 𝑚2 𝑚1 − 𝑚2

Example
Show that the points P(–1, –1), Q(2, 3) and R (–2, 6) are the vertices of a right-angled
triangle.
𝑃𝑄 2 = (2 + 1)2 + (3 + 1)2
= 32 + 42
= 25
𝑄𝑅 2 = (−4)2 + (3)2
= 25
𝑅𝑃 = 12 + (−7)2
2

= 50
Thus 𝑃𝑄 2 + 𝑄𝑅 2 = 25 + 25 = 50 = 𝑅𝑃2
⟹ ⊿𝑃𝑄𝑅 is a right angle triangle (by converse of Pythagoras Theorem).
TUTORIAL EXERCISE

1. Consider the figure below:

A square of diagonal 8cm is inscribed in a circle. Find the area of the shaded region.

2. In the diagram below, we have a circle of radius 7.5cm which is inscribed in a square.
Find the area of the shaded region.

3. AB is a diameter of the circle, AC=6cm and BC=8cm. Find the area of the shaded region.

A B

3
4. Find the length of the arc intercepted by a central angle 4 𝜋 rad in a circle of radius
71.9cm
 1
5. Find the distance in kilometers between Johannesburg 5 𝜋 rad N, and Cape Town
49
𝜋 rad N, assuming they lie on the same north-south line. The radius of the earth is
180
6400km.
6. Convert the following decimals into fraction form:
a. 5.31313131….
b. 4.939393…
c. 1.632632…
7. Consider the table below. In each row, place a check mark in each column that is
appropriate.
ℕ ℝ ℤ ℚ 𝑊 Irrational

-2

−4⁄
5
0.15

√5

8. Write down 4 examples each of a natural number, whole number, and integer.
9. Write down five examples of irrational numbers
10. Find the radian measure of the angles with the degree measure 1080°.
11. Find the radian measure of the angles with the degree measure -100°
12. Find the radian measure of the angles with the degree measure 108°
13. Convert the following decimal to fractions
a. 1.33
b. 0.888
c. -2.455
d. 3. ̅̅̅̅̅
612
e. 1.333….
14. Show that the following points (3, -2),(6,1), (3,4) and (0,1) are the vertices of a square.
15. Show that the following sets of points are collinear (3, -6), (2,-4) and (-4,8).
16. Find the midpoints of each of the line segments whose end points are
a. (-2,3) and (3,5)
b. (6,0) and (-2,10)
17. The point P divides the line segment AB joining points A (2,1) and B(-3,6) in the ratio 2:3.
Does point P lie on the line x-5y+15=0? Justify.
18. If A is the point with coordinates (2;3) and B is the point (5;1), determine ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |.
𝐴𝐵 and |𝐴𝐵
19. Prove that the points (2a, 4a), (2a, 6a) and (2a + √3𝑎,5a) are the vertices of an equilateral
triangle whose side is 2a.
20. The power p kW needed to run a boat varies as the cube of its speed s m/s. If 400 kW will
run a boat at 3 m/s, what power is needed to run the same boat at 5 m/s?
21. From physics, it is known that the energy E 𝜇J (this is the abbreviation for microjoules)
of an object in motion is directly proportional to the square of its speed Vm/s. If an object
travelling at a speed of 10m/s has energy 400 𝜇J, find:
a. the constant of proportionality.
b. the formula for E in terms of v.
c. the energy of an object travelling at a speed of 15m/s.
d. the speed if the moving object has energy 500 𝜇J
22. The volume V𝑐𝑚3 of a gas kept at a constant temperature is inversely proportional to the
pressure P kPa. If the volume is 500𝑐𝑚3 when the pressure is 80 kPa, find the volume
when the pressure is 25 kPa.
23. In what ratio does the point (3, –2) divide the line segment joining the
points (1,4) and (–3, 16)?
24. The vertices of a quadrilateral ABCD are respectively (1, 4), (-2,1), (0, –1) and (3, 2). If
E, F, G, Hare respectively the midpoints of AB, BC, CD and DA, prove that the
quadrilateral EFGH is a parallelogram.
25. Find the coordinates of the point dividing the line segment joining (–5, –2) and (3, 6)
internally in the ratio 3:1.
26. Find the midpoint of each of the line segments whose end points are given below:
a. (–2, 3) and (3, 5)
b. (6,0) and (–2,10)
Chapter 2
2.1 DEFINITION OF A FUNCTION
A function is a binary relation over two sets that associates to every element of the first set
exactly one element of the second set.

• The set of input of a function is called the domain of the function. Alternatively, this
is the set of values for which a function is defined.
• The set of output of a function is called the range of the function
• Alternatively, we can define a function as a rule linking one set of values (the
domain) to another set of values (the range).

Fig7

Example

Find the domain and range of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 5.

Solution:

We need solve for 𝑥 − 5 ≥ 0.

⟹ 𝑥 ≥ 5.

Hence the domain is the set of real values of x such that 𝑥 ≥ 5, that is, {𝑥|𝑥 ≥ 5, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ}.

Range: When 𝑥 = 5, 𝑦 = 0. When 𝑥 > 5, 𝑦 > 0, hence the range is {𝑦|𝑦 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ}

 Example
1
Find the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 −3𝑥 2+2𝑥

Solution:

Since 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2), we have that this function is defined for all 𝑥
such that 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑥 ≠ 1, 𝑥 ≠ 2.

Domain is {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℝ − {0,1,2}}

2.2 INJECTIVE, SURJECTIVE AND BIJECTIVE FUNCTIONS

Injective (one to one) Functions: A function 𝑓is injective if for all elements 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 in the domain
of 𝑓 such that 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) implies 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 . This implies that each element in the range
corresponds to exactly one element in the domain.

Surjective (Onto) Functions: A function 𝑓is surjective if every element of the range is the image
of some element in the domain.

Fig8
Bijective Functions: A function 𝑓is bijective if it is both injective and surjective.

Example

Is the function 𝑓 from 𝐶 to 𝐷 bijective? Where 𝐶 = {1,2,3,4} and 𝐷 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}

with 𝑓(1) = 𝑑, 𝑓(2) = 𝑏, 𝑓(3) = 𝑐, 𝑓(4) = 𝑎.

Solution: Yes 𝑓 is bijective.

Reason: 𝑓 is injective because it takes on distinct values. 𝑓 is surjective because

every element in the range 𝐷 is the image of an element in 𝐶. Hence 𝑓 is both
injective and surjective.

Example

Prove that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 6 is injective.

Proof: Let us consider 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , such that 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ).

RTP: 𝑥1 = 𝑥2

𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) ⟹ 3𝑥1 + 6 = 3𝑥2 + 6

⟹ 3𝑥1 = 3𝑥2

⟹ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2
2.3 MANY TO ONE FUNCTION, VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL LINE TESTS
Many to one function: This is a function which allocates more than one value in the domain
to the same value in the range. Examples: 𝑦 = cos 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2.

Fig9

Vertical line test: Draw a vertical line through the curve. If it cuts the curve once
everywhere, then the relationship is a function.

Fig10 Fig11

Horizontal line test: Draw a horizontal line through the curve. If it cuts the curve once
everywhere, the function is a one-to-one function. Otherwise, it is a many to one function.

Fig12
2.4 COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS
Definition: The composition of two functions is a technique whereby the output of one
function is used as the input to another function. The output of the composition of the two
functions is called a composite function.

Notation: The combination of f and g is written as (𝑓𝑜𝑔) read "f of g of x".

Hence (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) that is 𝑔 inside 𝑓.

Note: (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) ≠ (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥).

Example

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 7. Find (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) and (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥).

Solution:

(𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))

= 2(𝑔(𝑥)) + 3

= 2(𝑥 − 7) + 3

= 2𝑥 − 11

(𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))

= 𝑓(𝑥) − 7

= 2𝑥 + 3 − 7

= 2𝑥 − 4

Note: (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) ≠ (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥).

Domain of composite function

The domain of the composition is usually the smaller of the separate function.
 Procedure
1. Write the domain of each function.

2. Rewrite the composition, e.g. (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))

3. Replace every x in the outside function f with the inside function g and simplify.
4. Determine the domain of the composition while taking into consideration the domain of
the of 𝑓(𝑥).
2.5 INVERSE AND IDENTITY FUNCTIONS

Example

Determine the domain of (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) if 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 8 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .

Solution:

Domain of 𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑥|𝑥 ≥ 8, 𝑥𝜖 ℝ}.

Domain of 𝑔(𝑥) = {𝑥|𝑥𝜖 ℝ}.

(𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 8

Domain of (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) is the solution to the equation 𝑥 2 − 8 ≥ 0.

(𝑥 + √8)(𝑥 − √8) ≥ 0

From inequalities the solution is {𝑥|𝑥 ≥ √8, 𝑥𝜖 ℝ} ∪ {𝑥|𝑥 ≤ −√8, 𝑥𝜖 ℝ}.

But since we need to consider the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) because the input of (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) comes
from the domain of 𝑓(𝑥).

Hence the domain of (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) is

{{𝑥|𝑥 ≥ √8, 𝑥𝜖 ℝ} ∪ {𝑥|𝑥 ≤ −√8, 𝑥𝜖 ℝ}} ∩ {𝑥|𝑥 ≥ 8, 𝑥𝜖 ℝ}.

= {𝑥|𝑥 ≥ 8, 𝑥𝜖 ℝ}.

Inverse Functions

Definition: Let 𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑥)and 𝑔(𝑥) be two functions. If (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥 and (𝑔𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥 ,

then 𝑔 is the inverse of f, and f is the inverse of 𝑔.
 Notation: The inverse of the function 𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑥) is written as 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and read as "f inverse
of x".

Note:

a. Mathematically: (𝑓𝑜𝑓 −1 )(𝑥) = 𝑥 and (𝑓 −1 𝑜𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥

b. Graphically: 𝑓 and 𝑓 −1 are symmetrical about the line 𝑦 = 𝑥
c. The inverse of an inverse is the original function: (𝑓 −1 )−1 = 𝑓
d. A function is invertible if and only if it is one to one.

Procedure to determine the Inverse of a Function

a. Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
b. Swap x and y
c. Solve for y.
d. Check for limitations on x (the domain).
e. Write down 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) and write down the domain of the inverse.

Example

Determine the inverse of the function defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 7𝑥 − 5.

Solution:

Let 𝑦 = 7𝑥 + 5

Swap 𝑥 and 𝑦: 𝑥 = 7𝑦 + 5

⟹ 𝑥 − 5 = 7𝑦

𝑥−5
⟹ =𝑦
7
𝑥−5
⟹ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = and Domain of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = {𝑥|𝑥𝜖 ℝ}
7

Identity Function

Definition: Let A be a non-empty set. The function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐴 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥, for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
is called the identity function and denoted Id.
Tutorial Exercise

1. Find the inverse of each relation

a. (4,−15), (− 8,−18), (− 2,−16.5), (3,−15.25)

b. (− 3,11.8), (0,3.7), (1,1), (6,−12.5)
c. (− 5,1), (0,2), (5,3)
d. (− 5,13), (6,10.8), (3,11.4), (−10,14)
e. (− 4,−49), (8,35), (−1,−28), (4,7)
2. Determine whether each of these functions f :  →  is one-to-one and whether each of
these functions is not one-to-one

a. f = (−1,2), (0,4), (2,−4), (5,6), (10,0)

b. f = (12,2), (15,4), (19,−4), (25,6), (78,0)

c. f = (−1,2), (0,4), (9,−4), (18,6), (23,−4)

d.
f = x2 + 2
1
f =
e. (2 x − 4)
3. Determine the domain of each of the following functions

a. g ( x) = x 2 − 6 x
2x − 3
f ( x) =
b. 3x + 5
( f  g )( x) where f ( x) =
5
and g ( x) =
4
c. x −1 3x − 2

d. ( f  g )( x) where f ( x) = x + 2 and g ( x) = 3 − x
e. (g  f )( x) where f ( x) = x + 2 and g ( x) = ln 1 − x
2
( )
4. Determine the following if:
2x −1 −4 x3 + 3
f (x ) = 2 x , g (x ) =
2

3x + 4
,x 
3
, h(x ) =
2− x 3
( )
, 2 − x 3  0 , p( x ) =
6
3− x
, (3 − x  0)

a.
( f −1  p)(x ).
b. (g  f )(x )

c. (g  f )(x)
−1

d. (h  h )(x )
−1
5. Consider the following pairs of functions. Determine 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) and 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)). If
a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥, 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)2
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 2, 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 8
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥), 𝑔(𝑥) = cos (𝑥 + 1)
d. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥−2 , 𝑔(𝑥) = ln (𝑥 + 6)
e. 𝑓(𝑥) = cos (𝑥 2 − 𝑥), 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 1)2
f. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 , 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥^2
g. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 2), 𝑔(𝑥) = (3𝑥 + 1)2
h. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2), 𝑔(𝑥) = (3𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)
i. 𝑓(𝑡) = (𝑡 2 − 2𝑡) ÷ (𝑡 + 1), 𝑔(𝑡) = (2𝑡 − 1)
J. 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 − 1, 𝑔(𝑡) = (2𝑡 + 1)
k. 𝑓(𝑡) = (5𝑥 + 7)^3, 𝑔(𝑡) = √6𝑡 + 8
i. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑔(𝑥) = 1 ÷ 𝑥

6. If ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) decompose the following into two functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥).
Note that 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑥, and 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 𝑥 .

a. ℎ(𝑥) = 3√(2𝑥 + 1)
b. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥+3
c. ℎ(𝑥) = 1 ÷ (𝑥 2 − 2)
d. ℎ(𝑥) = 2(𝑥 − 3)2 + 4(𝑥 − 3)
e. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1

7. Decompose the following function

a. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 5(𝑥 − 1)2 + 7 decompose into three functions 𝑣(𝑥), 𝑢(𝑥) and 𝑤(𝑥) such that
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑢(𝑣(𝑤(𝑥))) . Note that 𝑢(𝑥) ≠ 𝑥, 𝑣(𝑥) ≠ and 𝑤(𝑥) ≠ 𝑥.

b. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 ÷ √(5(𝑥 − 1)2 + 7) decompose into three functions 𝑣(𝑥), 𝑢(𝑥) and 𝑤(𝑥)
such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑢(𝑣(𝑤(𝑥))) . Note that 𝑢(𝑥) ≠ 𝑥, 𝑣(𝑥) ≠ and 𝑤(𝑥) ≠ 𝑥.

c. If 𝑓(𝑥) = (1 ÷ √𝑥 + 7)^2 decompose into three functions 𝑣(𝑥), 𝑢(𝑥) and 𝑤(𝑥) such that
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑢(𝑣(𝑤(𝑥))) . Note that 𝑢(𝑥) ≠ 𝑥, 𝑣(𝑥) ≠ and 𝑤(𝑥) ≠ 𝑥.

8. 1 Let 𝑢(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 5, 𝑣(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and 𝑤(𝑥) = 1 ÷ 𝑥. Determine

(a) 𝑢(𝑣(𝑤(𝑥)))

(b) 𝑢(𝑤(𝑣(𝑥)))

(c) 𝑤(𝑣(𝑢(𝑥)))
 (d) 𝑤(𝑢(𝑣(𝑥)))

(e) 𝑣(𝑢(𝑤(𝑥)))

(f) 𝑣(𝑤(𝑢(𝑥)))

8.2 Let 𝑢(𝑥) = √𝑥, 𝑣(𝑥) = 7𝑥 − 2 and 𝑤(𝑥) = 𝑥 ÷ 3. Determine

(a) 𝑢(𝑣(𝑤(𝑥)))

(b) 𝑢(𝑤(𝑣(𝑥)))

(c) 𝑤(𝑣(𝑢(𝑥)))

(d) 𝑤(𝑢(𝑣(𝑥)))

(e) 𝑣(𝑢(𝑤(𝑥)))

(f) 𝑣(𝑤(𝑢(𝑥)))

9. Find the range of the functions

a. f ( x) = − x + 6 x + 5
2

b. g ( x) =| x + 3 | −2

h( x ) =
( x − 2)
c. (x + 3)
d. f ( x) = 4 x + 5

1
f ( x) =
e. (x +4
2
)
10. Determine f (c) using the Remainder Theorem for the given polynomial functions and the
value of c . If f (c) = 0, then it as a factor

a.
f ( x) = x 3 + 4 x 2 − 5 x − 14, c = 2

b.
f ( x) = 2 x 2 − 5 x − 1, c = 3

f ( x) = 2 x 3 − x 2 − 7 x + 2, c = 2
c.

d.
f ( x) = 3x 2 − 2 x + 2, c = −1
11. Find all asymptotes of the following functions:

x 2 + 3x + 1
a. y =
4x2 − 9

x+3
b. y =
x2 + 9

x2 − x − 6
c. f ( x) =
x 2 − x − 20

x +1
d. g ( x) =
(x + 3)(x + 5)
(x + 1)2
e. h( x) =
x2 + 4x + 3

12. Find the inverse of the following functions

a. f ( x) = 2 x 3 − 1

b. f ( x) = x 2 − 4 x + 5

2
c. f ( x) = − −1
x

d. f ( x) = log 4 ( x + 2) − 5

x+4
f ( x) =
e. 2x − 5

13. For each function given below, determine whether or not the function is injective and
whether or not the function is surjective.

a. 𝑓: ℕ → ℕ given by 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑛 + 4.
b. 𝑓: ℤ → ℤ given by 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑛 + 4.
c. 𝑓: ℤ → ℤ given by 𝑓(𝑛) = 5𝑛 − 8.
𝑛∕2
d. 𝑓: ℤ → ℤ given by 𝑓(𝑛) = { .
(𝑛 + 1) ∕ 2
14. Determine which of the following graphs represent a function. If it is a function, classify it as
a one-to-one or many-to-one function.

15. Determine (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) and (𝑔𝑜𝑓 )(𝑥) for each of the following sets of functions.

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 − 4𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2

b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 1
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1

16. Determine the inverse of the function defined by

a. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 6
b. 𝑞(𝑡) = (𝑡 − 1)3
𝑥+1
c. 𝑦 = 2𝑥+1 , 𝑥 ≠ −1⁄2

17. Determine the domain and range of each of the following functions. Hence sketch the graph.

a. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 6
𝑥
b. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥+1

18. Is the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 is a surjection?

19. Prove that the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑦 = 8𝑥 + 6 is a bijection.

Chapter 3
Types of Functions

3.1 POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

Definition: This is a function with general equation given by

𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟐 𝒙𝒏−𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂𝟎

This equation has the following characteristics:

i. The coefficients 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , … , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 are constants

ii. 𝑎𝑛 is the leading coefficient.
iii. The powers of x are non-negative integers.
iv. The domain of a polynomial is the set of real numbers.

Types of polynomials:

i. A multinomial is a polynomial with more than one term.

ii. Monomial: A polynomial such as 6𝑥 2 with only one term.

iii. Binomial: A polynomial with two terms, e.g. 5𝑥 3 + 10.

iv. Trinomial: A polynomial with three terms, e.g. 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6

Different degrees of polynomials:

Note: The degree of a polynomial is determined by the highest power of the variable 𝑥.

i. Linear: 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
ii. Quadratic: 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
iii. Cubic: 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑

Example

1. ℎ(𝑥) = 3𝑥 5 + 6𝑥 3 + 2 is a fifth order polynomial.

2. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 is a quadratic polynomial.
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 5𝑥 is not a polynomial.
Long division

Note: A polynomial can be written as a product of factors, each corresponding to a horizontal

intercept. To achieve this, we make use of long division.

Example

Divide 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 14 by 𝑥 − 2.

Solution:

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥 − 2)𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 14

Now we divide this polynomial as follows:

𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 7
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥 − 2)𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 14

−(𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 )

6𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 14

−(6𝑥 2 − 12𝑥)

7𝑥 − 14

−(7𝑥 − 14)

This shows that 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 14 is 𝑥 − 2 is 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 7, with a remainder of zero.

In addition, this shows that we can factor 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 14 as (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 7).

Remainder Theorem:

If ℎ(𝑥) is a polynomial of degree 1 or greater and c is a real number, then when ℎ(𝑥) is divided
by 𝑥 − 𝑐, the remainder is ℎ(𝑐).

Factor Theorem:

If ℎ(𝑥) is a non-zero polynomial, then the real number 𝑐 is a zero of ℎ(𝑥) if and only if 𝑥 − 𝑐 is
a factor of ℎ(𝑥).

3.2 RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

𝑃(𝑥)
Definition: A rational function 𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥) where 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials.

Note:

i. Zeroes: The value(s) of x for which 𝑃(𝑥) = 0

ii. Poles: The value(s) of x for which 𝑄(𝑥) = 0
iii. The function is undefined at the poles

Example
𝑥+1
1. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 +3 is a rational function

𝑥 2 +2
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = is not a rational function because of the denominator
√𝑥−2

Note

i. An algebraic function is any function that can be constructed using the following
algebraic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, powers, and roots.

ii. A transcendental function is any function that is not algebraic such as exponential
functions, logarithmic functions, hyperbolic functions, trigonometric functions.
3.3 Trigonometric Functions

The basic trigonometric functions are

1. 𝑦 = sin 𝑥

2. 𝑦 = cos 𝑥

3. 𝑦 = tan 𝑥

The graphs of these functions are given below:

Fig13

Other trigonometric functions are 𝑦 = csc 𝑥 , 𝑦 = sec 𝑥, 𝑦 = cot 𝑥.

 Angles of any magnitude

Fig14

Example

1. Determine all the angles between 𝜋 and 2𝜋 whose sine is −0.4638.

Solution:

Let sin 𝜃 = −0.4638

Reference angle 𝜃 = sin−1(0.4638) = 0.4823

Remember sine is negative in the third and fourth quadrant.

So, the two angles 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 such that sin 𝜃 = −0.4638 are

𝜃1 = 0.4823 + 𝜋 = 3.6238𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠

𝜃2 = 2𝜋 − 0.4823 = 5.8001𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠

Trigonometric equations
Example

Solve the equation 1 + sin x = cos x

2

Solution:

⇒ 1 + sin 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

1 − 1 + sin 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 0

sin 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 0

sin 𝑥 (1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥) = 0
 Hence
sin 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 (1 + sin 𝑥) = 0.

sin 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 sin 𝑥 = −1

For sin 𝑥 = 0: Reference angle = 0𝑟𝑎𝑑.

Quadrant 1 Quadrant 2

𝑥 = 0 + 2𝑛𝜋 𝑥 = 𝜋 − 0 + 2𝑛𝜋

𝑥 = 2𝑛𝜋 𝑥 = 𝜋 + 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
𝜋
For sin 𝑥 = −1: Reference angle = .
2

Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 = 𝜋 + 2 + 2𝑛𝜋 𝑥 = 2𝜋 − 2 + 2𝑛𝜋

3𝜋 3𝜋
𝑥= + 2𝑛𝜋 𝑥= + 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2 2

Consequently, the general solution is

3𝜋
𝑥 = 𝜋 + 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = + 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2

Sine and Cosine curves

Compare sin 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin 2𝑥. Fig14

 Observation

Each of the graphs above will repeat themselves as angle x increases and are thus called
periodic functions.

Note:

i. 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 and 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 repeat themselves every 2π, thus 2𝜋 is called the period of
these waveforms.

ii. 𝑦 = sin 2𝑥 and 𝑦 = cos 2𝑥 repeat themselves every π, thus 𝜋 is called the period of
these waveforms.

iii. In general, if 𝑦 = sin 𝑝𝑥 or 𝑦 = cos 𝑝𝑥 (where p is a constant) then the period of the
waveform is 2π/p.

Amplitude

Amplitude is the name given to the maximum or peak value of a sine or cosine wave.

• if 𝑦 = sin 𝑥, then the maximum value is 1. We say the amplitude is 1.

• if 𝑦 = 4 sin 𝑥, then the maximum value is 4. We say the amplitude is 4.
 Example

State the amplitude and period of the waveform 𝑦 = 2 sin(5𝑥/2) and sketch the curve
between 0 and 2𝜋.

Solution:

Amplitude=2
5 4𝜋
Period= 2𝜋 ÷ = = 2.513𝑟𝑎𝑑
2 5

Lagging and leading angles

𝜋 𝜋
• Let y = sin(𝑥 − 3 ), then y is said to lag sin x by 3 .
𝜋 𝜋
• Let 𝑦 = cos(𝑥 + 4 ) then y is said to lead cos x by 4 .

3.4 SINUSOIDS OR SINUSOIDAL FORM 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝛼)

• Given a general sinusoidal function 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 ± 𝜶)
• A=amplitude
• ω=angular velocity=2π f rad/s
• 2π/ω =periodic time T seconds
• ω/2π =frequency, f hertz
• α=angle of lead or lag (compared with y= Asinωt)

Example

An alternating current is given by i =30 sin(100πt+0.27) amperes. Find the amplitude,

periodic time, frequency and phase angle.

Solution:

Amplitude=30amperes

Periodic time, 𝑇 = 2𝜋⁄𝜔 = 2𝜋⁄100𝜋 = 1⁄50 = 0.02𝑠

Frequency, 𝑓 = 1⁄𝑇 = 1⁄0.02 = 50Hz.

Phase angle, 𝛼 = 0.27𝑟𝑎𝑑 leading i =30 sin(100πt)

TUTORIAL EXERCISE

1. Which of the following functions are polynomials? Explain why.

i. 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 −2 + 2𝑥 + 3
ii. 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 5 − 8𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 − 2
iii. 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 8

2. Determine f (c) using the Remainder Theorem for the given polynomial functions
and the value of c . If f (c) = 0, then it as a factor

i.
f ( x) = x 3 + 4 x 2 − 5 x − 14, c = 2

ii.
f ( x) = 2 x 2 − 5 x − 1, c = 3

iii.
f ( x) = x 2 − 3x − 4, c = 4

iv.
f ( x) = 2 x 3 − x 2 − 7 x + 2, c = 2

v.
f ( x) = 3x 2 − 2 x + 2, c = −1
 x
3. Consider the equation 3 tan   − 1 = 0 .
2
i. Find all solutions of the equation.
ii. Find the solutions in the interval  0, 4 
4. Solve the equation cos x + 1 = sin x in the interval  0, 2 
5. Consider the equation 2sin 3x − 1 = 0
i. Find all solutions of the equation
ii. Find all solutions in the interval  0, 2 
6. Solve the equations tan x − tan x − 2 = 0 .
2

7. Determine all the solutions of sin 2 x cos x + cos 2 x sin x = 3 2 on the interval
 0, 2  .
8. Find the amplitude of each function
i. y = sin x
ii. y = 2cos x
−1
iii. y=
sin x
8
9. Determine the period of each function
i. y = sin x
ii. y = cos3x
iii. y = cos 0.75x
10. Find the phase shift of each function
  
i. y = sin  x + 
 3
 
ii. y = cos  x − 
 4
iii. y = cos ( 2 x −  )
11. Sketch one cycle of each function
i. y = sin x
ii. y = cos x
 
iii. y = sin  x + 
 2
 
iv. y = sin  x − 
 2
  
12. Consider y = 3cos  t +  − 4 . Determine the following attributes
  
i. Amplitude
ii. Period
iii. Phase shift
iv. Mid-line
 
v. Sketch one cycle of y = 3cos  t +  − 4
 6
 
13. Given y = 5sin  x +   − 3 Determine the following features
6 
i. Amplitude
ii. Period
iii. Phase shift
iv. Mid-line
 
v. Sketch one cycle of y = 5sin  x +   − 3
6 

14. Are the following examples of rational functions? Motivate your answer.
𝑡 5 +4
i. 𝑞(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 +𝑡+5
4 −𝑥
ii. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥+6
15. Determine all the angles between 0 and 2𝜋 whose tangent is 1.7629.
16. Determine the angles between 0 and 2𝜋 whose cosecant is 2.5317.
17. Find all the angles between 0 and 2𝜋 whose sine is −0.7321.
18. Solve cot −1 1.3111 = 𝛼 for angles of 𝛼 between 0 and 2𝜋.
19. Sketch y=7 sin(2A−π/3) in the range 0≤ A≤2π. State the amplitude and period.
20. In Problems 1 to 3, find (a) the amplitude, (b) the frequency, (c) the periodic time,
and (d) the phase angle (stating whether it is leading or lagging Asin ωt) of the
alternating quantities given.
i. i =40sin(50πt+0.29)mA
ii. y=75sin(40t−0.54)cm
iii. v=300sin(200πt−0.412)V
21. A sinusoidal voltage has a maximum value of 120V and a frequency of 50Hz. At
time t =0, the voltage is (a) zero and (b) 50V. Express the instantaneous voltage v in
the form v= 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝛼).
22.
Chapter 4
4.1 INEQUALITIES AND ABSOLUTE VALUES
Definition: An inequality is any expression including one of the symbols <, >, ≤ or ≥.

Some simple rules

i. If you add or subtract a quantity on both sides of an inequality, the inequality still
remains.
ii. If you multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a positive quantity, say 5, the
inequality remains the same.
iii. If you multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a negative quantity, say −3,
the inequality is reversed.

Note:

To solve an inequality implies finding all the values of the variable for which the
inequality is true.

Example
7−2𝑦
Solve the following inequality: ≤1
4

Solution:

7 − 2𝑦
≤ 1 ⟹ 7 − 2𝑦 ≤ 4
4
−2𝑦 ≤ 4 − 7

−2𝑦 ≤ −3

𝑦 ≥ 3⁄2

Solution to the inequality is {𝑦|𝑦 ≥ 3⁄2 , 𝑦 ∈ ℝ}

Inequalities involving a modulus or absolute value

Definition: The modulus of a number is the size of the number, regardless of its sign.

Example
|4| = 4 and |−4| = 4.

|𝑥| < 1 mean −1 < 𝑥 < 1

|𝑥| > 4 mean 𝑥 > 4 and 𝑥 < −4

Example
Solve for |𝑝 + 3| ≤ 2.

Solution:

|𝑝 + 3| ≤ 2 ⟹ −2 ≤ 𝑝 + 3 ≤ 2

⟹ −5 ≤ 𝑝 ≤ −1

Inequalities involving quotients.

Example
𝑝+1
Find the solution to the following inequality: 3𝑝−6 > 0, 𝑝 ≠ 2.

Solution:

𝑝+1
>0
3𝑝 − 6

⟹ 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 (𝑝 + 1 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑝 − 6 > 0) 𝑜𝑟 (𝑝 + 1 < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑝 − 6 < 0)

 Case 1: 𝑝 + 1 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑝 − 6 > 0

⟹ 𝑝 > −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑝 > 6

⟹ 𝑝 > −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 > 2. Hence the intersection of these two sets is 𝑝 > 2.

Case 2: 𝑝 + 1 < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑝 − 6 < 0.

⟹ 𝑝 < −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 < 2. Hence the intersection of these two sets is 𝑝 < −1

Therefore, the solution is {𝑝|𝑝 > 2, 𝑝 ∈ ℝ}⋃{𝑝|𝑝 < −1, 𝑝 ∈ ℝ}.

Inequalities involving square functions.

Consider the following

i. If 𝑥 2 < 𝑘 then −√𝑘 < 𝑥 < √𝑘

ii. If 𝑥 2 > 𝑘 then 𝑥 > √𝑘 or 𝑥 < −√𝑘.

Example

Solve the inequality (4𝑘 + 5)2 > 9

Solution:

(4𝑘 + 5)2 > 9 ⟹ 4𝑘 + 5 > 3 𝑜𝑟 4𝑘 + 5 < −3

⟹ 4𝑘 > −2 𝑜𝑟 4𝑘 < −8.

⟹ 𝑘 > − 1⁄2 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 < −2.

So, the solution is {𝑘|𝑘 > − 1⁄2 , 𝑘 ∈ ℝ}⋃{𝑘|𝑘 < −2, 𝑘 ∈ ℝ}.
 Quadratic inequalities

Inequalities involving quadratic expressions are solved using either factorization or

completing the square’.

TUTORIAL EXERCISE

a. Solve the following inequality:

1. |3𝑥 + 1| < 4
2. |9𝑡 − 4| > 2
3. |7𝑥 − 5| > 4
3𝑥−4
4. ≤ 2, 𝑥 ≠ 5.
𝑥−5
2𝑦+3
5. ≤ 1, 𝑦 ≠ −2.
𝑦+2
2
6. 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 3 > 0
7. 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 − 8 ≤ 0

b. Solve for x if
1
1. − 2 𝑥 − 10 ≥0
1
2. 2. 𝑥
<4
2
3. 3. 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1 > 0
4. 0.6 + 0.2|𝑥 + 2| ≤ 0.8

c. Solve for the following graphically

1. x 2
i.
ii. x − 2 1
iii. x+4  x+2
3𝑥+2
iv. | 𝑥−1 | > 2
Chapter 5
5.1 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
Consider the expression 8 = 23

Alternatively, it can be written as log 2 8 = 3.

This is stated as ‘log to the base 2 of 8 equals 3’.

In general if

𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 then log 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑥

Napierian logarithms

Logarithms that have a base of e (where ‘e’ is a mathematical constant which is approximately
equal to 2.7183) are called hyperbolic, Napierian or natural logarithms, and log 𝑒 𝑥 is usually
abbreviated as ln 𝑥.

Example
Evaluate log16 8.

Solution:

Let log16 8 = 𝑥
⟹ 8 = 16𝑥

⟹ 23 = 24𝑥

⟹ 3 = 4𝑥

⟹ 𝑥 = 3/4.

Properties of natural and common logarithms

Definition 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 , where 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = ln 𝑦
a. Natural logarithms
𝑥
1. ln 𝑥𝑦 = ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦 2. ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑦 3. ln 𝑥 𝑦 = yln 𝑥
4. ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 5. 𝑒 (ln 𝑥) = 𝑥 6. ln 𝑒 = 1, ln 1 = 0
b. Common logarithms
𝑥
1. log 𝑎 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦 2. log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦

3. log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑦log 𝑎 𝑥 4. log 𝑎 𝑎 𝑦 = y, 𝑎log𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑦

5. log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1 ∀ 𝑎 > 0, log 𝑎 1 = 0, ∀ 𝑎 > 0
log𝑎 𝑥 1
6. log 𝑦 𝑥 = if 𝑎 and 𝑦 ≠ 1 and > 0 7. log 𝑎 𝑥 =
log𝑎 𝑦 log𝑥 𝑎

1
8. log 𝑎 𝑥 = log 1
𝑎𝑥

d. Exponential and logarithmic graphs are explained in your prescribed book.

TUTORIAL EXERCISE

Simplify the following expressions without using a calculator.

1 1 3 1 1 1 1 3
1. (𝑥 −1 + 𝑥 −3 )−1 2. (𝑥 4 − 𝑦 4 )(𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 𝑦 4 + 𝑥 4 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 4 )
2
1
𝑥 2 (𝑥−𝑦) 5𝑥+2 −5𝑥+1
3. ( 1 1 1 1 ) 4.
4𝑥+2 +4𝑥+1
(𝑥 2 −𝑦2 )(𝑥 2 +𝑦2 )

2𝑛+1 ×3𝑛+1
5. 6. 𝑒 2 ln 𝑥 + 2 ln 𝑒 2𝑥
6𝑛
3
5 −
3 − 4
√𝑎×√𝑦3 16𝑥 6
7. 2 1 8. [ 81 ]
−
𝑎 3 ×𝑦 2 √𝑥

2
18𝑥 (2×3(1−𝑥) ) 3
√8𝑥+1 ×√4𝑥+1
9. 10.
2𝑥−1 4𝑥−1
1 −1 1 1 2 1 2
11. (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )2 − 𝑎2 (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ) 2 12. (𝑎 3 − 𝑏 3 ) [𝑎3 + (𝑎𝑏)3 + 𝑏 3 ]

2 −2 1 𝑥 −1 − 𝑦 −1
13. (𝑥 2 𝑦)2 (𝑥) 14. ( )
𝑥 −1 𝑥 2 − 𝑦2
 3 2
𝑥𝑟𝑐 𝑦𝑟𝑐 3 2 7 3
4 −5
− −
(32 ∙ 4−3 𝑎
−
𝑎
−𝑥+𝑦 4 2 ∙𝑥 3 ∙𝑦 4
15. ( −1 ) ( ) 16. 𝑥𝑟𝑐 𝑦𝑟𝑐 17. ( 3 1 3 )
3𝑎2 𝑎 − −
( ) 𝑎 𝑎 22 ∙𝑥 3 ∙𝑦 4
4𝑏
3 5 13 1 1 1
−
𝑦 8 (𝑦 8 −𝑦 8 ) 3−1 ∙𝑎2 𝑎2 ∙𝑎 3
18. 1 1 1 19. 1 ÷ 1
− − −
𝑦 2 (𝑦2 −𝑦 2 ) 4 2 ∙𝑏 2𝑏 4

20. 2√200 − √1250 − √450

1 1 1
3 3 (1+62 )(32 +22 )
√81+ √3000
21. 22. 1
√6√5√3− √40𝑎2 𝑥3𝑛−1 𝑛
( 𝑛−1 )
𝑥

d. Find the exact value of each expression without using a calculator

1 1
1. log 3 27 2. ln(𝑒)
3. log10 √10 4. log 2 6 − log 2 15 + log 2 20

5. log 3 100 − log 3 18 − log 3 50 6. 𝑒 −2 ln 5

7. log 2 16 + log 4 16 − log 5 625 8. log 23 1
27
9. log 1 36 − log 3 10. log 2 16 + log 3 9
6 2 8

e. Solve the following unknown.

1. 𝑥 + √5 − 𝑥 + 1 = 0 2. √𝑥 2 + 7 − 4 = 0
1 −𝑥 7
3. 4𝑥+1 + 22𝑥+1 + ( 4) = 4. 4(𝑥+1)(𝑥−3) = 8−𝑥
16
2 2 1 1
5. 3𝑥 3 = 48𝑥 −3 6. 3 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 −2 ) = 10

32𝑥
7. 32−𝑥 = 3𝑥 − 8 8. 27 × 2𝑥 = 2𝑥−3
1 3 3
9. 2𝑥−2 − = 10. (𝑎2 )𝑥 𝑎−𝑥+3 = √𝑎2
2𝑥 4

22𝑥−1 −22𝑥
11. = 2−3𝑥 − 1 12. 4𝑥 + 2𝑥 = 23+𝑥 + 8
4𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
(𝑎3 ) × √𝑎−1
13. 3𝑥 + 34−2𝑥 = 1 + 34−𝑥 14. =1
𝑎2

8
15. ( log 2 𝑥)2 = log 2 (𝑥 2 )
16. log 𝑥 + log 6 = log(𝑥 + 6)
17. log (3𝑥−7) (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3) = 1 if 3𝑥 − 7 > 0 and ≠ 1
𝑥 log 𝑥
18. log 2 − =0
2

19. 𝑥 log2 𝑥 = 8𝑥 2
5
20. log(2𝑥 − 5) = log 1 (𝑥 − 3) if 𝑥 > 2 and 𝑥 > 3
10

21. log 3 𝑥 + 2 log 𝑥 3 = 3 if 𝑥 > 0 and 𝑥 ≠ 1

100
22. log 𝑥 log 𝑥 = log ( )
𝑥

20log 5
23. log 𝑥 = log ( 5log 2 )

𝑥3
24. log 𝑥 = log 𝑥 (100) if 𝑥 > 0 and 𝑥 ≠ 1
log 4
25. log(3𝑥+1 + 32−𝑥 ) = log 7 + log2 2
26. log(10𝑥 + 2) = 2𝑥 + 1
27. 4𝑥 = 12𝑥−1
28. 6𝑥−1 = 2𝑥 29. 3𝑒 2𝑥 + 5𝑒 𝑥 -2

30. 𝑒 (2𝑥+1) − 2𝑒 𝑥+2 + 𝑒 3 = 0

31. 𝑒 2𝑥 − (𝑒 + 1)𝑒 𝑥+1 = −𝑒 3
32. 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 = 3
33. ln(𝑥 − 2)2 = ln 𝑥
34. ln(2𝑥) + ln(3𝑥 − 𝑒) − 2 = ln 8
35. ln 𝑥 + ln(𝑥 − 1) = 6
36. 𝑎2𝑥−1 = 20
37. (ln 3)𝑥 = 5
38. ln 3𝑥 = 5
39. 7𝑥−2 = 53−𝑥

40. 27log3 𝑥 = 8
41. 𝑥 log10 𝑥 = 1000𝑥 2
𝑥2
42. 𝑥 ln 𝑥 = 𝑒

43. log 2 (3 − 𝑥) − log 2 (4𝑥 + 1) = −3

 ln 8+ ln 𝑥 ln 2
44. =
ln 32 ln 8−ln 𝑥

45. 4 × 32𝑥 = 9 × 22𝑥

46. 3𝑥+1 − 3𝑥−1 − 24 = 0
47. ln 𝑥 + 1 = ln(1 + 𝑥)
48. 𝑇 + (𝐴 − 𝐵)𝑒 −𝑘𝑥 = 𝐴
𝑥2
50. 𝑥 ln 𝑥 = 𝑒

51. 1 = 𝑒 1−𝑥
52. 3𝑒 2𝑥 − 5𝑒 𝑥 − 2 = 0
53. ln(2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3) = ln(𝑥 + 1)
𝑥
𝜃1
54. = 1 − 𝑒 −𝑇
𝜃2

55. 𝑀 = 𝑁𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
2𝑞
56. 𝑉 = 𝐴 − 𝑘 ln 𝑥

𝑒 2𝑥 −1
57. 𝑦 = 𝑒 2𝑥 +1
𝑦2
58. ln(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑦 + 2

59. log 2 (log 3 𝑥) = 1

f. Express the following as a single logarithm

1. 8 log 9 𝑥 2 𝑦 + log 9 (𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 ) − 4log 9 𝑥
2. log 50 + log 𝑦 3 − log 8𝑥 = 3 + 2 log 𝑥 − log 7 − log 𝑥
3. ln 𝑎 − 4 ln 𝑏 − 3
4. 3ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑦 + 𝑎 ln 𝑧
5. 9 (ln 𝑎 + ln 𝑏)
6. 9 (ln 𝑎 − ln 𝑏 + ln 𝑐)
7. 9 [ln(𝑎 + 𝑏) + ln(𝑎𝑏)]
8. ln(𝑚 + 𝑛)2 − ln(𝑚 − 𝑛)2
9. ln(𝑚 + 𝑛) + ln(𝑚 − 𝑛)
10. log10 0.1 × log 4 𝑥 − 2 log 4 𝑦 + log 4 6 × log 4 𝑒
11. log 7 10 × log10 𝑥 2 − log 7 49𝑥

12. log 3 (𝑥 − 1) − log 3 √𝑥 − 1 − 2 + log 3 3√𝑥 − 2

2 1
13. ln(𝐶 + 1)−3 + ln [5(𝐶 + 1)−3 ] − 6

ln(𝑥 2 +1) 2 log3 (𝑥 2 𝑦)

14. + 3 log 2 𝑥 −
ln(2) log27 4

1
15. log 3 𝑥 4 − log 3 (20𝑥 2 ) + ( ) log 3 𝑥
2
16. ln(4𝑥 2 𝑦) − 2 ln(2𝑦 2 ) + ln √𝑥 3 𝑦
ln √𝑥 2 𝑦 4
17. log 𝑏 𝑦 + 3 log 𝑏 √𝑥 − 2 log 𝑏 10 + ln 𝑏

18. log 𝑏 (𝑎 + 𝑏) + log 𝑏 (𝑎 − 𝑏) − 2 log 𝑏 𝑐

19. ln(𝑥 − 𝑦) − ln(cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥) + ln(𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) − ln(cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥)

2√𝑚2 𝑛2 − √𝑛5
20. ln
√𝑚

g. Expand the following using appropriate method

1 3 −1
𝑥2𝑦4𝑧 2 (𝑥+𝑦)2 𝑥 2
1. log 35(𝑥+𝑦) 2. log 4 (𝑥𝑦)3

(9𝑎)4 (𝑎+𝑏)
3. ln (𝑎𝑏+𝑐 2𝑑)8 4. ln 𝑎𝑏

𝑒3 (𝑒−1)3
5. ln 𝑦 3.5 (𝑒+3) 6. ln [(𝑒+1)3 ] √𝑦

𝑏 2 +4𝑎2 (2−5𝑦)√10𝑥𝑦
7. log 2 √ 2𝑎2𝑏2 8. Log 5 5𝑦

3 3
9. log 5 [3√5(√15𝑚2 + 2√35𝑚2 )] 10. log 𝑎 ( √8𝑎4 + 𝑏 √𝑎)
4(𝑥−5)2 𝑒 2𝑥+1 .23𝑥
11. log 2 [𝑥 4 (𝑥−1)3] 12. log 2 ( )
𝑥2

−3 2
3𝑎2 4 −5 𝑎3
13. log 𝑎 [( 4𝑏 ) ∙ (𝑎 ) ] 14. log 3 [(7 × 3−𝑎 ) ∙ ( 7 ) ]
√𝑥 3 𝑦 4 𝑧 6
15. log 2 ( 3 )
√8𝑥 5 𝑦 2
h. State whether each of the following is true or false

1. (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 2. √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑎 + 𝑏
1 1 1 𝑃𝑄+1
3. =𝑥+𝑦 4. = 𝑃+1
𝑥+𝑦 𝑄
1
𝑡 1 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
5. 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑎−𝑏 6. =𝑎+𝑎
− 𝑎
𝑡 𝑡

𝑦 𝑥
−
𝑥 𝑦
7. 1 1 =𝑥+𝑦 8. 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 = (𝑦 − 𝑥)2
−
𝑦 𝑥

9. 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 4𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦(𝑥 2 − 42 ) 10. ln(𝑥𝑦) = ln 𝑥 ln 𝑦

𝑥 ln 𝑥
11. ln(𝑦) = ln 𝑦 12. ln(𝑥 2 ) = 2 ln 𝑥

13. (ln 𝑥)2 = 2 ln 𝑥 14. ln(𝑥 − 𝑦) = ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑦

𝑥+𝑦
15. ln[𝑥−𝑦] = ln(𝑥 + 𝑦) + ln(𝑥 − 𝑦) 16. 𝑒 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑦
𝑦 1
17. (𝑒 𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥𝑦 18. 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥𝑦 19. =𝑦+1
𝑦 2 +𝑦

𝑦 2 +𝑦 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐
20. = 𝑦+1 21. × 𝑑 = 𝑏𝑑
𝑦 𝑏

𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎+𝑐
22. ÷𝑑 = 23. + 𝑑 = 𝑏+𝑑
𝑏 𝑏𝑐 𝑏

Change the subject of the formulae to the symbol as shown in brackets

a2 b2
1. = (x )
1 − ac 1 − bc

3(1 − v )
p

2.  m = (v)
2(1 + v )

= ln (m − n) − ln (m + 2) (n)
x
3.
y

4. S = r 2 + r r 2 + h2 (h)
Laws of logarithms

i. Multiplication : log(𝐴 × 𝐵) = log 𝐴 + log 𝐵

𝐴
ii. Division : log (𝐵) = log 𝐴 − log 𝐵
iii. Power law: log 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑛 log 𝐴.

Example

Solve the equation: log(𝑥 − 1) + log(𝑥 + 8) = 2 log(𝑥 + 2)

Solution:

⟹ log(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 8) = log(𝑥 + 2)2 from the laws of logarithm.

⟹ log(𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 8) = log(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4)

Hence 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 8 = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4

⟹ 7𝑥 − 8 = 4𝑥 + 4

⟹ 3𝑥 = 12

⟹ 𝑥 = 4.
Graphs of logarithmic functions

Fig15

Indicial equations

Solve the equation 2𝑥+1 = 32𝑥−5 correct to 2 decimal places

Solution:

log10 2𝑥+1 = log10 32𝑥−5

(𝑥 + 1) log10 2 = (2𝑥 − 5)log10 3

⟹ 𝑥 log10 2 + log10 2 = 2𝑥 log10 3 − 5log10 3

⟹ 𝑥(0.3010) + (0.3010) = 2𝑥(0.4771) − 5(0.4771)

Collect like terms and simplify to obtain: 2.6865 = 0.6532𝑥

2.6865
Hence, 𝑥 = 0.6532 = 4.11
5.2 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
Definition: An exponential function is one which contains 𝑒 𝑥 , e being a constant called the
exponent and having an approximate value of 2.7183.

The exponential graph

Fig16

Exponents and Logarithms

Exponents and radicals
Let 𝒂 and 𝒃 be real numbers and 𝒎 and 𝒏 be integers. Then
1. 𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 2. (𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛 = (𝑎𝑛 )𝑚
𝑎𝑚
3. (𝑎𝑏)𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 4. = 𝑎𝑚−𝑛 , 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎𝑛
𝑎 𝑚 𝑎𝑚 1
5. (𝑏 ) = 𝑏 𝑚 , 𝑏 ≠ 0 6. 𝑎−𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 , 𝑎 ≠ 0
1 𝑚
𝑛 𝑛
7. 𝑎𝑛 = √𝑎 8. 𝑎0 = 1, 𝑎 ≠ 0 9. 𝑎 𝑛 = √𝑎 𝑚
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 1
10. √𝑎𝑏 = √𝑎 √𝑏 or √𝑎𝑏 = √𝑎 √𝑏 11. 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎−𝑚
𝑛
𝑚 𝑛 𝑚𝑛 𝑛 𝑎 √𝑎
12. √ √𝑎 = √𝑎 13. √𝑏 = 𝑛 ,𝑏 ≠ 0
√𝑏

Trinomials
 1. 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
2. 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

3. 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏)
Evaluating Exponential function using a calculator.

Example

The instantaneous voltage v in a capacitive circuit is related to time t by the

equation: 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒 −𝑡/𝐶𝑅 where V, C and R are constants. Determine V, correct to 4
significant figures, when t = 50ms, C = 10μF, R = 47 k𝛺 and V = 300 volts.

Solution:
−3 )/(10×10−6 ×47×103 )
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒 −𝑡/𝐶𝑅 = 300𝑒 (−50×10

𝑉 = 269.7 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠.

The power series for 𝒆𝒙

𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑒 = 1+𝑥+ + + +⋯
2! 3! 4!
Exponential equations

Example

Solve for e − 3e + 2 = 0 .
2x x

Solution:

Let 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 . We substitute in the above equation to obtain.

𝑦 2 − 3𝑦 + 2 = 0.

𝑦 2 − 𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 2 = 0.

𝑦(𝑦 − 1) − 2(𝑦 − 1) = 0.

(𝑦 − 1)(𝑦 − 2) = 0.

𝑦 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 2.

𝑒 𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 𝑥 = 2.

ln 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 1 𝑜𝑟 ln 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 2.

𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = ln 2.
5.3 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Function Definition

cosh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
2

sinh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
2

tanh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥

coth 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
when 𝑥 > 0
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥

2
sech 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥

2
csch 𝑥 when 𝑥 > 0
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥

Graphs of hyperbolic functions

fig17
Some hyperbolic identities

i. 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = 1
ii. 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 = 1
iii. 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑥 = 1

Solving Equations involving Hyperbolic functions

Example

Solve for 𝑥: 2cosh 2 x + 10sinh 2 x = 5

Solution:
𝑒 2𝑥 +𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 −𝑒 −2𝑥
Recall cosh 2𝑥 = and sinh 2𝑥 =
2 2

⟹ 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 5𝑒 2𝑥 − 5𝑒 −2𝑥 = 5

⟹ 6𝑒 2𝑥 − 5 − 4𝑒 −2𝑥 = 0

⟹ 6𝑒 4𝑥 − 5𝑒 2𝑥 − 4 = 0

⟹ (3𝑒 2𝑥 − 4)(2𝑒 2𝑥 + 1) = 0

4 1
⟹ 𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 2𝑥 = −
3 2
The only real solution occurs when 𝑒 2𝑥 > 0.
4 1 4
Therefore, 2𝑥 = ln 3 ⟹ 𝑥 = 2 ln 3.
TUTORIAL EXERCISE

a. Solve the equations given below

1. log 𝑥 4 − log 𝑥 3 = log 5𝑥 − log 2𝑥

2. ln ( x + 4 ) = ln12
3. 2 ( 3 ) − 4 = 11
2 t −5

4. ln x = 3
5. 5 + 2ln x = 4
6. 2x = 5
7. 8 x = 92
8. 4x+2 = 6x
9. 3x − 5 = 7 2 − x

b. Evaluate log 2 3  log3 2  log 4 5  log5 8

c. Solve for x : log9 4 + log 3 x = 3 log 4 ( x + 4 ) − log16 ( x 2 − 4 ) = 1

e. Show that log8 1000 = log 2 10

f. Write the expression as a logarithm of single quantity

i. ln ( x − 2 ) − ln ( x + 2 )

2ln ( x + 3) + ln x − ln ( x 2 − 1)
1
ii.
3 

4ln 2 − ln ( x3 + 6 x )
1
iii.
2

g. Sketch the graph of the function and state its domain.

i. f ( x ) = 3ln x
ii. f ( x ) = ln ( x − 3)

h. Expand:

log10 ( x + 45 ) ( x − 2)
7
i.
x3
ii. log 2
3x − 5 + 7 x
i. Write log 2 3 x + 17 log 2 ( x − 2 ) − 2 log 2 ( x + 4 x + 1) as single logarithm.
2

j. Solve:

i. ( )
log 2 1 + x = 6 for x.

2 x = 8 for x .
2
ii.

iii. log 2 ( log3 ( x ) ) = 1 for x.

5
k. Given that sinh 𝑥 = , find the values of cosh 𝑥 and sech 𝑥.
12,

l. Use the definition sinh x and cosh x in terms of exponential functions to prove the following:

i. cosh 2 x = 2cosh 2 x − 1
ii. cosh 2 x = 1 + sinh 2 x
iii. cosh ( x − y ) = cosh x cosh y − sinh x sinh y

Solve for x if

1. 2 x+5 − 2 x + 2 x−2 = 10 x−2

2. 8 * 7 x−1 − 7 x − 49 = 0

3. 3 log 2 − log(x − 1) = log(x − 3)

4. ( )
log x x 2 − 1 = log x (3x − 3)

log 8 − log x log 2

=
5. log 32 log 8 − log x

6. ln x + ln (x + 2) = 1

7. ln 2x + ln (3x − e) − 2 = ln 8

8. e2 x +1 − 2e x + 2 + e3 = 0

x
 A
  = B−A
9.  B 
Chapter 6
6.1 CONTINUOUS AND PIECEWISE CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
Definition: A continuous function is a function whose graph is a single, unbroken curve.
Consequently, it is possible to sketch the graph without lifting your pen from the paper. A
function is said to be discontinuous if is not continuous.

Examples of continuous functions are 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥.

Fig18

𝑥+5
An example of a discontinuous function is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+2 on set of real numbers.

Fig19
 Notes:

Some functions are discontinuous on some intervals but are continuous on some restricted
intervals.

Examples: 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥 is discontinuous on the interval [0,2𝜋] but continuous on the
−𝜋 𝜋
interval [ 2 , 2 ].

Fig20

Piecewise-continuous functions

Definition: Functions which are continuous “in pieces” are called piecewise-continuous
functions.

𝑥+4 𝑥 <0
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑥 2 0 < 𝑥 < 5
7 𝑥≥5
Explanation of the jump at x=0 and x=5
 Fig21

6.2 EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

Even Functions

Definition: An even function is a function whose equation satisfies the following property:
𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).

Note: Such functions have graphs which are symmetrical about the y-axis.

Example

Prove that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2 is an even function.

Proof:

𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)2 + 2

= 𝑥2 + 2

= 𝑓(𝑥)

Since 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2 is even function.

Some graphs of even functions indicating symmetry about the y-axis

Fig22

Odd Functions

Definition: An even function is a function whose equation satisfies the following property:
𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥).

Note: Such functions have graphs which are symmetrical about the origin.

Example

Prove that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 is an even function.

Proof:

𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)3 + 2(−𝑥)

= −𝑥 3 − 2𝑥

= −𝑓(𝑥)

Since 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 is odd function.

Some graphs of even functions indicating symmetry about the origin

Fig23

Note:
Some functions are neither even nor odd. Alternatively, they satisfy none of the above-
mentioned properties.

TUTORIAL EXERCISE

1. Discuss the continuity of each function

1.1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1⁄𝑥
𝑥 2 −1
1.2. 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
1
1.3. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −1
𝑥 2 +4
1.4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2
2. Sketch the graph of each of the following functions
𝑥 2 , −3 ≤ 𝑥 < 3
2.1. 𝑓(𝑥) = {
5, 𝑥≥3

𝑥 + 6, −5 < 𝑥 ≤ 4
2.2. 𝑔(𝑥) = {𝑥 2 + 3, 4 < 𝑥 ≤ 7
𝑥, 𝑥>7
3. Discuss the continuity of the following piecewise function

5 − 𝑥, −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑓(𝑥) = { 2
𝑥 − 1, 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 3

4. Determine whether the given functions are even, odd or neither even nor odd
a. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 5
b. ℎ(𝑥) = tan 3𝑥
c. 𝑝(𝑥) = 2𝑒 3𝑥
d. 𝑓(𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
Chapter 7
7.1 COMPLEX NUMBERS
Basic terminology

Definition: A complex number z is an ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers x and y, denoted 𝑧 =
(𝑥, 𝑦) whereby 𝑥 is called the real part and 𝑦 is called the imaginary part of z. This is denoted as
𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 and 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑧 .

Notation: 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

Cartesian complex numbers

A complex number of the form 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is called Cartesian complex number.

Example

Solve the quadratic equation 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 = 0

Solution:

−2 ± √22 − (4)(1)(5)
𝑥=
2(1)

−2 ± √(−16)
𝑥=
2

−2 ± 4√−1
𝑥=
2

Remember 𝑖 = √−1

Hence, 𝑥 = −1 ± 2𝑖
 Example

Evaluate 𝑖 23 .

Solution:

𝑖 23 = 𝑖 × 𝑖 22

= 𝑖 × (𝑖 2 )11

= 𝑖 × (−1)11

= 𝑖 × (−1)

= −𝑖

The Argand diagram or Complex Plane

Definition: The argand diagram is the geometric representation of complex numbers.

In fact, we choose two perpendicular coordinate axes, the horizontal x-axis, called the real axis,
and the vertical y-axis, called the imaginary axis.

Fig23
Addition and subtraction of complex numbers

Addition

Consider two complex number 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 .

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2

= (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) + 𝑖(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )

Example

Find 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 where 𝑧1 = 8 + 3i and 𝑧2 = 9 − 2𝑖.

Solution:

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 8 + 3𝑖 + 9 − 2𝑖

= (8 + 9) + 𝑖(3 − 2)

= 17 + 𝑖

Subtraction

Consider two complex number 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 .

𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 − (𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 )

= (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) + 𝑖(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )

Example

Find 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 where 𝑧1 = 8 + 3i and 𝑧2 = 9 − 5𝑖.

Solution:
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 8 + 3𝑖 − (9 + 5𝑖)

= (8 − 9) + 𝑖(3 − 5) = −1 + 2𝑖
Addition and subtraction using the complex plane

Fig24

Fig25
 Multiplication of complex numbers

Consider two complex number 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 .

𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = (𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 ). (𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 )

= 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑥1 𝑖𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑖𝑦1 + 𝑖 2 𝑦1 𝑦2

= 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑖 2 𝑦1 𝑦2 + 𝑖(𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 )

= 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 + 𝑖(𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 ) (Note: 𝑖 2 = −1)

Example

Find 𝑧1 𝑧2 where 𝑧1 = 1 + 2i and 𝑧2 = 4 − 3𝑖.

Solution:

𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = (1 + 2𝑖)(4 − 3𝑖)

= 1(4) − 3(1)𝑖 + 2(4)𝑖 − 2(3)𝑖 2

= 4 − 3𝑖 + 8𝑖 + 6

= 10 + 5𝑖

Division of complex numbers

Definition: The complex conjugate of a complex number is derived by changing the sign of the
imaginary part

Example: The complex conjugate of z = 2 + 3i is 𝑧̅ = 2 − 3i.

Consider two complex number 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 .

𝑧1 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 (𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 )(𝑥2 − 𝑖𝑦2 )

= =
𝑧2 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 (𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 )(𝑥2 − 𝑖𝑦2 )

𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑖𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑖𝑥2 𝑦1 − 𝑖 2 𝑦1 𝑦2
=
𝑥2 2 − 𝑖𝑥2 𝑦2 + 𝑖𝑥2 𝑦2 + 𝑦2 2
 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 − 𝑖(𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 𝑦1 )
=
𝑥2 2 + 𝑦2 2

𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑖(𝑥2 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 )
= +
𝑥2 2 + 𝑦2 2 𝑥2 2 + 𝑦2 2

Example
𝑧
Find 𝑧1 whereby 𝑧1 = 1 + 2i and 𝑧2 = 4 − 3𝑖.
2

Solution:

𝑧1 1 + 2𝑖 (1 + 2𝑖)(4 + 3𝑖)
= =
𝑧2 4 − 3𝑖 (4 − 3𝑖)(4 + 3𝑖)

4 + 3𝑖 + 8𝑖 + 6𝑖 2
=
16 + 12𝑖 − 12𝑖 − 9𝑖 2
4 − 6 + 11𝑖
=
16 + 9
−2 + 11𝑖
=
25
−2 11
= + 𝑖
25 25
Complex equation

Note: If two complex numbers are equal, consequently their real parts are equal, and their
imaginary parts are equal.

Consider two complex number 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 .

𝑧1 = 𝑧2 ⟹ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦1 = 𝑦2

Example

Solve the complex equation (2 − 3𝑖) = √(𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏).

Solution:

(2 − 3𝑖) = √(𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) ⟹ (2 − 3𝑖)2 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏

⟹ 4 − 6𝑖 − 6𝑖 + 9𝑖 2 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏

⟹ 4 − 9 − 12𝑖 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏

⟹ −5 − 12𝑖 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏

⟹ 𝑎 = −5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = −12

7.2 POLAR FORM OF COMPLEX NUMBER

Consider the complex number of the form 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.

Fig26

From trigonometry 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃.

Hence 𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 sin 𝜃

= 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃). (1)

Note

i. Equation (1) is usually abbreviated as 𝑧 = 𝑟∠𝜃

ii. Equation (1) is called the polar form of a complex number.
iii. r is called the modulus (or magnitude) of z

𝑟 = |𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

iv. 𝜃 is called the argument of z denoted arg z

𝑦
v. From trigonometry: 𝜃 = arg 𝑧 = tan−1 𝑥
vi. Angles are measured in radians
vii. For 𝑧 = 0, 𝜃 is undefined.
viii. For 𝑧 ≠ 0, the principal value Arg z of arg z lies in the interval −𝜋 < 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 ≤ 𝜋.
ix. While other values are obtained from the equation: arg 𝑧 = 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 ± 2𝑛𝜋

Example:

Convert the following to polar form: 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖

Solution:

𝑟 = |𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √12 + 12

= √2

𝑦 1 𝜋
𝜃 = tan−1 = tan−1 =
𝑥 1 4
𝜋 𝜋
𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) = √2(cos + 𝑖 sin )
4 4

Note:

Triangle inequality

Consider the following two complex numbers 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 . We have the following triangle
inequality
 |𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |

Multiplication in polar form

Let 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 ∠𝜃1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 ∠𝜃2 then,

𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 ∠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ).

Hence |𝑧1 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 ||𝑧2 | and arg(𝑧1 𝑧2 ) = arg 𝑧1 + arg 𝑧2

Division in polar form

Let 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 ∠𝜃1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 ∠𝜃2 then,

𝑧1
= (𝑟1 /𝑟2 )∠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
𝑧2
𝑧 |𝑧 | 𝑧
Hence |𝑧1 | = |𝑧1| and arg 𝑧1 = arg 𝑧1 − arg 𝑧2 , where 𝑧2 ≠ 0.
2 2 2

Applications of complex number

There are many applications of complex numbers in engineering, in particular in electrical

alternating current theory and in mechanical vector analysis.

Consider the following diagrams

Fig27
 Fig28

a. Fig27- R-L circuit

b. Fig28- R-C circuit

Note:

i. For fig a), we have 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐺 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑖𝑉𝐿 and the impedance 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑖𝑋𝐿 . Where 𝑋𝐿 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐿 (Remember 𝑓 is the frequency and L is the inductance).

ii. For fig b), we have 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 − 𝑖𝑉𝐶 and the impedance 𝑍 = 𝑅 − 𝑖𝑋𝐶 . Where 𝑋𝐶 = 1/2𝜋𝑓𝐶
(Remember 𝑓 is the frequency and C is the capacitive reactance).

Example

Determine the resistance and series inductance (or capacitance) for each of the following
impedances, assuming a frequency of 50Hz:

a. (3.0 + 5.0𝑖)𝛺
b. −25𝑖𝛺

Solution:

a. Impedance 𝑍 = (3.0 + 5.0𝑖)𝛺

So, resistance = 3.0𝛺 and reactance = 5.0𝛺

The reactance is inductive because we have a positive imaginary part.

 𝑋𝐿 = 5.0

𝑋𝐿
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 ⟹ 𝐿 =
2𝜋𝑓

5.0
𝐿= = 0.0156𝐻
2𝜋(50)

b. Impedance 𝑍 = 25𝑖, in fact we have 𝑍 = (0 − 25𝑖)𝛺. Hence resistance=0 and

reactance = 25𝛺.

The reactance is capacitive because we have a negative imaginary part.

1 1
𝑋𝐶 = ⟹𝐶=
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝑋𝐶

1
𝑋𝐶 = 25𝛺 ⟹ 𝐶 = 𝐹
2𝜋(50)(25)

106
⟹𝐶= 𝜇𝐹 = 127.32𝜇𝐹
2𝜋(50)(25)

7.3 DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM

From multiplication of complex numbers in polar form, we have 𝑟∠𝜃 × 𝑟∠𝜃 = 𝑟 2 ∠2𝜃.

By induction, we have De Moivre’s theorem which states as follows

[𝑟∠𝜃]𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 ∠𝑛𝜃, 𝑛𝜖𝑅

Powers of complex numbers

Example

Determine, in polar form (1 + 2𝑖)6 .

Solution:

𝑟 = √12 + 22 = √5

𝑦 2
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( )
𝑥 1
𝜃 = 1.1071𝑟𝑎𝑑

[𝑟∠𝜃]𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 ∠𝑛𝜃, 𝑛𝜖𝑅

6 6
⟹ (√5∠1.1071) = √5 ∠(6 × 1.1071)

= 125∠6.6429𝑟𝑎𝑑

Remember −𝜋 < 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 ≤ 𝜋, hence we need to do

6.6429𝑟𝑎𝑑 − 2𝜋 = 0.3597𝑟𝑎𝑑

𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 0.3597𝑟𝑎𝑑

(1 + 2𝑖)6 = 125(cos 0.3597 + 𝑖 sin 0.3597)

Roots of complex number

Let 𝑛 = 1⁄2 then de moivre’s theorem becomes

1 𝜃
√[𝑟∠𝜃] = [𝑟∠𝜃]2 = √𝑟∠
2
In general, there are n solutions to the nth root of a complex number

Example

Determine the two square roots of the complex number (5 + 12𝑖) in polar and Cartesian
forms.

Solution:
12
𝑟 = √52 + 122 = 13 and 𝜃 = tan−1 ( 5 ) = 1.176

1⁄ 1⁄
2
So (5 + 12𝑖) 2 = (√13∠1.176)

There exist two solutions:

1
i. √13∠ 2 × 1.176
ii. To obtain the second solution we need to re-express √13∠1.176 as √13∠1.176 +
1
2𝜋. Hence the second solution is √13∠ 2 × (1.176 + 2𝜋)

The two square roots of the complex number (5 + 12𝑖) are √13∠0.588 and √13∠3.730

Alternatively, we have √13(cos 0.588 + 𝑖 sin 0.588) = 3 + 2𝑖 and

√13(cos 3.730 + 𝑖 sin 3.730) = −3 − 2𝑖
The exponential form of a complex number

Consider the power series expansion of the following functions:

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
i. 𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + + +⋯ (1)
2 3 4

𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
ii. sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − +⋯ (2)
3! 5! 7!

𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
iii. cos 𝑥 = 1 − + − +⋯ (3)
2! 4! 6!

Replacing 𝑥 by 𝑖𝜃 in equation (1) gives

(𝑖𝜃)2 (𝑖𝜃)3 (𝑖𝜃)4

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 1 + 𝑖𝜃 + + + +⋯
2 3 4
𝑖 2 𝜃2 𝑖 3 𝜃3 𝑖 4 𝜃4
= 1 + 𝑖𝜃 + + + +⋯
2 3 4

Let simplify and group real and imaginary parts to obtain

𝑖𝜃
𝜃2 𝜃4 𝜃3 𝜃5
𝑒 = (1 − + −) + 𝑖 (𝜃 − + −)
2! 4! 3! 5!

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃

We also have

𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃.

Hence from 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) we have 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 . This is the exponential form of a

complex number.
 Example

i. Convert 3 − 4𝑖 into polar and exponential forms.

𝜋
ii. Express 𝑧 = 2𝑒 1+𝑖 3 in cartesian form.

Solution:
4
i. 𝑟 = √32 + (−4)2 = 5 and 𝜃 = tan−1 (3) = 0.927 𝑟𝑎𝑑

Remember that from the argand diagram representation of 𝑧 = 3 − 4𝑖, it can be

observed that it lies on the fourth quadrant. Hence 𝜃 = 2𝜋 − 0.927 = 5.356𝑟𝑎𝑑.
𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 5.356 − 2𝜋 = −0.927𝑟𝑎𝑑.

Polar form= 5(cos(−0.927) + 𝑖 sin(−0.927))

Exponential form = 5𝑒 (−0.927)𝑖

𝜋 𝜋
ii. 𝑧 = 2𝑒 1+𝑖 3 = 2𝑒 1 (𝑒 𝑖 3 )
𝜋 𝜋
= 5.437(cos + 𝑖 sin )
3 3
= 2.719 + 𝑖4.709
TUTORIAL EXERCISE

1. Simplify the following 𝑖 141 .

2. If 𝑧 = 4 + 3𝑖 and 𝑤 = 3 − 5𝑖 evaluate 𝑖(4𝑤 − 2𝑧)
3. Let 𝑧1 = 2 + 2i, 𝑧2 = 4 − 3𝑖, 𝑧3 = −2 + 3i and 𝑧4 = −5 − 2𝑖. Compute
𝑧
a. 𝑧2 + 𝑧1 + 𝑧4
3
4. Solve the complex equations (𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦) − (2𝑦 + 𝑖𝑥) = 8 + 6𝑖
5. Solve for 𝑥:
a. 4𝑥 2 + 20 = 0
b. 𝑥 2 = 8𝑥 − 35
c. 4𝑡 2 − 5𝑡 + 7
6. Simplify the following:
a. 𝑖 38
b. 3𝑖 129
1
c. − 𝑖 7
7. Represent the complex number 𝑧 = −5 − 7𝑖 on the complex plane.
8. Simplify to the form 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
a. (−4 − 3𝑖) + (−1 + 7𝑖) + 6𝑖
9. Determine the resistance R and series inductance L (or capacitance C) for the following
impedance (4 + 10𝑖)Ω assuming the frequency 40Hz.
10. Determine, using complex numbers the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the
coplanar forces given below, which are acting at a point. Force A, 3N acting horizontally
𝜋 4𝜋
Force B, 7N acting at an angle of 4 to force A, Force C, 12N acting at an angle of 3 to force
A.

11. Convert into exponential form 𝑧 = 3.5 − 4.2𝑖 .

1⁄
12. Determine the modulus and arguments of the complex roots of (4 − 2𝑖) 2

13. Let z= 4𝑒 2.5−2𝑖 determine ln 𝑧 in polar form.

14. Convert the following from polar to cartesian coordinates
3𝜋 3𝜋
a. 𝑧1 = 3 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
2 2
7𝜋 7𝜋
b. 𝑧2 = 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
6 6
15. Determine the resistance R and series inductance L (or capacitance C) for the following
impedance (4 + 10𝑖)Ω assuming the frequency 40Hz.
16. Determine, using complex numbers the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the
coplanar forces given below, which are acting at a point. Force A, 3N acting horizontally
𝜋 4𝜋
Force B, 7N acting at an angle of 4 to force A, Force C, 12N acting at an angle of 3 to force
A.
17. Convert into exponential form 𝑧 = −3.5 + 4𝑖 .

1⁄
18. Determine the modulus and arguments of the complex roots of (4 − 2𝑖) 2

19. Let z= 4𝑒 2.5−2𝑖 determine ln 𝑧 in polar form.

20. Solve for 𝑥:

a. 4𝑥 2 + 20 = 0
b. 𝑥 2 = 8𝑥 − 35
c. 4𝑡 2 − 5𝑡 + 7
21. Simplify the following:
a. 𝑖 38
b. 𝑖 129
1
c. − 𝑖 7
22. Represent the complex number 𝑧 = −5 − 7𝑖 on the complex plane.
23. Simplify to the form 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
a. (−4 − 𝑖) + (−1 + 7𝑖) + 6𝑖
24. If 𝑧 = 2 + 𝑖 and 𝑤 = 3 − 𝑖 evaluate
a. 5𝑧 + 2𝑤
b. 𝑖(2𝑤 − 3𝑧)
25. Evaluate (−4 − 4𝑖)2 .
26. Let 𝑧1 = 1 + 2i, 𝑧2 = 4 − 3𝑖, 𝑧3 = −2 + 3i and 𝑧4 = −5 − 𝑖. Compute
a. 𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧3
𝑧
b. 𝑧2 + 𝑧1 + 𝑧3
4

27. Solve the complex equations:

a. (𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦) − (𝑦 − 𝑖𝑥) = 2 + 𝑖
b. If 𝑧 = 𝑅 + 𝑖𝜔𝐿 + 1⁄𝑖𝜔𝐶 , express 𝑧 in the form 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 when 𝑅 = 10, 𝐿 = 5, 𝐶 =
0.004 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 = 4
28. Convert the following from cartesian to polar form
a. 𝑧 = −2 + 4𝑖
b. 𝑧 = −8 + 6𝑖
29. Convert the following from polar to cartesian coordinates
3𝜋 3𝜋
a. 𝑧1 = 3 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
2 2
7𝜋 7𝜋
b. 𝑧2 = 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
6 6
𝑧1
30. Compute 𝑧1 𝑧2 and 𝑧 and leave your answer in polar form.
2
𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋
31. Compute 5∠ 4 × 4∠ 3 ÷ 10∠ 2
Chapter 8
8.1 TRANSFORMATION OF FUNCTIONS

Vertical Translations

Definition: Consider the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) a vertical translation means that every point (𝑥, 𝑦)
on the graph of 𝑓(𝑥)is transformed to (𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑘) or (𝑥, 𝑦 − 𝑘) on the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑘
or 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑘 respectively.

Note:

i. A translation is also called a shift.

ii. The graph of 𝑓(𝑥)will vertically shift upward by k units if k is added to the function.
Hence the graph becomes 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑘 .
iii. The graph of 𝑓(𝑥)will vertically shift downward by k units if k is subtracted from the
function. Hence the graph becomes 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑘 .

Horizontal Translations

Definition: Consider the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) a horizontal translation means that every point
(𝑥, 𝑦) on the graph of 𝑓(𝑥)is transformed to (𝑥 + 𝑘, 𝑦) or (𝑥 − 𝑘, 𝑦) on the graphs of 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑘) or 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑘) respectively.
Note:

i. The graph of 𝑓(𝑥)will horizontally shift to the left k units when k is added to the variable
of the function. Hence the function becomes 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑘).
ii. The graph of 𝑓(𝑥)will horizontally shift to the right k units when k is subtracted to the
variable of the function. Hence the function becomes 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑘).

Reflection

Definition: Reflection is a function transformation which occurs when the function or the
variable of the function is multiplied by -1.

Note:

i. The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is reflected across the x-axis when the function is multiplied by -1
where y = 𝑓(𝑥) becomes y = −𝑓(𝑥).
 ii. The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is reflected across the y-axis when the variable of the function is
multiplied by -1 where y = 𝑓(𝑥) becomes y = 𝑓(−𝑥)

Vertical Stretching and Shrinking

Definition: This is a function transformation which takes place when the function is multiplied
by a constant 𝑘 ≠ −1.

Note:

i. A vertical shrinking of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) will occur when 0 < 𝑘 < 1. Graphically, a
vertical shrinking pulls the graph toward the x-axis.
ii. A vertical stretching of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) will occur when 𝑘 > 1. Graphically, a
vertical stretching pushes the graph away the x-axis
Horizontal Stretching and Shrinking
Definition: This is a function transformation which takes place when the variable of the
function is multiplied by a constant 𝑘 ≠ −1.

Note:
i. A horizontal stretching of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) will occur when 0 < 𝑘 < 1.
Hence, the function becomes 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑘𝑥). Graphically, a horizontal stretching
pulls the graph away from the y-axis.
ii. A horizontal shrinking of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) will occur when 𝑘 > 1. Hence,
the function becomes 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑘𝑥). Graphically, a horizontal shrinking pushes the
graph towards the y-axis
8.2 LIMIT AND CONTINUITY
Definition of limits:

i. Informal definition: The function 𝑔(𝑥)is said to have the limit L as 𝑥 approaches some
value a if as x gets “really close” to a, 𝑔(𝑥) gets “as close as we want” to L.

ii. Formal definition: A function 𝑔(𝑥) is said to have the limit L as x → a, written as
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿, if, for any 𝜖 > 0 (no matter how small) there exists a δ > 0 (depending on
𝑥→𝑎
𝜖) with the property that for all 0 < |x − a| < δ, we have that | 𝑔(𝑥) − L| < 𝜖.

Laws(theorems) of limit

Let 𝑔(𝑥) and ℎ(𝑥) be two different functions satisfying lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿𝑔 and lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿ℎ .
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Hence the following theorems hold:

i. Basic limits: If a and b are any constants, then lim 𝑏 = 𝑏 and lim 𝑥 = 𝑎 .
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
ii. The addition theorem: lim [𝑔(𝑥) + ℎ(𝑥)] = 𝐿𝑔 + 𝐿ℎ .
𝑥→𝑎
iii. The subtraction theorem: lim [𝑔(𝑥) − ℎ(𝑥)] = 𝐿𝑔 − 𝐿ℎ .
𝑥→𝑎
iv. The multiplication theorem: lim [𝑔(𝑥). ℎ(𝑥)] = 𝐿𝑔 . 𝐿ℎ .
𝑥→𝑎
𝑔(𝑥) 𝐿𝑔
v. The division theorem: lim [ℎ(𝑥)] = 𝐿 , whereby 𝐿ℎ is not zero.
𝑥→𝑎 ℎ
vi. The exponentiation Theorem: lim [𝑔(𝑥)𝑐 ] = 𝐿𝑔 𝑐 where c is any positive real
𝑥→𝑎
number. (It also holds when c is negative or zero, provided 𝐿𝑔 is positive, in order
for both sides to be real numbers.)
vii. The inequality Theorem: If 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) for all 𝑥 then 𝐿𝑔 ≤ 𝐿ℎ .
viii. The squeeze theorem (also called the sandwich theorem): If 𝑝(𝑥) ≤ 𝑞(𝑥) ≤
𝑟(𝑥) and lim [𝑝(𝑥)] = lim [𝑟(𝑥)] = 𝐿 (meaning that both limits exist and are
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
equal to L) then lim [𝑞(𝑥)] exists and also equals L.
𝑥→𝑎
 Example
𝑡 3 −3𝑡+1
Find lim
𝑡→1 𝑡−3

Solution:

Use addition and subtraction laws of limit to see that

lim 𝑡 3 − 3𝑡 + 1 = lim 𝑡 3 − lim 3𝑡 + lim 1

𝑡→1 𝑡→1 𝑡→1 𝑡→1

= 1 − 3 + 1 = −1

Use subtraction laws of limit to see that

lim 𝑡 − 3 = 1 − 3 = −2
𝑡→1

𝑡 3 −3𝑡+1 −1 1
Thus, lim = −2 = 2
𝑡→1 𝑡−3

Limit at Infinity
𝑘
If 𝑟 is a positive rational number and 𝑘 is any real number then, lim = 0.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑟

If 𝑟 is a positive rational number and 𝑘 is any real number and 𝑥 𝑟 is defined for 𝑥<0 then ,
𝑘
lim = 0.
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑟

Example
2𝑥 4 −𝑥 2 +8𝑥
Evaluate lim
𝑥→∞ −5𝑥 4 −7

Solution:

1 8 1 8
2𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 𝑥 4 (2 − 2 + 3 ) (2 − 2 + 3 ) −2
lim = lim 𝑥 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 𝑥 =
𝑥→∞ −5𝑥 4 − 7 𝑥→∞ 4 7 𝑥→∞ 7 5
𝑥 (−5 − 4 ) (−5 − 4 )
𝑥 𝑥
One Sided Limits

i. The function 𝑔(𝑥) is said to have the limit L as 𝑥 → 𝑎 from below, written as
lim− 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿, if the following statement is true: for any 𝜖 > 0 (no matter how small)
𝑥→𝑎
there exists a 𝛿 > 0 (depending on 𝜖 ) with the property that for all−𝛿 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 0, we
have that |𝑔(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜖.
ii. The function 𝑔(𝑥) is said to have the limit L as 𝑥 → 𝑎 from above, written as
lim+ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿, if the following statement is true: for any 𝜖 > 0 (no matter how small)
𝑥→𝑎
there exists a 𝛿 > 0 (depending on 𝜖 ) with the property that for all 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿, we
have that |𝑔(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜖.

Continuity

Definition: A function 𝑔(𝑥) is continuous at point 𝑥 = 𝑎 if lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑎) . A function 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
is said to be everywhere continuous (or often, just continuous) if it is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 for all
real numbers a in its domain.

Continuity of a composite function:

If ℎ is continuous at 𝑐 and 𝑔is continuous at ℎ(𝑐),then the composite function given by

𝑔(ℎ(𝑥))is continuous at 𝑐.

TUTORIAL EXERCISE

1. Graph the following functions using function transformation on the stated original
functions and state their domain and range
i. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2)2 − 3 (use 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 as the original function)
ii. 𝑓(𝑥) = −2√𝑥 + 3 + 1 (use 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 as the original function)
iii. 𝑓(𝑥) = (−2𝑥 + 1)3 − 2 original function 𝑥 3
2. Determine the following limits.
i. lim− 𝑓(𝑥), lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
2
𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 > 2
Where 𝑓(𝑥) = { 4, 𝑥 = 2
𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 < 2
1
ii. lim
𝑥→0+ 𝑥
3. Where is the function 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 continuous?
1
4. Where is the function 𝑓(∅) = sin(∅2−1) continuous?
 5. Discuss continuity of each function
i. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3
ii. 𝑓(𝑥) = √3 − 𝑥
5 − 𝑥, − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
iii. 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2
𝑥 − 1, 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3

Section II

Evaluate the following

𝑥 2 −9 sin 3𝑥
1. lim 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 1 2. lim 3. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→0 6𝑥

𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2
4. lim (𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 4) 5. lim+ √𝑥 6. lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→0 𝑥→2 𝑥−2

𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 +𝑥+1 sin(sin(𝑥))
7. lim 8. lim √𝑥 2 + 1 − √𝑥 2 − 1 9. lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 +5𝑥+2 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→0 𝑥

sin(𝑥 2 ) 1
10. lim 𝑥 sin(𝑥) 11. lim+ 𝑒 tan(𝑥) 12. lim− 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→
𝜋 𝑥→0
2

𝑥 2 +2𝑥−8
13. lim(3𝑥 − 4) 14. lim√𝑥 2 − 9 15. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥→5 𝑥→2 2𝑥−4

𝑥2 𝑥 3 −8 𝑥 2 −𝑥−6
16. lim ( 𝑥 ) 17. lim 18. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥→3 𝑥−2 𝑥→3 𝑥−3
𝑥 2 +𝑥−2 𝑥 2 −𝑥−2 𝑥 3 −1
19. lim 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2 20. lim 21. lim 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3
𝑥→1 𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −4 𝑥→1
𝑥 cos(−2𝑥+1) √𝑥+4−2 𝑥−1
22. lim 23. lim 24. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 2 +𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→1 √𝑥−1

𝑥 2 +5 1 2 sin 𝑥
25. lim 26. lim (𝑥−1 − 𝑥 2−1) 27. lim tan 𝑥
𝑥→∞ √64𝑥 4 +1 𝑥→1 𝑥→0

𝑥 2 +𝑥−6 𝑥 2 −𝑥+6 𝑥 3 −1
28. lim 29. lim 30. lim 𝑥 2 −1
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 𝑥+2 𝑥→1

√1+ℎ−1 (2+ℎ)3 −8 𝑥 4 −16

31. lim 32. lim 33. lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ 𝑥→2 𝑥−2

√𝑥+2+3 1 1 𝑥 2 +𝑥
34. lim 35. lim ( 𝑡 − 𝑡 2 +𝑡) 35. lim
𝑥→7 𝑥−7 𝑡→0 𝑥→0 𝑥

4𝑣 2 −8𝑣 𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3 ℎ3 −27

36. lim 37. lim 38. lim
𝑣→2 𝑣−2 𝑥→3 3−𝑥 ℎ→3 ℎ−3

3𝑥−1 (2𝑥−1)2 −1
39. lim 2 40. lim 41. lim √𝑝(𝑝 + 1.3)
𝑥→ ⁄3 3𝑥 +5𝑥−2
1 𝑥→1 2𝑥−2 𝑝→−1
 √𝑥−1 3𝑥 2 +4.5 √𝑡 2 +16
42. lim 43. lim 44. lim
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 −1.5 𝑡→∞ 𝑡+1

𝑥 2 −3𝑥 2𝑥 2 −6𝑥 2𝑥 2 +𝑥
45. lim 46. lim 48. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 −3
Chapter 9
9.1 VECTORS

Introduction

➢ Note the difference between vector quantities and scalar quantity

➢ A scalar quantity has magnitude only while a vector quantity has both magnitude
and direction.
➢ Examples of a scalar quantities are time, temperature, mass.
➢ Examples of vector quantities are force, acceleration, velocity.
➢ Graphical representation of a vector.
➢ The following steps are used to represent a vector graphically
➢ A line is drawn such that its length represents the magnitude of a
vector.
➢ The direction in which the vector quantity acts is indicated by the
direction of the line.

➢ Example

➢ Alternative representation include either using bold print or the notation ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 .

➢ Geometric and standard vectors

➢ Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 be a vector with initial point A(𝑥𝑎 ; 𝑦𝑎 ) and terminal point 𝐵(𝑥𝑏 ; 𝑦𝑏 ) then from
analytical geometry the magnitude of the horizontal and vertical component of 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are
(𝑥𝑏 − 𝑥𝑎 ) and (𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦𝑎 ) respectively.
➢ The respective components of the its standard vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 are (𝑥𝑝 − 𝑂) = 𝑥𝑝 and (𝑦𝑝 − 𝑂) =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐴𝐵
𝑦𝑝 such that the horizontal and vertical components of 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are equal.

➢ Hence (𝑥𝑝 ; 𝑦𝑝 ) = (𝑥𝑏 − 𝑥𝑎 ; 𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦𝑎 )

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
➢ Note: we will represent the coordinate of the point 𝑃 by (𝑥𝑝 ; 𝑦𝑝 ) while the vector 𝑂𝑃
will be represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = ⟨𝑥𝑝 ; 𝑦𝑝 ⟩

➢ Example:

➢ Given the geometric vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 with points A(4; 5 ) and 𝐵(3; −7 ). Determine the
standard vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵

Solution

(𝑥𝑝 ; 𝑦𝑝 ) = (𝑥𝑏 − 𝑥𝑎 ; 𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦𝑎 )

= (3 − 4; − 7 − 5) = (−1; −12)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = ⟨−1; −12 ⟩

➢ Note: The vector ⟨𝑢; 𝑣 ⟩ is called an algebraic vector.

9.2 BASIC OPERATIONS

Magnitude of a vector
Let 𝑢 = ⟨𝑣; 𝑤⟩, the length or magnitude 𝑢 denoted by |𝑢| = √𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2
➢ Example: Let be A the point with coordinate (2; -8) and B be the point with
coordinate (3; -2). Find the magnitude of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 .
➢ Solution:
➢ 𝐴𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⟨3 − 2; −2 − −8⟩ = ⟨1; 6⟩
➢ |𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √12 + 62 = √37

Addition of vectors
Parallelogram rule:

Consider two vectors 𝐹1 = ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅

𝑂𝐴 and 𝐹2 = 𝑂𝐵

A line is drawn parallel to ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅. The resultant force is the diagonal of the parallelogram.
𝑂𝐴 and 𝑂𝐵

➢ Let 𝑢 = ⟨𝑣; 𝑤⟩ and 𝑠 = ⟨𝑓; 𝑔⟩ and 𝑘 be a scalar, then

➢ 𝑢 + 𝑠 = ⟨𝑣 + 𝑓; 𝑤 + 𝑔⟩ and 𝑘𝑢 = ⟨𝑘𝑣; 𝑘𝑤⟩.

➢ Example:

➢ If 𝑢 = ⟨2; 3⟩ and 𝑠 = ⟨−1; 5⟩ then

➢ 𝑢 + 𝑠 = ⟨2 − 1; 3 + 5⟩ = ⟨1; 8⟩
➢ 3𝑢 = ⟨3(2); 3(3)⟩ = ⟨6; 9⟩
➢ 3𝑢 − 2𝑠 = ⟨6; 9⟩-⟨−2; 10⟩ = ⟨8; −1⟩

➢ Exercise: Determine 4𝑢 , 𝑢 − 𝑠, |𝑢 − 𝑠| given that 𝑢 = ⟨4; −2; 1⟩ and 𝑠 = ⟨−3; 5; 0⟩

Multiplication and division of a vector by a scalar

➢ When a vector is multiplied by a positive scalar, its magnitude is increased by that value. The
directional sense of a vector is changed when you multiply by a negative number.
Unit Vector
Definition: A vector whose magnitude is 1 is called a unit vector.
Example: Which of the following vectors is a unit vector?
√5 2
➢ 𝑎 = ⟨ 3 ; 3⟩
➢ 𝑏 = ⟨4; 3; −1⟩

9.3 SCALAR PRODUCT

Let the vectors 𝑥 = ⟨𝑥1 ; 𝑥2 ; 𝑥3 ⟩ and 𝑦 = ⟨𝑦1 ; 𝑦2 ; 𝑦3 ⟩ such that they are at an angle 𝜃 with 0 ≤
𝜃 ≤ 𝜋, hence the scalar product is given by
𝑥 ∙ 𝑦 = 𝑥1 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 𝑦2 + 𝑥3 𝑦3

Note: The result of the multiplication of a dot product is a real number or a scalar that is why we
call it scalar product.

➢ Calculate the dot product of the following vectors

i. 𝑎 = ⟨2; −2 ⟩, 𝑏 = ⟨3; −5 ⟩
ii. 𝑥 = ⟨4; 2; −3 ⟩, 𝑦 = ⟨−2; 6; 5 ⟩
➢ Solution:
➢ 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 2(3) + (−2)(−5) = 16
Properties of scalar product

➢ When the angle between the two vectors is given, the scalar product can also be found by
the formula below
𝑥∙𝑦
➢ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑦 = |𝑥| |𝑦| cos 𝜃 ⟹ 𝜃 = cos−1 ( )
|𝑥||𝑦|
➢ Example
i. Determine the scalar product of vectors 𝑥 and 𝑦 with magnitude of 4 and 2
𝜋
respectively and the angle between them is 3 .
➢ Solution:
𝜋
➢ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑦 = |𝑥| |𝑦| cos 𝜃 = 4(2) cos 3 = 4

ii. Find the angle between the vectors 𝑢 = ⟨8; 5⟩ and 𝑠 = ⟨−11; 5⟩
➢ Solution:

u ∙ s = 8(−11) + 5(5) = −63

|u| = √82 + 52 = √89

|s| = √(−11)2 + 52 = √146

x∙y −63
θ = cos −1 ( ) = cos −1 ( ) = 2.156rads
|x| |y| √89√146

➢ Exercise: Calculate the angle between the vectors 𝑥 = ⟨1; 6; −2⟩ and 𝑦 = ⟨5; 1; 1⟩
➢ Note:
i. Two vectors are orthogonal to one another if the dot product of those two
vectors equal zero.
ii. Two vectors 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 are parallel if 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑦 where 𝑘 is a non zero scalar.
Example

Find the scalar and vector projection of the vector 𝑥 = ⟨3; 4⟩ onto 𝑦 = ⟨5; −12⟩.
9.4 VECTOR PRODUCT

➢ Let the vectors 𝑥 = ⟨𝑥1 ; 𝑥2 ; 𝑥3 ⟩ and 𝑦 = ⟨𝑦1 ; 𝑦2 ; 𝑦3 ⟩ such that they are at an angle
𝜃 with 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋, hence the vector product is given by
➢ 𝑥 × 𝑦 = (|𝑥| |𝑦| sin 𝜃) 𝑛
➢ Where 𝑛 is the unit vector determined by the right-hand rule.
 ➢ If the angle between the two vectors is not known then
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
➢ 𝑥 × 𝑦 = |𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 |
𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑦3
Note:
i. The result of a vector product is a vector.
ii. 𝑖 = ⟨1; 0; 0⟩, 𝑗 = ⟨0; 1; 0⟩, 𝑘 = ⟨0; 0; 1⟩
➢ Example: Find the vector product of the vectors 𝑎 = ⟨1; 2; 0⟩, 𝑏 = ⟨1; 1; 4⟩.
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
➢ Solution: 𝑎 × 𝑏 = |1 2 0|
1 1 4

= [2(4) − 1(0)]𝑖 − [1(4) − 1(0)]𝑗 + [1(1) − 1(2)]𝑘

= 8𝑖 − 4𝑗 − 𝑘

➢ Note that |𝑥 × 𝑦| = |𝑥| |𝑦| sin 𝜃, since |𝑛| = 1.

➢ Exercise:
𝜋
➢ Calculate |𝑎 × 𝑏| if |𝑎| = 5, |𝑏| = 3 and 𝜃 = 4 .
➢ Find the vector product of the vectors 𝑎 = ⟨1; 2; 3⟩, 𝑏 = ⟨−2; 3; 1⟩.
➢ Note:
1. |𝑥 × 𝑦| is the area of the parallelogram formed by the vectors 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦.
2. Two vectors are parallel if and only 𝑥 × 𝑦 = 0.

Properties of Vector product

TUTORIAL EXERCISE

1. Represent each geometric vector𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , with A and B as an algebraic vector in the standard
form 〈𝑎; 𝑏〉.
a. A (-1;7) and B (3;-2).
2. Determine the initial point of the vector 𝐶𝐷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 〈6; −1〉, if the terminal point is (4;7).
⃗
𝑣
3. Normalize 𝑣 = 〈3; −6; 2〉. Normalization is defined by 𝑣̂ = |𝑣⃗|.
4. The Cauchy schwawz inequality is given by 𝑣. ⃗⃗ ≤ |𝑣||𝑤
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑤 ⃗⃗ |. If 𝑝 = 〈2; 3; −1〉 and𝑞 =
〈−1; 0; 2〉 prove that it satisfies the Cauchy schwawz inequality
5. Find the equation of the plane containing the points 𝑃1 = (1; −2; 0) and 𝑃2 = (3; 1; 4)
and 𝑃3 = (0; −1; 2).
6. Find the direction cosines of the line joining the point 𝐴(4; 2; −6) and 𝐵(−2; 1; 3).
7. Determine the angle between the forces

F1 = 3i + 4 j + 5k F2 = i + j + k

8. A force of 2i − j + k Newtons acts on line through point P having coordinates (0,3,1)

meters.
a. Determine the moment vector and about Q having coordinates ( 4, 0 − 1) meters.
b. Calculate its magnitude
9. Find a real number 𝑦 such that 2𝑖 − 𝑗 + 𝑘 and 2𝑖 + 𝑦𝑖 − 4𝑘 are orthogonal.
10. Determine a unit vector 𝑢̂ perpendicular to 𝑣 = 3𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ and 𝑤 = 4𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂.
11. Determine the torque to the pipe applied in the figure by a force 𝐹 = 45𝑁 with an angle
𝜃 = 60° to the y-axis at distance 𝑑 = 50𝑐𝑚 from the centreline of the pipe.

12. Calculate 𝑎̅ × 𝑏̅ where 𝑎̅ = 〈𝑒 𝑡 , 0,1〉 and 𝑏̅ = 〈1, 𝑒 𝑡 , 0〉.

13. A constant force of 𝐹 = 〈10,2, −1〉(measured in Newtons) displaces an object from a
point A(1,1,1) to point B(2,1,3) (measured in meters). Calculate the work done in Newton
meters. (Hint: The work done is the product of the applied force and the distance moved
in the direction of the force.)
14. Find the parametric and symmetric equations of the line through P(-3,2,-3) and Q(1,-
1,4).
Chapter 10
10.1 MATRICES

Introduction
Consider the following simultaneous equation:

𝑥+𝑦 =2

4𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 5
1 1
In matrix notation this equation can be written as ( )
4 2
Note:
i. The numbers within a matrix are called an array.
ii. The coefficient forming the array are called the elements of the matrix.
iii. The number of rows in a matrix is often specified by m
iv. The number of columns in a matrix is often specified by n.

Note:
• A given matrix is referred as an ′𝑚 𝑏𝑦 𝑛′ matrix.
2 −3 4
• The above matrix is a 2 by 2 matrix while ( ) is 2 by 3 matrix
1 5 7

Addition and subtraction of matrices

Example

2 −3 7 −2
Add the matrices ( ) and ( )
1 6 4 0
• Adding corresponding elements gives

2 −3 7 −2 2+7 −3 − 2 9 −5
( )+( )=( )=( )
1 6 4 0 1+4 6+0 5 6
2 −3 4 4 −1 2
• Subtract ( ) from ( )
1 5 7 −6 8 3
4 −1 2 2 −3 4 4 − 2 −1 − −3 2 − 4 2 2 −2
( )−( )=( )=( )
−6 8 3 1 5 7 −6 − 1 8−5 3−7 −7 3 −4
Multiplication of matrices

Example

2 −1
• Evaluate 3A whereby A= ( )
−7 6

Solution

3(2) 3(−1) 6 −3
3A= ( )=( )
3(−7) 3(6) −21 18

Note: Multiplication of two matrices is obtained by multiplying corresponding rows with

corresponding columns.

Example

2 −3 7 −2
Determine 𝐴 × 𝐵, whereby A =( ) and B=( )
1 6 4 0
Solution

𝐶 𝐶12 2(7) + (−3)4 2(−2) + (−3)0

𝐴 × 𝐵 = ( 11 )=( )
𝐶21 𝐶22 1(7) + 6(4) 1(−2) + 6(0)
2 −4
=( )
31 −2
 Example

3 4 0 2 −5
1. (−2 6 −3) × ( 5 −6)
7 −4 1 −1 −7
(3 × 2) + (4 × 5) + (0 × −1) (3 × −5) + (4 × −6) + (0 × −7)
= ((−2 × 2) + (6 × 5) + (−3 × −1) (−2 × −5) + (6 × −6) + (−3 × −7))
(7 × 2) + (−4 × 5) + (1 × −1) (7 × −5) + (−4 × −6) + (1 × −7)

26 −39
= ( 29 −5 )
−7 −18

2 3 2 3
2. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = ( )×( )
1 0 0 1
(2 × 2) + (3 × 0) (2 × 3) + (3 × 1)
= ( )
(1 × 2) + (0 × 0) (1 × 3) + (0 × 1)_
4 9
= ( )
2 3

Transpose of a matrix
The transpose of a matrix is obtained by writing the rows as columns

Example

2 5 −7
Find the transpose of the matrix 𝐴 = (3 −2 4 )
8 1 9
Solution
2 3 8
𝐴𝑇 = ( 5 −2 1)
−7 4 9
Matrix inversion

• Note: Unit matrix is the one whereby all elements in the leading diagonal are equals
to 1 and the rest of elements are zero.

1 0
• For a 2 by 2 matrix, we have 𝐼 = ( )
0 1

𝑎 𝑏
• Note: The determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix ( ) is given by 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐.
𝑐 𝑑

Example
1 −3
Determine the value of | |
5 4
Solution

1(4)−5(−3) = 19

Note: The inverse of a matrix 𝐴 of a matrix denoted 𝐴−1 is a matrix such that 𝐴 × 𝐴−1 = 𝐼

𝑝 𝑞
For any matrix ( ) the inverse may be obtained by:
𝑟 𝑠

• Interchanging the position of p and s,

• Changing the signs of r and q, and
𝑝 𝑞
• Multiplying the new matrix by the reciprocal of the determinant of ( )
𝑟 𝑠
Example

1 2 1 4 −2 −2 1
Thus the inverse of matrix ( ) is ( ) = (3 −2)
1
3 4 4−6 −3 1 2
Determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix

+ − +
• Note : (− + −) is a pattern of sign that should be taking into account when looking
+ − +
for the determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix.

Example
1 4 −3
Evaluate |−5 2 6|
−1 −4 2

Solution
1 4 −3
Using the first row |−5 2 6|
−1 −4 2
2 6 −5 6 −5 2
=1| | −4 | | +(−3) | |
−4 2 −1 2 −1 −4

= (4 + 24) – 4(-10 + 6) – 3(20 + 2)

=28+16 −66 = -22

1 4 −3
Using the second row |−5 2 6|
−1 −4 2

−5 6 1 −3 1 −3
=4| | +2 | | -(−4) | |
−1 2 −1 2 −5 6

= -4 (-10+ 6) +2 (2−3) +4 (6 - 15)

= 16 – 2 – 36 = - 22
 Inverse of a 3 by 3 matrix

•
Let 𝐴 be a 3 by 3 matrix. The following steps are used to determine the inverse
𝐴−1 .
• Steps:
• Determine the adjoint of the matrix 𝐴 denoted 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴.
a. Form a matrix 𝐵 of cofactors of 𝐴.
b. 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐵 𝑇
• Find the determinant of the matrix 𝐴 denoted |𝐴|.
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
𝐴−1 =
|𝐴|

Example
1 5 −2
Find the inverse of the matrix ( 3 −1 4 ).
−3 6 −7

Solution
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
Inverse = 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡

−17 9 15
The matrix of cofactors is ( 23 −13 −21)
18 −10 −16
−17 23 18
The transpose of matrix of cofactors (i.e. the adjoint) is ( 9 −13 −10)
15 −21 −16
1 5 −2
The determinant of 3 −1 4 )
(
−3 6 −7
=1(7 – 24) – (-21 + 12 ) – 2(18 – 3

= -17+ 45 – 30

= -2

−17 23 18
( 9 −13 −10)
1 5 −2
15 −21 −16
Hence the inverse of ( 3 −1 4 ) =
−2
−3 6 −7
8.5 −11.5 −9
= (−4.5 6.5 5)
−7.5 10.5 8
Systems of equations

• Solve the following simultaneous equation using matrices

• 3𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 7 = 0 ⟹ 3𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 7
• 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 19 = 0 ⟹ 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 19
3 5 𝑥 7
• We have ( ) × (𝑦) = ( )………(ii)
4 −3 19

−3 5
(iii) The inverse of matrix( ) is
4 3
1 3 −5
( )
3×(−3)−5×4 −4 −3
3 5

i.e. (29
4
29
−3)
2 29

(iv) Multiply each side of (ii) by (iii) and remember that A× 𝐴−1 = I, the unit matrix, gives:
3 5 21 95
1 0 𝑥 7 𝑥 +
( ) (𝑦) = (29
4
29
−3) ×( ) 29
Thus (𝑦) =(28 29
57)
0 1 19 −
29 29 29 29

𝑥 4
i.e. (𝑦) = ( )
−1
(v) By comparing corresponding elements:

X= 4 and Y= -1

Exercise: Use matrices to solve the simultaneous equation

• 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 0
• 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 7 = 0

• Using Determinants to solve simultaneous equations using determinants

• Equations with two unknowns:

(i) Write the equation in the form

a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 and then
(ii) The solution is given by
𝑥 −𝑦 1
= Dy = D
DX
i.e. the determinant of the coefficient left when the x-column is covered up, were
 b1 c1
DX = | |
b2 c2
i.e. the determinant of the coefficient left when the y-column is covered up,
a1 c1
Dy= | |
a2 c2
i.e. the determinant of the coefficient left when the constants-column is covered up, and

a1 b1
D= | |
a2 b2

Solve for x and y from the simultaneous equation below:

(i) 3x-4y=12

7x+5y=6.5

𝑥 𝑦 1
(ii) −4 −12 = 3 −12 = 3 −4
| | | | | |
5 −6.5 7 −6.5 7 5

𝑥 𝑦 1
(−4)(−6.5)−(5)(−12)
= (3)(−6.5)−(7)(−12)
= (3)(5)−(7)(−4)

𝑥 −𝑦 1
= =
26+60 −19.5+84 15+28

𝑥 −𝑦 1`
= = 43
86 64.5

Since
𝑥 1` 86
= 43 then x = 43 = 2
86

And since
−𝑦 1` −64.5
= 43 then y = = −1.5
64.5 43

Assignment:

• The velocity of a car, accelerating in uniform acceleration 𝑎 between two points, is

given by 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡, where 𝑢 is its velocity when passing the first point and 𝑡 is
the time taken to pass between the two points. If 𝑣 = 21𝑚/𝑠 when 𝑡 = 3.5𝑠 and
𝑣 = 33𝑚/𝑠 when 𝑡 = 6.1𝑠 use determinants to find the values of 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎, each
correct to 4 significant figures.
Solution of simultaneous equations using Cramer’s rule

• Cramers rule states that if

a11x + a12y + a13z = b1

a21x + a22y + a23 Z = b2
a31x + a32y + a33 Z = b3

DX DY DZ
then 𝒙 = ,𝒀= and 𝒁 =
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷

where

a11 a12 a13 b1 a12 a13

D = |a21 a22 a23| DX = | b2 a22 a23|
a31 a32 a33 b3 a32 a33
i.e. the x- column has been replaced by the RHS b- column,

a11 b1 a13
DY = |a21 b2 a23|
a31 b3 a33
i.e. the y- column has been replaced by the RHS b- column,

a11 a12 b1
DZ = |a21 a22 b2|
a31 a32 b3
i.e. the z- column has been replaced by the RHS b- column,

Example: Use Cramer’s rule to solve the simultaneous equations

𝑥+𝑦+𝑧=4

2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 33

3𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 2

1 1 1
D = |2 −3 4 |
3 −2 −2
= 1(6 – (-8)) – 1((-4) - 12) +1((-4) - (-9)) = 14+16+5 = 35

4 1 1
Dx = |33 −3 4 |
2 −2 −2
 = 4(6 – (-8)) – 1((-66) - 8) + 1((-66) – (-6)) = 56+74 -60 = 70

1 4 1
Dy = |2 33 4 |
3 2 −2
= 1((-66) - 8) - 4((-4) -12) +1(4-(99))

= -74 +64 – 95 = -105

1 1 4
Dz = |2 −3 33|
3 −2 2
= 1((-6)) – (-66) – 1(4 - 99) + 4((-4)-(-9)) = 60+95+20 = 175
DX 70 DY −105 DZ 175
Hence 𝒙 = , 𝒙 = 35 , 2 𝒀= ,𝒀= = -3 𝒁= ,𝒁 = =5
𝐷 𝐷 35 𝐷 35

Exercise:
1. Solve the simultaneous equation below using Cramer’s rule

3𝑎 + 4𝑏 − 3𝑐 = 2

−2𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 2𝑐 = 15

7𝑎 − 5𝑏 + 4𝑐 = 26

Example: Use the Gauss Jordan elimination method to solve the system simultaneous equation
below.

𝑥+𝑦+𝑧=5

2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 8

4𝑥 + 5𝑧 = 2

The augmented matrix of the system is the following

1 1 1 5 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 5
[2 3 5] |8| R2 -2R1 [0 1 3] |−2| R3 -4R1 [0 1 3] | −2 |
4 0 5 2 4 0 5 2 0 −4 1 −18
 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 5
1
R3 + 4R2 [0 1 3 ] | −2 | 𝑅 3 [0 1 3] |−2| R2 -3R3 [0 1 0] | 4 |
13
0 0 13 −26 0 0 1 −2 0 0 1 −2

1 1 0 7 1 0 0 3
R 1 – R 3 [0 1 0] | 4 | R1 – R2 [0 1 0] | 4 |
0 0 1 −2 0 0 1 −2

Exercise: Use the Gauss Jordan method to solve the simultaneous equation below:

𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 2
6𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 9𝑧 = 6

7𝑥 + 14𝑦 − 21𝑧 = 13

• Solutions
1 2 −3 2 1 2 −3 2 1 2 −3 2
[6 3 −9 ] | 6 | R2 – 6R1 [0 −9 9 ] |−6| R3 – 7R1 [0 −9 9 ] |−6|
7 14 −21 13 7 14 −21 13 0 0 0 −1

• All elements in the last row are all zeros except the last element in the right. Hence no
solution due to inconsistency.
TUTORIAL EXERCISE

−3 0 2 −1
2. Subtract ( ) from ( )
7 −4 −7 6
2 −3 7 −2
3. : Evaluate 2A-3B whereby A =( ) and B=( )
1 6 4 0

3 −1 5 −2 −1.3 7.4
4. Let 𝐴 = ( ), 𝐵 = ( ), 𝐶 = ( ),
−4 7 −1 6 2.5 −3.9
4 −7 6 3 6 2
−2
𝐷 = (−2 4 0 ), 𝐸 = ( 5 −3 7), 𝐻 = ( ).
5
5 7 −4 −1 0 2
a. Find 𝐴 + 𝐵
b. 𝐷+𝐸
c. 𝐴×𝐵
d. 𝐴×𝐻
−2 5
5. Calculate the determinant of ( ).
3 −6
8 −2 −10
6. Evaluate |2 −3 −2 |
6 3 8
4 −7 6
7. Calculate the determinant of the matrix (−2 4 0)
5 7 −4
3 −1
8. Determine the inverse of ( ).
−4 7
9. Find the inverse of the matrix
1 2 3
(1 0 −1)
2 3 1
1 3 3
10. Find the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = [1 4 3]
2 7 7
11. Solve the following system of simultaneous equations
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1
4𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 11
3𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 21

1 2
12. Let 𝐴 = [ ] and let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 11. Find 𝑓(𝐴).
4 −3
13. Row reduce the matrix below to row-echelon form
−4 1 −6
[ 1 2 −5]
6 3 −4
 14. Use matrix elimination to solve the system of equations below
−2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 7
5𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 13
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 17
15. Use Cramer’s rule to solve the system of simultaneous equation below
−𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 5
4𝑥 − 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = −8
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 7

10.2 EIGENVALUE PROBLEM

Introduction
Consider an equation of the form

𝐴𝑥 = 𝜆𝑥 (1)

Whereby 𝐴is a square matrix and 𝜆 is a number.

The values of 𝜆 are called the eigenvalues of the matrix 𝐴 whenever 𝑥 ≠ 0.

The term eigenvectors are used to denote the corresponding solutions of the equation 𝐴𝑥 = 𝜆𝑥.

From equation (1), we have 𝐴𝑥 − 𝜆𝑥 = 0 ⟹ (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)𝑥 = 0. Remember 𝐼 is the unit matrix.

When 𝑥 ≠ 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0 .

The characteristic determinant is the term used to call |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| .

• The characteristic equation is |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0
• The values of the eigenvalues are obtained by solving the characteristic equation.
Distinct and real eigenvalue

3 4
Problem 1. Determine the eigenvalues of the matrix A = ( )
2 1
The eigenvalues is determined by solving the characteristic equation |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼|= 0

3 4 1 0 3 4 𝜆 0
i.e |( )−𝜆( )| = 0 i.e |( )−( )| = 0
2 1 0 1 2 1 0 𝜆
3−𝜆 4
i.e |( )| = 0
2 1−𝜆
(Given a square matrix, we can get used to going straight to this characteristics equation)

Hence, (3 − 𝜆)(1 − 𝜆) − (2)(4) =0

i.e 3−3𝜆 − 𝜆+ 𝜆2−8 = 0 and 𝜆2 − 4𝜆 −5 = 0

i.e (𝜆 − 5)(𝜆 + 1) = 0 From which, 𝜆 − 5 = 0 i.e 𝜆 = 5 or 𝜆 + 1= 0 i.e 𝜆= -1

• Distinct and real Eigenvectors

3 4
Problem 2. Determine the eigenvectors of matrix A = ( )
2 1
3 4
From Problem 1, the eigenvalues of ( ) are 𝜆 = 5 and 𝜆= -1
2 1
Using the equation (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)𝑥 = 0 for 𝜆1 = 5

3−5 4 𝑥1 0
Then ( )( ) = ( )
2 1−5 𝑥2 0
−2 4 𝑥1 0
i.e ( ) ( )= ( ) from which -2x1 + 4x2 = 0 and 2x1−4x2=0
2 −4 𝑥2 0
From either of these two equations, X1 = 2X2 , Hence whatever value X2 is, the value of X1 will
2
be two times greater. Hence the simplest eigenvector is: X1= ( )
1
Consider the second eigenvalue

Using the equation (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)𝑥 = 0 for 𝜆2 = −1

3 − −1 4 𝑥1 0
Then ( )( ) = ( )
2 1 − −1 𝑥2 0
 4 4 𝑥1 0
i.e ( ) ( )= ( ) from which 4x1 + 4x2 = 0 and 2x1+2x2=0
2 2 𝑥2 0
From either of these two equations, X1 = -X2 or X2 = -X1 , Hence whatever value X1 is, the value
1
of X2 will be -1 times greater. Hence the simplest eigenvector is: X2= ( )
−1
2 1
Summarising, X1= ( ) is an eigenvector corresponding to 𝜆1 = 5 and X2= ( ) is an
1 −1
eigenvector corresponding to 𝜆2 = -1

Exercise
Determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix below

3 6
1. ( )
1 4
3 1
2. ( )
−2 0

Assignment
Determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix below
1 1 2
( 0 2 2)
−1 1 3

Solution
−3 2
1. 𝜆1 = 1, 𝜆2 = 6. Eigenvectors ( ) , ( )
1 1
1 1
2. 𝜆1 = 1, 𝜆2 = 2. Eigenvectors ( ) , ( )
−2 −1

Complex eigenvalue and eigenvector

Let 𝐵 be a matrix with real entries, then the following is true

i. If 𝜆 is a complex eigenvalue and 𝑣 is its corresponding eigenvector then
ii. 𝜆̅ is a complex eigenvalue and 𝑣̅ is its corresponding eigenvector.
Alternatively, we say that both complex eigenvalue and eigenvector appear in conjugate pair.
Note:

Let 𝐵 be a 2 × 2 matrix with real entries and let 𝜆 be a real or complex eigenvalue, then
 𝑔 ℎ −ℎ
𝐵 − 𝜆𝐼 = ( ) ⇒ ( ) is an eigenvector with eigenvalue 𝜆.
∗ ∗ 𝑔

Provided that the first entries of the matrix 𝐵 − 𝜆𝐼 are non-zeros.

Example
1) Determine the complex eigenvalue and eigenvector of the matrix
1 −1
A=( )
1 1

Solution:

2) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvector of the matrix given by

2 5
𝐴=( )
−2 4
Solution:
We start by solving the characteristic equation

2−𝜆 5
Det (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = | | = (2 − 𝜆)(4 − 𝜆) + 10 = 𝜆2 − 6𝜆 +18 =
−2 4−𝜆
(𝜆 − 3)2 +9 = 0 , Thus 𝜆 = 3±3𝑖.

• An alternative method to finding the corresponding eigenvector is to row reduce the

matrix (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)

For 𝜆 = 3 − 3𝑖, we have

−1 + 3𝑖 5 10 −5(1 + 3𝑖)
𝐴 − (3 − 3𝑖)𝐼 = ( ) (−1 − 3𝑖)R1 R2 ( ) R1 R2
−2 1 + 3𝑖 −2 1 + 3𝑖

−2 1 + 3𝑖
( ) R2+5R1 R2
10 −5(1 + 3𝑖)
−2 1 + 3𝑖
( )
0 0
.
1+3𝑖
Thus X2 is a free variable and X1 is a basic variable such that X1 = X2.
2

1 + 3𝑖
Setting X2 = 2, we obtain the eigenvector of A corresponding to 𝜆 = 3−3𝑖 ( )
2
1 − 3𝑖
Hence for 𝜆 = 3 + 3𝑖, the corresponding eigenvector is 𝑣 = [ ]
2

Exercise

Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix below

1 2
𝐴=( )
−2 1
Assignment
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix below
 4/5 −3/5 0
𝐴 = (3/5 4/5 0)
1 2 2

10.3 DIAGONALIZATION OF A MATRIX

Recall: A diagonal matrix is a square 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix with non-zero entries only along the diagonal
from the under left to the lower right.
Example:

Definition:

An 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 is diagonalizable if there exists an invertible matrix 𝐶 such that 𝐶 −1 𝐴𝐶 is a

diagonal matrix. The matrix 𝐶 is said to diagonalize 𝐴.

With 𝐷 = 𝐶 −1 𝐴𝐶 such that A = C𝐷𝐶 −1 and

Where 𝜆𝑖 are the eigenvalues of A.

Note: An 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 is diagonalizable if and only if it has 𝑛 linearly independent
eigenvectors.
• If 𝐴 can be written in the form A = C𝐷𝐶 −1 , then 𝐴𝑘 = C𝐷𝑘 𝐶 −1 , 𝑘 ≥ 1
Example: Find the matrix that diagonalizes the matrix
2 6
𝐴=( )
0 −1
Solution:
• First we’ll find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A

2−𝜆 6
0 = det (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼) = det( ) = (2 − 𝜆)(−1 − 𝜆), 𝜆 = 2, −1
0 −1 − 𝜆
The eigenvectors corresponding to the eigenvalue 𝜆 = 2 are solutions of (𝐴 − (2)𝐼)𝑥 = 0 or

0 6 𝑥1 0 1
( ) ( )=( ) , 6𝑥 2 = 0 and -3𝑥2= 0 , 𝑥2 = 0 therefore 𝑥 = 𝑟 ( )
0 −3 𝑥2 0 0
The eigenvectors corresponding to the eigenvalue 𝜆 = −1 are solutions of

(𝐴 − (−1)𝐼)𝑥 = 0 or

3 6 𝑥1 0 −2
( ) ( )=( ), 3𝑥1+6𝑥2= 0 and 0=0, 𝑥1=−2𝑥2 therefore 𝑥 = 𝑟 ( )
0 0 𝑥2 0 1

Consider:

So the vectors V1=(1: 0) and V2 =(−2: 1) will be eigenvectors of A. We now arrange these two
vectors as the column vectors of the matrix C.

1 −2
𝐶=( )
0 1
In order to compute the diagonalization of A we also need C-1. This we compute using the
technique of section 1.5:
1 −2 1 0 1 01 2 1 2
( | ) R1 R1+2R2 ( | ), C-1 = ( )
0 1 0 1 0 10 1 0 1
Finally
D = C-1AC = C-1(AC)
1 2 2 6 1 −2
=( )( )( )
0 1 0 −1 0 1
1 2 2 2
=( )( )
0 1 0 −1
2 0
=( )
0 −1

Exercise

• Diagonalize the matrices below

5 −2
1. ( )
−9 2
0 0 −2
2. (1 2 1)
1 0 3

The eigenvalue is determined by solving the characteristics equation |𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼| = 0

5−𝜆 −2
i.e. | | =0
−9 2−𝜆
hence, (5 − 𝜆)(2 − 𝜆) −(−9)(−2) = 0

i.e. 𝜆2 − 5𝜆 − 2𝜆 − 18 + 10 = 0

𝜆2 − 7𝜆 − 8 = 0 Therefore (𝜆 − 8)(𝜆 + 1) = 0

from which 𝜆 − 8 = 0 i.e. 𝜆 = 8 or 𝜆 + 1 = 0 𝜆 = −1 (or use the quadratic formula).

5 −2
Hence, the eigenvalues of the matrix ( ) are 8 and -1
−9 2
Using the equation (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)𝑥 = 0 for 𝜆1 = 8

5 − 8 −2 𝑥1 0
Then ( )( ) = ( )
−9 2 − 8 𝑥2 0
−3 −2 𝑥1 0
i.e. ( ) ( ) = ( ) , From which −3𝑥1− 2𝑥2 = 0 and −9𝑥1− 6𝑥2 = 0
−9 −6 𝑥2 0
2
From either of these two equations, 3𝑥 1= −2𝑥2 or 𝑥1= − 3 𝑥 2
 2
Hence, if 𝑥2 = 3, 𝑥1= −2. Hence the simplest eigenvectors is: 𝑥1 = ( )
−3

Using the equation (𝐴 − 𝜆𝐼)𝑥 = 0 for 𝜆2 = −1

5 − −1 −2 𝑥1 0
Then ( )( ) = ( )
−9 2 − −1 𝑥2 0
6 −2 𝑥1 0
i.e. ( ) ( ) = ( ) , From which 6𝑥 1− 2𝑥2 = 0 and −9𝑥1+3𝑥2 = 0
−9 3 𝑥2 0
From either of these two equations, 𝑥2= 3𝑥 1

1
Hence, if 𝑥1 = 1, 𝑥2= 3. Hence the simplest eigenvectors is: 𝑥2= ( )
3
1 1
−2 1 1 3 −1 −
Hence 𝐶 = ( ) , then 𝐶 −1 = −6−3 ( ) = ( 13 9
2)
3 3 −3 −2
3 9
• Thus 𝐷 = 𝐶 −1
𝐴𝐶

1 1
− 5 −2 −2 1
= ( 13 9
2) (−9 )( )
2 3 3
3 9

1 1
− −16 −1
= ( 13 9
2) ( 24 )
−3
3 9

8 0
=( )
0 −1

• The eigenvalues and eigenvectors are given by 𝜆 =1 with corresponding eigenvectors

−2
P1= [ 1 ]
1

• And 𝜆 =2 with corresponding eigenvectors

−1 0
P2= [ 0 ] and P3= [1]
1 0
• Since the matrix is 3×3 and has eigenvectors, then A is diagonalizable and

−2 −1 0
P=( 1 0 1) and
1 1 0
−1 0 −1 0 0 −2 −2 −1 0 1 0 0
−1
𝑃 𝐴𝑃 = ( 1 0 2 ) (1 2 1 ) ( 1 0 1 ) = (0 2 0)
1 1 1 1 0 3 1 1 0 0 0 2
TUTORIAL EXERCISE

1. For each of the matrices below, calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
2 4
a. ( )
5 3
1 3
b. ( )
2 6

10 −9
c. ( )
4 −2

5 −2
d. ( )
1 3

0 1
e. ( )
−8 4

1 0 −1
f. (1 2 1)
2 2 3
1 1 −2
g. (−1 2 1 )
0 1 −1
2. For matrices in 1a, 1b, 1c, 1g determine the modal matrix 𝐶 and its inverse. Hence,
diagonalize each of these matrices.
3. A 2 x 2 matrix B has eigenvalues 𝜆1 = 2 and 𝜆2 = 5 , with corresponding eigenvectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣1 =
1 1
[ ] and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣2 = [ ]. Find B.
0 1

124
Chapter 11

11.1 LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND LINEAR INDEPENDENCE

Introduction

Consider the set of 𝑚 vectors given by 𝒃1 , 𝒃2 , … , 𝒃𝑚 ( with the same number of components), a
linear combination of these vectors is an expression of the form

𝑐1 𝒃1 + 𝑐2 𝒃2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑚 𝒃𝑚

Where 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑚 are any scalars.

Now consider the equation

𝑐1 𝒃1 + 𝑐2 𝒃2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑚 𝒃𝑚 = 𝟎 (1)
Note:
 If the only possibility for which equation (1) holds is only if all 𝑐𝑖 are zero then the
vectors 𝒃1 , 𝒃2 , … , 𝒃𝑚 are said to form a linearly independent set.
 Otherwise, if equation (1) holds with scalars not all zero, then we say that these
vectors linearly dependent.
 The rank of a matrix is the maximum number of linearly independent row vectors of the
matrix.

Example

1 3 5 0 1 3 0 0
2 [2] + [5] − [ 9 ] = [0] and 3 [2] − [5] − [1] = [0]
3 7 13 0 3 7 2 0
So the two sets are of vectors

5 1 3 0 1 3
{[ 9 ] , [2] , [5]} and {[1] , [2] , [5]}
13 3 7 2 3 7
are linearly dependent.

125
 Example
State whether or not the vectors below are linearly dependent.
1 3 0
𝒙1 = [2] , 𝒙2 = [2] , 𝒙3 = [4]
3 1 8

Solution
We need to determine whether or not we can find scalars which are not all zeros such that
𝑐1 𝒙1 + 𝑐2 𝒙2 + 𝑐3 𝒙3 = 𝟎.
To find all possible 𝑐1, 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , we have to solve the augmented matrix equation .

1 3 00 1 3 00
𝑅 ∶=𝑅 −2𝑅
(2 2 4|0) 𝑅23 ∶=𝑅23− 3𝑅11 → (0 −4 4|0)
3 1 80 0 −8 8 0

𝑅3 ∶=𝑅3 −2𝑅2 1 3 00
→ (0 −4 4|0)
0 0 00

Conclusion: This set has a non-zero solution. Consequently, this vectors are linearly
dependent.

126
 Example

State whether or not the vectors below are linearly independent.

1 3 5
𝒙1 = [2] , 𝒙2 = [2] , 𝒙3 = [ 2 ]
3 9 −1

Solution
We need to determine whether or not we can find scalars which are not all zeros such that
𝑐1 𝒙1 + 𝑐2 𝒙2 + 𝑐3 𝒙3 = 𝟎
To find all possible 𝑐1, 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , we have to solve the augmented matrix equation
1 3 5 0 𝑅 ∶=𝑅 −2𝑅 1 3 5 0
(2 2 2 |0) 𝑅2 ∶=𝑅2 3𝑅1 → (0 −4 −8 |0)
3 3− 1
3 9 −1 0 0 0 −16 0
1
𝑅2 ∶=− 𝑅2 1 3 50
4
−1 → (0 1 2|0)
𝑅3 ∶= 𝑅3
16 0 0 10

Hence 𝑐1 𝒙1 + 𝑐2 𝒙2 + 𝑐3 𝒙3 = 𝟎 holds if and only if 𝑐1=𝑐2 =𝑐3 =0. Therefore, these vectors are
linearly independent.

11.2 LINEAR SPACE OR VECTOR SPACE

Let 𝐹 be scalar field. Examples of scalar fields are the set of real numbers, the set of complex
numbers and so on.

Definition: A vector space or linear space 𝑉 is a collection of objects (usually vectors) which are
defined and closed under addition and multiplication. In addition, it is a set for which the
following axioms are true:

i. (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝒂 = 𝛼𝒂 + 𝛽𝒂 , for all 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝐹 and 𝒂 ∈ 𝑉.

ii. 𝛼(𝛽𝒂) = (𝛼𝛽)𝒂
iii. 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒃 + 𝒂, for all , 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑉
iv. 𝒂 + (𝒃 + 𝒄) = (𝒂 + 𝒃) + 𝒄, for all , 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝑉
v. 𝛼(𝒂 + 𝒃) = 𝛼𝒂 + 𝛼𝒃
vi. There exist a zero vector 𝟎 ∈ 𝑉 such that 𝟎 + 𝒂 = 𝒂
vii. 0𝒂 = 𝟎
viii. 1𝒂 = 𝒂

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 Example
𝑎 𝑏
i. The set of 2 × 2 matrices 𝑀 = {[ ] , 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ}. In this case the
𝑐 𝑑
0 0
zero vector is [ ].
0 0
ii. The set of polynomials.

Let 𝑛 ≥ 0 be an integer and let

𝑃𝑛 = the set of all polynomials of degree at most 𝑛 ≥ 0.

Members of 𝑃𝑛 have the form

𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑛

where 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are real numbers and 𝑡 is a variable. The set 𝑃𝑛 is a vector space.

11.2.1 Vector subspace

Definition: A subspace 𝐺 of a vector space 𝑉, is a subset of 𝑉 with the following property:

a. The zero vector of 𝑉 is in 𝐺.
b. For all 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝐺, 𝒂 + 𝒃 ∈ 𝐺.(Closed under addition)
c. For all 𝒂 ∈ G, 𝛼𝒂 ∈ G , for all 𝛼 ∈ 𝐹. (Closed under multiplication)

If 𝐺 satisfies these 3 properties then 𝐺 itself is a vector space.

Example
𝑎
Let 𝐻 = {[0] , 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙}. Show that H is a subspace of ℝ2 .
𝑏
Example
𝑥
𝐼𝑠 𝐻 = {[ ] , 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙} a subspace of ℝ2 ?
𝑥+1
I.e., does H satisfy properties a, b and c?

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Note:
Theorem: If {𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , … , 𝒗𝒑 } are in a vector space V, then Span{𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , … , 𝒗𝒑 } is a subspace of V.

Example
Is 𝑉 = {(𝑎 + 2𝑏, 2𝑎 − 3𝑏): 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙}, 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℝ2 ? Why or why not?
Solution
Write vectors in V column form:

𝑎 + 2𝑏 𝑎 2𝑏
[ ]= [ ]+[ ]
2𝑎 − 3𝑏 2𝑎 −3𝑏
1 2
= 𝑎[ ]+𝑏[ ]
2 −3

So 𝑉 =Span{𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 } and therefore 𝑉 is a subspace of ℝ2 by the theorem above

Example

𝑎 + 2𝑏
Is 𝐻 = {[ 𝑎 + 1 ] , 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙} a the subspace of ℝ3 ? Why or why not?
𝑎

Solution
0 vector is not in H since 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 0 or any other combination of values for 𝑎 and 𝑏 does
not produce the zero vector. So property a fails to hold and therefore H is not a subspace of
of ℝ3 ?

11.3 BASIS OF A LINEAR SPACE

• Let 𝑉 be a vector space, a basis for 𝑉 is a linearly independent set in 𝑉 consisting of a

maximum possible vectors in 𝑉. Alternatively, any largest possible set of independent
vectors in 𝑉 forms basis for 𝑉.
• Alternatively, let 𝑉 be a vector space an 𝐵 = {𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑚 }a subset of 𝑉. We call 𝐵 a
basis of 𝑉 if the following is true:

1. 𝐵 spans 𝑉.

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2. 𝐵 is linearly independent.
Note:

The set of all linear combinations of given vectors 𝛼1 , … , 𝛼𝑛 with the same number of
components is called the span of these vectors.

 The maximum number of linearly independent vectors in 𝑉 is called the dimension of 𝑉.

 Alternatively, let 𝑉 be a vector space and suppose a basis of 𝑉 has m vectors. m is called
the dimension of 𝑉 and we write dim(V) = m.
Examples of basis:
1 0
1. { [ ] , [ ] } is a basis of ℝ2 .
0 1
1 0 0
2. { [0] , [1] , [0] } is a basis of ℝ3 .
0 0 1

3. {1, 𝑥, 𝑥 2 } is a basis of 𝑃2 .

4. {1, 𝑥, 𝑥 2 , … , 𝑥 𝑛 } is a basis of 𝑃𝑛 .

1. {1, x, x2,…,xn} is a basis of Pn Example:

This is a basis for ℝ2

2 1
{( ) , ( )}
4 1

• It is linearly independent.

2 1 0 2𝑐 + 1𝑐2 = 0
𝑐1 ( ) + 𝑐2 ( ) = ( ) ⟹ 1 ⟹ 𝑐1 = 𝑐2 = 0
4 1 0 4𝑐1 + 1𝑐2 = 0
• And it spans ℝ2

2𝑐1 + 1𝑐2 = 𝑥 (𝑦 − 𝑥)⁄

⟹ 𝑐2 = 2𝑥 − 𝑦 and 𝑐1 = 2
4𝑐1 + 1𝑐2 = 𝑦

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11.4 LINEAR TRANSFORMATION
Definition: Consider the vector spaces 𝑉 and 𝑊, a function 𝐿: 𝑉 → 𝑊is linear if

𝐿(𝑟𝒖 + 𝑠𝒗) = 𝑟𝐿(𝒖) + 𝑠𝐿(𝒗)

For all 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉 and 𝑟, 𝑠 ∈ ℝ.

Example

Let 𝑉 = 𝑊 = 𝐸1 .Define 𝑇(𝒙) = 𝑚𝒙, where 𝑚 is a fixed real number. Show that T is a linear
transformation.

Solution

We must show that T is addictive and homogenous.

For the additivity, we let 𝒙 and 𝒚 be in 𝐸1 and determine

𝑇(𝒙 + 𝒚) = 𝑚(𝒙 + 𝒚) = 𝑚𝒙 + 𝑚𝒚.

𝑇(𝒙) + 𝑇(𝒚) = 𝑚𝒙 + 𝑚𝒚.

We have 𝑇(𝒙 + 𝒚) = 𝑇(𝒙) + 𝑇(𝒚), hence T is additive.

𝑇 is homogenous because

𝑇(𝑟𝒙) = 𝑚(𝑟𝒙) = (𝑚𝑟)𝒙 = 𝑟(𝑚𝒙) = 𝑟𝑇(𝒙).

Consequently, 𝑇 is a linear transformation.

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 Example

Consider, 𝑉 = 𝑊 = 𝐸1 . For 𝒙 ∈ 𝑉, Define 𝐹(𝒙) = 𝑚𝒙 + 𝑏, where 𝑚 and 𝑏 are real

numbers and 𝑏 ≠ 0 . Show that F is not a linear transformation.

Solution

First we check additivity,

𝐹(𝒙 + 𝒚) = 𝑚(𝒙 + 𝑦) + 𝑏 = 𝑚𝒙 + 𝑚𝒚 + 𝑏.

However,

𝐹(𝒙) + 𝐹(𝒚) = (𝑚𝒙 + 𝑏) + (𝑚𝒚 + 𝑏) = 𝑚𝒙 + 𝑚𝒚 + 2𝑏.

Since 𝑏 ≠ 0 , 2𝑏 ≠ 𝑏 so 𝐹(𝒙 + 𝒚) ≠ 𝐹(𝒙) + 𝐹(𝒚) for all 𝒙, 𝒚 ∈ 𝑉 , and 𝐹 is not linear.

Consequences of linear transformation

Example: (One output specifies infinitely many)

If you know the function L is linear and that

1 5
L( ) = ( )
0 3
Then you do not need any more information to figure putout

2 3 4 5
L ( ), L ( ), L ( ), L ( ), etc…,
0 0 0 0
because by homogeneity

5 1 1 5 25
L ( )=L[5 ( )]= 5L ( ) = 5 ( ) = ( )
0 0 0 3 15
In this way an infinite number of outputs is specified by just one.

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 Example: (Two outputs in ℝ2 specifies all outputs)

Likewise, if you know L is linear that

1 5 0 2
L ( ) = ( ) and L ( ) = ( )
0 3 1 2
Hence, you don’t need any more information to compute

1
L( )
1
In fact, by additivity

1 1 0 1 0 5 2 7
L ( )=L[( ) + ( )]= L ( ) + L ( ) = ( )+ ( ) = ( )
1 0 1 0 1 3 2 5

In fact, since each vector in ℝ2 can be exposed as

𝑥 1 0
(𝑦 ) = x ( ) + y ( )
0 1
We see how L acts on each vector from ℝ2 by linearity based on just two pieces of information;
𝑥 1 0 1 0 5 2 5𝑥 + 2𝑦
L (𝑦)=L[𝑥 ( ) + 𝑦 ( )]= x L ( ) + y L ( ) =x ( )+y ( ) = ( )
0 1 0 1 3 2 53𝑥 + 2𝑦

Consequently, the value of L at infinitely many inputs is completely specified by its value at just
two inputs. (We can observe now that L acts in exactly the way the matrix acts on vectors from
ℝ2.)

5 2
( )
3 2

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Image and preimage of vector.

Example

Consider 𝑇: ℝ2 → ℝ3

𝑇([𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ]) = [2𝑣2 − 𝑣1 , 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ]

Find the image of 𝑣 = [0,6].

𝑇([0,6]) = [2(6) − 0,0,6] = [12,0,6]

Find the preimage of 𝑤 = [3,1,2].

[3,1,2] = [2𝑣2 − 𝑣1 , 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ]

Which means

2𝑣2 − 𝑣1 =3
𝑣1 = 1 so, v = [1,2]
𝑣2 =2

Matrix of a linear transformation.

The standard basis in ℝn

1 0 0
{e1 = (0), 𝑒2 = (1), . . ., 𝑒𝑛 = (0)} ,
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
0 0 1
has many important properties with respect to the dot product and lengths.

Every standard basis vectors have unit length;

||𝑒1 || = √𝑒𝑖 . 𝑒𝑖 = √𝑒𝑖𝑇 𝑒𝑖 = 1.

The standard basis vectors are orthogonal (in other words, at right angles or perpendicular);

𝑒𝑖 . 𝑒𝑖 = 𝑒𝑖𝑇 𝑒𝑖 = 0 when i ≠ j

The standard matrix of transformation 𝑇: ℝ𝑛 ⟶ ℝ𝑚 has columns 𝑇(𝑒⃗⃗⃗1 ), 𝑇(𝑒⃗⃗⃗2 ), … , 𝑇(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛 ) where
𝑒1 , … ,𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛 represents the standard basis. That is:
⃗⃗⃗

𝑇(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑥 ⟺ 𝐴 = [𝑇(𝑒⃗⃗⃗1 ), 𝑇(𝑒⃗⃗⃗2 ), … , 𝑇(𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛 )]

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 Example

Let

𝑇([𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ]) = [2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 , −𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 , 3𝑥2 + 4𝑥3 ]

Hence,

𝑇([1,0,0]) = [2, −1,0] 𝑇([0,1,0]) = [1,3,3] 𝑇([0,0,1]) = [−1, −2,4]

These vectors become the columns of 𝐴:

2 1 −1
𝐴 = [−1 3 −2 ].
0 3 4

Shortcut method for finding the standard matrix

Example

Consider the above linear transformation, that is

𝑇([𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ]) = [2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 , −𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 , 3𝑥2 + 4𝑥3 ]

Then the first, second and third components of the resulting vector w, can be written
respectfully

𝑤1 = 2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3
𝑤2 = −𝑥1 + 3𝑥3 − 2𝑥3
𝑤3 = 3𝑥2 + 4𝑥3

Then the standard matrix A is given by the coefficient matric or the right hand side:

2 1 −1
A = [−1 3 −2 ]
0 3 4
𝑤1 2 1 −1 𝑥1
[𝑤2 ] = [−1 3 −2 ] [𝑥2 ]
𝑤3 0 3 4 𝑥3

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Orthogonal transformation

Definition: A square matrix 𝐴 is orthogonal: if 𝐴𝑇 = 𝐴−1 .

Theorem: Let 𝐴 be an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix. The following statements are all equivalent:

1. 𝐴 is an orthogonal matrix.
2. ∥ 𝐴𝒙 ∥=∥ 𝒙 ∥for all x 𝒙 ∈ ℝn. i.e.., multiplication by 𝐴 preserves Euclidean norm.
3. 𝐴𝒙 • A𝐲 = 𝒙 • 𝐲 for all 𝒙, 𝒚 ∈, ℝn, i.e.., multiplication by 𝐴 preserves Euclidean inner
product.

Definition: A linear map 𝐿: ℝ𝑛 ⟶ ℝ𝑛 is an orthogonal transformation if and only if its matrix

in the standard basis is an orthogonal matrix.

Theorem: Let 𝑇: ℝ𝑛 ⟶ ℝ𝑛 be the linear transformation 𝑇(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑥 , where 𝐴 is an 𝑛 × 𝑛

matrix. Then T is orthogonal if and only if the matrix A has orthonormal columns.

Recall

Orthogonal bases {𝑣1 , … , 𝑣𝑛 }:

⟹ 𝑣𝑖 • 𝑣𝑗 = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗.

In other words, all vectors in the basis are perpendicular.

Orthonormal bases {𝑢1 , … , 𝑢𝑛 }:

⟹ 𝑢𝑖 • 𝑢𝑗 = 𝛿𝑖𝑗 .

In addition to being orthogonal, each vector has unit length.

Example

The rotation

cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
𝑇(𝑥) = [ ]𝑥
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
Is an orthogonal transformation from ℝ2 to ℝ2

cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
𝐴=[ ]𝑥
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
Is an orthogonal matrix, for all angles 𝜃, since we have

cos(𝜃) −sin(𝜃)
T𝑒1 = [ ] T𝑒2 = [ ]
sin(𝜃) cos(𝜃)

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Then

〈T𝑒1 , T𝑒1 〉 = [cos( 𝜃) sin(𝜃)]. [cos 𝜃 ] = cos 2 ( 𝜃) = sim 2 ( 𝜃) = 1

sin 𝜃

〈T𝑒1 , T𝑒2 〉 = [cos( 𝜃) sin(𝜃)]. [−sin 𝜃] = sin( 𝜃) = cos( 𝜃) - sin( 𝜃) cos( 𝜃) = 0

cos 𝜃

〈T𝑒2 , T𝑒2 〉 = [−sin( 𝜃) cos(𝜃)]. [−sin 𝜃] = sin 2 ( 𝜃) + cos 2 ( 𝜃) = 1

cos 𝜃

TUTORIAL EXERCISE

1. Is the set of ordered pairs 𝑉 = {(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 )| 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ ℝ} a vector space? Explain.

Is 𝑉 a vector space? Explain.

2. Is the set 𝑉 a vector space? Where

𝑉 = {𝑓|𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐶1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐶2 sin 𝜔𝑡 , 𝑡 ∈ ℝ}
With the usual definition of functions and multiplication of functions.
3. Let 𝑉 = ℝ3 and 𝑊 = {𝒙|𝒙 = 𝑎(1,0,2) + 𝑏(1, −1,3)}. Where 𝑎 and 𝑏 can be any real
number. Is 𝑊 a subspace of 𝑉?
4. Let 𝑉 = ℝ3 and 𝑊 = {𝒙|𝒙 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 1)}. Is 𝑊 a subspace of 𝑉?
5. Write (7, −2,2) in ℝ3 as a linear combination of (1, −1,0), (0,1,1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2,0,1).
6. Determine whether 𝑆 = {1 + 𝑥, 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 , 1 + 𝑥 2 } is linearly independent in 𝑃2
7. State whether or not the vectors below are linearly dependent. Explain.
1 2 8
𝒙1 = [ 2 ] , 𝒙2 = [−1] , 𝒙3 = [1]
−1 1 1

8. Determine whether 𝑆 = {1 + 𝑥, 𝑥 2 − 2, 𝑥 − 1,3} is linearly independent in 𝑃2 .

9. Is the set 𝑆 = {(1,2), (3, −1)} a basis in ℝ2 ? Explain.
10. Is the transformation defined by 𝑇: ℝ2 ⟶ ℝ, 𝑇(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = 𝑥1 2 + 𝑥2 2 linear? Explain.
𝑥
3 2 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧
11. Let 𝑇: ℝ ⟶ ℝ , with 𝑇 [𝑦] = [ ] . Is this transformation linear? Explain
2𝑦 − 3𝑥 + 𝑧
𝑧
12. Find a matrix 𝐴 such that 𝑇(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑥 where 𝑇: ℝ2 ⟶ ℝ3 and

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 𝑥−𝑦
𝑥
𝑇 [𝑦 ] = [ 3𝑦 ]
4𝑥 + 5𝑦

13. Let 𝑇: ℝ3 ⟶ ℝ2 such that

𝑇([𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ]) = [2𝑣1 + 𝑣2 , 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 ]

a. Find the image of 𝑣 = [2,1,4].

b. Find the preimage of 𝑤 = [−1,2].
14. Determine whether the following matrices are orthogonal or not.
cos(𝜃) −sin(𝜃) 0
a. [ sin(𝜃) cos(𝜃) 0]
0 0 1
cos(𝜃) 0 −sin(𝜃)
b. [ 0 1 0 ]
sin( 𝜃) 0 cos ( 𝜃)
1 0 0
c. [ 0 cos(𝜃) −sin(𝜃) ]
0 sin( 𝜃) cos ( 𝜃)

138
Possible Solutions
Chapter1: Solution
1. 34.265cm2
2. 48.285cm2
3. 54.540cm2
4. 169.410cm
5. 1452.114km
526 163 1631
6. a) b) c)
99 33 999
2
21 a. k=4 b. 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑣 , c. E=900𝜇𝐽, d. v=5√5m/s
23. ratio is 1:3

Chapter3 Solution

3. 𝜃1 = 1.0517𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃2 = 4.1933𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠

Chapter 2: Solution

1. Answers
a. (−15,4), (−18,−8), (−16.5,−2), (−15.25,3)
b. (11.8,−3), (3.7,0), (1,1), (−12.5,6)
c. (1,−5), (2,0), (3,5)
d. (13,−5), (10.8,6), (11.4,3), (14,−10)
e. (− 49,−4), (35,8), (− 28,−1), (7,4)
2. Answers
a. f is a one to one function
b. f is a one to one function
c. f is not one to one function
d. f is not a one to one function
e. f is a one to one function
3. Answers
a. Domain : {𝑥|𝑥 ≤ 0, 𝑥 ≥ 6, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ}
b. Domain : {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ −5⁄3 , 𝑥 ∈ ℝ }
c. Domain : {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ 2⁄3 , 𝑥 ≠ 1, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ }
d. Domain : {𝑥|𝑥 ≤ 3, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ }
e. Domain : {𝑥|−2 < 𝑥 ≤ −1, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ }
4. Answers
a. Range : {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ}
b. Range : {𝑦|𝑦 ≥ −2, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ}

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 c. Range : {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ}
d. Range : {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ}
1
e. Range : {𝑦|0 < 𝑦 ≤ 4 , 𝑦 ∈ ℝ}
5. Answers
f (2) = 23 + 4(2) 2 − 5(2) − 14 = 0
a. , x − 2 is a factor
b. f (3) = 2(3) 2 − 5(3) − 1 = 2 , then x − 3 is not a factor
c. f ( x) = (4) 2 − 3(4) − 4 = 0 , then x − 4 is a factor
d. f (2) = 2(2)3 − (2) 2 − 7(2) + 2 = 0 ,then x − 2 is a factor
e. f (−1) = 3(−1) 2 − 2(−1`) + 2 = 7, then x + 1 is not a factor
6. Answers
3 x2 1
6.1 Vertical asymptote 𝑥 = ± 2 . Horizontal asymptote y = 2 =
4x 4

6.2 No vertical asymptote. Horizontal asymptote y=0.

6.3 y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote. Vertical asymptotes x = 5 , x = −4
6.4 y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. The vertical asymptotes x = −3, x = −5

6.5 y=1 is a horizontal asymptote . Vertical asymptote x = −3

7. Answers
−1 y +1
7.1 inverse function f y=3
2
7.2 y = f −1 ( x) =  x − 1 + 2
2
7.3 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +1
7.4 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 4(𝑥+5) − 2
4+5𝑥
7.5 ℎ−1 (𝑥) = 2𝑥−1
8. Answers
a. f is injective, but not surjective (since 0, for example, is never an output).
b. f is injective and surjective. Unlike in the previous question, every integer is an
output (of the integer 4 less than it).
c. f is injective but not surjective (10 is not 8 less than a multiple of 5, for example).
d. f is not injective but is surjective. Every integer is an output (of twice itself, for
example) but some integers are outputs of more than one input: f (5) = 3 = f (6).

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Chapter 5 Solution

1. 𝑥 = 5⁄2
2. x = 8
3. t  3.417
4. x = e
3

5. x = e−1 2
6. x  2.322
7. x  2.113
8. x  6.845
9. x  3.083
3
10.
2
27
11. x =
2
34
12. x =
5
13. Proof
14. Answers
 x−2
i. ln  
 x+2
x1 3 ( x + 3)
23

ii. ln
(x − 1)
2 13

16
iii. ln
x + 6x
3

15. Graph
16. Answers
i. 7 log10 ( x + 45 ) + log10 ( x − 2 )
 7
ii. 3log 2 x3 − log  3x − 5 + 
 x
3x ( x − 2 )
17

17. log 2
(x + 4 x + 1)
2 2

18. Answers
i. x = 3969
ln 8
ii. x=
ln 2

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 iii. x=9
19. Answers
20.

Chapter 6: Solution

1. Discuss the continuity of each function

i. 𝑓(𝑥) = 1⁄𝑥
Solution

The domain of 𝑓(𝑥)consists of all real numbers except x=0 So, this function is continuous on
the intervals and (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞)
𝑥 2 −1
ii. 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
Solution

142
The domain of 𝑝(𝑥)consists of all real numbers except x=1. So, this function is continuous
on the intervals and (−∞, 1) and (1, ∞)

1
1.3. ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2−1

The domain of ℎ(𝑥)consists of all real numbers except x=-1 and x=1. So, this function is
continuous on the intervals and (−∞, −1) and (1, ∞)
4.Determine whether the given functions are even, odd or neither even nor odd
a. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 + 5-even
b. ℎ(𝑥) = tan 3𝑥-odd
c. 𝑝(𝑥) = 2𝑒 3𝑥 -neither
d. 𝑓(𝜃) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃-even

143
Chapter 7 Solution

1. 𝑖
2. 26 + 4𝑖
−11 75
3. − 13 𝑖
13
−4 −14
4. 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
3 3
√76 5 √87
5. 𝑎. 𝑥 = ±√5𝑖 𝑏. 4 ± 𝑖 𝑐. 8 ± 𝑖
2 8
6. 𝑎. −1 𝑏. 3𝑖 𝑐. −𝑖
7. Argand diagram
8. −5 + 10𝑖
9. 0.0398𝐻
10. Magnitude: 5.7813 Direction: 1.9148rad
11. 𝑧 = 5.467𝑒 𝑖(2.266)
12. 2.115(cos(1.34) + 𝑖 sin(1.34)) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2.115(cos(4.48) + 𝑖 sin(4.48))
13. 4.371(cos(2.666) + 𝑖 sin(2.666))
14. −√3 − 𝑖

144
 REFERENCES

1. John Bird, 2014. Higher Engineering Mathematics. Routledge, 7th edition

2. Erwin Kreyszig, 2011. Advanced Engineering Mathematics. Laurie Rosatone,
10th edition
3. http://faculty.ung.edu/mgoodroe/PriorCourses/Math_0999_General/Intro%20Set
s%20and%20The%20Real%20Nos(01-14-2015).pdf
4. Sarkar, Swapan Kumar, 2016. A Textbook of Discrete Mathematics, 9th edition
5. Oscar Levin, 2019. Discrete Mathematics, An Open Introduction 3rd Edition
6. EL Voges, TMA105C: Functions – Basics
7. M. Aphane, TUT Calculus notebook 2019
8. Bird, OJ. 2010. Higher Engineering Mathematics. 7th ed.
9. TUT Tutorial note-book Prepared by EL Voges
10. https://users.math.msu.edu/users/gnagy/teaching/10-fall/mth234/w2-234-h.pdf

11. http://paginapessoal.utfpr.edu.br/eustaquio/ensino-de-graduacao/gaussjordan.pdf
12. https://www.maths.usyd.edu.au/u/geoffp/lm-ss/lectp7.pdf

145