STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

∴ 0.625 = 0.004 × σt* + 0.00275σt* = 0.00675 × σt*

0.625
∴ σt* = = 92.59 N/mm2. Ans.
0.00675
and σr* = 0.6875 × 92.59 = 63.65 N/mm2. Ans.

1.14. THERMAL STRESSES..

Thermal stresses are the stresses induced in a body due to change in temperature.
Thermal stresses are set up in a body, when the temperature of the body is raised or lowered
and the body is not allowed to expand or contract freely. But if the body is allowed to expand
or contract freely, no stresses will be set up in the body.
Consider a body which is heated to a certain temperature.
Let L = Original length of the body,
T = Rise in temperature,
E = Young’s Modulus,
α = Co-efficient of linear expansion,
dL = Extension of rod due to rise of temperature.
If the rod is free to expand, then extension of the rod is given by
dL = α. T.L. ...(1.13)
This is shown in Fig. 1.23 (a) in which AB represents
A B B’
the original length and BB′ represents the increase in length
due to temperature rise. Now suppose that an external (a)
compressive load, P is applied at B′ so that the rod is decreased in L dL
its length from (L + αTL) to L as shown in Figs. 1.23 (b) and (c). A B B’
Decrease in length P
Then compressive strain = (b)
Original length
L
α.T . L αTL
= ≈ = α.T A B
L + α.T . L L P
(c)
Stress
But =E L
Strain Fig. 1.23
∴ Stress = Strain × E = α.T.E
And load or thrust on the rod = Stress × Area = α.T.E × A
If the ends of the body are fixed to rigid supports, so that its expansion is prevented,
then compressive stress and strain will be set up in the rod. These stresses and strains are
known as thermal stresses and thermal strain.
Extension prevented
∴ Thermal strain, e=
Original length
dL α.T . L
= = = α.T ...(1.14)
L L
And thermal stress, σ = Thermal strain × E
= α.T.E. ...(1.15)
Thermal stress is also known as temperature stress.
And thermal strain is also known as temperature strain.

42
 SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

1.14.1. Stress and Strain when the Supports Yield. If the supports yield by an
amount equal to δ, then the actual expansion
= Expansion due to rise in temperature – δ
= α.T.L – δ.
Actual expansion (α . T . L − δ)
∴ Actual strain = =
Original length L
And actual stress = Actual strain × E
(α . T . L − δ)
= × E. ...(1.16)
L

Problem 1.28. A rod is 2 m long at a temperature of 10°C. Find the expansion of the
rod, when the temperature is raised to 80°C. If this expansion is prevented, find the stress
induced in the material of the rod. Take E = 1.0 × 105 MN/m2 and α = 0.000012 per degree centigrade.
Sol. Given :
Length of rod, L = 2 m = 200 cm
Initial temperature, T1 = 10°C
Final temperature, T2 = 80°C
∴ Rise in temperature, T = T2 – T1 = 80° – 10° = 70°C
Young’s Modulus, E = 1.0 × 105 MN/m2
= 1.0 × 105 × 106 N/m2 (∵ M = 106)
11
= 1.0 × 10 N/m 2

Co-efficient of linear expansion, α = 0.000012

(i) The expansion of the rod due to temperature rise is given by equation (1.13).
∴ Expansion of the rod = α.T.L
= 0.000012 × 70 × 200
= 0.168 cm. Ans.
(ii) The stress in the material of the rod if expansion is prevented is given by equation (1.15).
∴ Thermal stress, σ=α.T.E
= 0.000012 × 70 × 1.0 × 1011 N/m2
= 84 × 106 N/m2 = 84 N/mm2. Ans. (∵ 106 N/m2 = 1 N/mm2)
Problem 1.29. A steel rod of 3 cm diameter and 5 m long is connected to two grips and
the rod is maintained at a temperature of 95°C. Determine the stress and pull exerted when the
temperature falls to 30°C, if
(i) the ends do not yield, and
(ii) the ends yield by 0.12 cm.
Take E = 2 × 105 MN/m2 and α = 12 × 10 –6/°C.
Sol. Given :
Dia. of the rod, d = 3 cm = 30 mm
π
∴ Area of the rod, A= × 302 = 225 π mm2
4
Length of the rod, L = 5 m = 5000 mm
Initial temperature, T1 = 95°C
Final temperature, T2 = 30°C

43
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

∴ Fall in temperature, T = T1 – T2 = 95 – 30 = 65°C

Modulus of elasticity, E = 2 × 105 MN/m2
= 2 × 105 × 106 N/m2
= 2 × 1011 N/m2
Co-efficient of linear expansion, α = 12 × 10–6/°C.
(i) When the ends do not yield
The stress is given by equation (1.15).
∴ Stress = α.T.E = 12 × 10–6 × 65 × 2 × 1011 N/m2
= 156 × 106 N/m2 or 156 N/mm2 (tensile). Ans.
Pull in the rod = Stress × Area
= 156 × 225 π = 110269.9 N. Ans.
(ii) When the ends yield by 0.12 cm
∴ δ = 0.12 cm = 1.2 mm
The stress when the ends yield is given by equation (1.16).
(α . T . L − δ)
∴ Stress = ×E
L
(12 × 10 −6 × 65 × 5000 − 1.2)
= × 2 × 105 N/mm2
5000
(3.9 − 1.2)
= × 2 × 105 = 108 N/mm2. Ans.
5000
Pull in the rod = Stress × Area
= 108 × 225 π = 76340.7 N. Ans.

1.15. THERMAL STRESSES IN COMPOSITE BARS..

Fig. 1.24 (a) shows a composite bar consisting of two members, a bar of brass and
another of steel. Let the composite bar be heated through some temperature. If the members
are free to expand then no stresses will be induced in the members. But the two members are
rigidly fixed and hence the composite bar as a whole will expand by the same amount. As the
co-efficient of linear expansion of brass is more than that of the steel, the brass will expand
more than the steel. Hence the free expansion of brass will be more than that of the steel. But
both the members are not free to expand, and hence the expansion of the composite bar, as a
whole, will be less than that of the brass, but more than that of the steel. Hence the stress

Brass
Steel
Brass Steel
Brass Steel

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.24

44
 SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

induced in the brass will be compressive whereas the stress in steel will be tensile as shown
in Fig. 1.24 (c). Hence the load or force on the brass will be compressive whereas on the steel
the load will be tensile.
Let Ab = Area of cross-section of brass bar
σb = Stress in brass
eb = Strain in brass
αb = Co-efficient of linear expansion for brass
Eb = Young’s modulus for copper
As, σs, es and αs = Corresponding values of area, stress, strain and co-efficient
of linear expansion for steel, and
Es = Young’s modulus for steel.
δ = Actual expansion of the composite bar
Now load on the brass = Stress in brass × Area of brass
= σb × Ab
And load on the steel = σs × As
For the equilibrium of the system, compression in copper should be equal to tension in
the steel
or Load on the brass = Load on the steel
∴ σb × Ab = σs × As.
Also we know that actual expansion of steel
= Actual expansion of brass ...(i)
But actual expansion of steel
= Free expansion of steel + Expansion due to tensile stress
in steel
σs
= αs . T . L + .L
Es
And actual expansion of copper
= Free expansion of copper – Contraction due to compressive
stress induced in brass
σb
= αb . T . L – .L
Eb
Substituting these values in equation (i), we get
σs σ
αs × T × L + × L = αb × T × L – b × L
Es Eb
σs σ
or αsT + = αb × T – b
Es Eb
where T = Rise of temperature.
Problem 1.30. A steel rod of 20 mm diameter passes centrally through a copper tube of
50 mm external diameter and 40 mm internal diameter. The tube is closed at each end by rigid
plates of negligible thickness. The nuts are tightened lightly home on the projecting parts of the

45
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

rod. If the temperature of the assembly is raised by 50°C, calculate the stresses developed in
copper and steel. Take E for steel and copper as 200 GN/m2 and 100 GN/m2 and α for steel and
copper as 12 × 10–6 per °C and 18 × 10–6 per °C.
Sol. Given :
Dia. of steel rod = 20 mm
π
∴ Area of steel rod, As = × 202 = 100π mm2
4
π
Area of copper tube, Ac = (502 – 402) mm2 = 225π mm2
4
Rise of temperature, T = 50°C
E for steel, Es = 200 GN/m2
= 200 × 109 N/m2 (∵ G = 109)
= 200 × 103 × 106 N/m2
= 200 × 103 N/mm2 (∵ 106 N/m2 = 1 N/mm2)
E for copper, Ec = 100 GN/m2 = 100 × 109 N/m2
= 100 × 103 × 106 N/m2 = 100 × 103 N/mm2
α for steel, αs = 12 × 10–6 per °C
α for copper, αc = 18 × 10–6 per °C.
As α for copper is more than that of steel, hence the free expansion of copper will be
more than that of steel when there is a rise in temperature. But the ends of the rod and the
tube is fixed to the rigid plates and the nuts are tightened on the projected parts of the rod.
Hence the two members are not free to expand. Hence the tube and the rod will expand by the
same amount. The free expansion of the copper tube will be more than the common expansion,
whereas the free expansion of the steel rod will be less than the common expansion. Hence
the copper tube will be subjected to compressive stress and the steel rod will be subjected to
tensile stress.
Let σs = Tensile stress in steel
σc = Compressive stress in copper.
For the equilibrium of the system,
Tensile load on steel = Compressive load on copper
or σs . As = σc . Ac
Ac
or σs = × σc
As

225 π
= × σc = 2.25σc ...(i)
100 π
We know that the copper tube and steel rod will actually expand by the same amount.
∴ Actual expansion of steel = Actual expansion of copper ...(ii)
But actual expansion of steel
= Free expansion of steel + Expansion due to tensile stress in steel
σs
= αs . T . L + .L
Es

46
 SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

and actual expansion of copper

= Free expansion of copper – Contraction due to compressive stress in copper
σc
= αc . T . L – .L
Ec
Substituting these values in equation (ii), we get
σs σ
αs . T . L + . L = αc . T . L – c . L
Es Ec
σs σ
or αs . T + = αc . T – c
Es Ec
2.25 σ c σc
or 12 × 10–6 × 50 + = 18 × 10–6 × 50 – (∵ σs = 2.25 σc)
200 × 10 3
100 × 10 3
2.25 σ c σc
or 3
+ = 18 × 10–6 × 50 – 12 × 10–6 × 50
200 × 10 100 × 10 3
or 1.125 × 10–5 σc + 10–5 σc = 6 × 10–6 × 50
or 2.125 × 10–5 σc = 30 × 10–5
or 2.125σc = 30
30
∴ σc =
= 14.117 N/mm2. Ans.
2.125
Substituting this value in equation (i), we get
σs = 14.117 × 2.25
= 31.76 N/mm2. Ans.
Problem 1.31. A steel tube of 30 mm external diameter and 20 mm internal diameter
encloses a copper rod of 15 mm diameter to which it is rigidly joined at each end. If, at a
temperature of 10°C there is no longitudinal stress, calculate the stresses in the rod and tube
when the temperature is raised to 200°C. Take E for steel and copper as 2.1 × 105 N/mm2 and
1 × 10 5 N/mm2 respectively. The value of co-efficient of linear expansion for steel and copper is
given as 11 × 10 –6 per °C and 18 × 10 –6 per °C respectively.
Sol. Given :
Dia. of copper rod = 15 mm
π
∴ Area of copper rod, Ac = × 152 = 56.25π mm2
4
π
Area of steel tube, As = (302 – 202) = 125π mm2
4
Rise of temperature, T = (200 – 10) = 190°C
E for steel, Es = 2.1 × 105 N/mm2
E for copper, Ec = 1 × 105 N/mm2
Value of α for steel, αs = 11 × 10–6 per °C
Value of α for copper, αc = 18 × 10–6 per °C

47
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

As the value of α for copper is more than that of steel, hence the copper rod would
expand more than the steel tube if it were free. Since the two are joined together, the copper
will be prevented from expanding its full amount and will be put in compression, the steel
being put in tension.
Let σs = Stress in steel
σc = Stress in copper.
For equilibrium of the system,
Compressive load on copper = Tensile load on steel
or σc . Ac = σs . As
A 125 π
∴ σc = σs . s = σs . = 2.22 × σs ...(i)
Ac 56.25 π
We know that the copper rod and the steel tube will actually expand by the same
amount.
Now actual expansion of steel = Free expansion of steel + Expansion due to tensile stress
σ
= αs . T . L + s . L
Es
and actual expansion of copper = Free expansion of copper
– Contraction due to compressive stress
σ
= αc . T . L – c . L
Ec
But actual expansion of steel = Actual expansion of copper
σs σ
αs . T . L + .L = αc . T . L – c . L
Es Ec
σs σc
or αs . T + = αc . T –
Es Ec
σs 2.22 σ s
or 11 × 10–6 × 190 + = 18 × 10–6 × 190 – (∵ σc = 2.22σs)
2.1 × 10 5 1 × 10 5
σs 2.22 σ s
or + = 18 × 10–6 × 190 – 11 × 10–6 × 190
2.1 × 10 5
1 × 10 5
σ s + 2.1 × 2.22 σ s
or = 5 × 10–6 × 190
2.1 × 10 5
or σs + 4.662σs = 5 × 10–6 × 190 × 2.1 × 105
or 5.662σs = 199.5
199.5
∴ σs = = 35.235 N/mm2. Ans.
5.662
Substituting this value in equation (i), we get
σc = 2.22 × 35.235 = 78.22 N/mm2. Ans.
Problem 1.32. A steel tube of 30 mm external diameter and 25 mm internal diameter
encloses a gun metal rod of 20 mm diameter to which it is rigidly joined at each end. The
temperature of the whole assembly is raised to 140°C and the nuts on the rod are then screwed

48
 SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

lightly home on the ends of the tube. Find the intensity of stress in the rod when the common
temperature has fallen to 30°C. The value of E for steel and gun metal is 2.1 × 105 N/mm2 and
1 × 105 N/mm2 respectively. The linear co-efficient of expansion for steel and gun metal
is 12 × 10–6 per °C and 20 × 10–6 per °C.
Sol. Given :
Dia. of gun metal rod = 20 mm
π
∴ Area of gun metal rod, Ag = × 202 = 100π mm2
4
π
Area of steel tube, As = (302 – 252) = 68.75π mm2
4
Fall in temperature, T = 140 – 30 = 110
Value of E for steel, Es = 2.1 × 105 N/mm2
Value of E for gun metal, Eg = 1 × 105 N/mm2
Value of α for steel, αs = 12 × 10–6 per °C
Value of α for gun metal, αg = 20 × 10–6 per °C.
As αg is greater than αs, hence the free contraction of the gun metal rod will be more
than that of steel when there is a fall in temperature. But, since the ends of the rods have
been provided with nuts, the two members are not free to contract fully, each of the member
will contract by the same amount. The free contraction of the gun metal rod will be greater
than the common contraction, whereas the free contraction of the steel tube will be less than
the common contraction. Hence the steel tube will be subjected to compressive stress while
the gun metal rod will be subjected to tensile stress.
Let σs = Stress in steel tube and
σg = Stress in gun metal rod.
For the equilibrium of the system,
Total compressive force in steel = Total tensile force in gun metal
∴ σs . As = σg . Ag
Ag 100π
or σs = σg . = σg .
As 68.75π
or σs = 1.4545σg ...(i)
We also know that the steel tube and gun metal rod will actually contract by the same
amount.
∴ Actual contraction of steel = Actual contraction of gun metal rod
But actual contraction of steel = Free contraction of steel
+ contraction due to compressive stress in steel
σs
= αs . T . L + .L
Es
Actual contraction of gun metal = Free contraction of gun metal
– expansion due to tensile stress in gun metal
σg
= αg . T . L – .L
Eg

49
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Equating the two values, we get

σs σg
αs . T . L + . L = αg . T . L – .L
Es Eg

σs σg
or αs . T + = αg . T –
Es Eg
1.4545 σ g σg
or 12 × 10–6 × 110 + 5
= 20 × 10–6 × 110 – (∵ σs = 1.4545 σg)
2.1 × 10 1 × 10 5
1.4545 σg
or σg + = 20 × 10–6 × 110 – 12 × 10–6 × 110
2.1 × 10 5
1 × 10 5
1.4545 σ g + 2.1 × σ g
or = 8 × 10–6 × 110
2.1 × 10 5
or 3.5545 σg = 8 × 10–6 × 110 × 2.1 × 105 = 184.8
184.8
∴ σg = = 51.99 N/mm2. Ans.
3.5545
Substituting this value in equation (i), we get
σs = 1.4545 × 51.99 = 75.62 N/mm2. Ans.

1.16. ELONGATION OF A BAR DUE TO ITS OWN WEIGHT..

Fig. 1.25 shows a bar AB fixed at end A and hanging freely
under its own weight.
A
Let L = Length of bar,
A = Area of cross-section,
E = Young’s modulus for the bar material,
w = Weight per unit volume of the bar material. L
dx
Consider a small strip of thickness dx at a distance x from the
lower end.
x
Weight of the bar for a length of x is given by,
P = Specific weight × Volume of bar upto length x B
=w×A×x Fig. 1.25
This means that on the strip, a weight of w × A × x is acting in
the downward direction. Due to this weight, there will be some increase in the length of
element. But length of the element is dx.
Now stress on the element
Weight acting on element w× A× x
= = =w×x
Area of cross-section A
The above equation shows that stress due to self weight in a bar is not uniform. It
depends on x. The stress increases with the increase of x.
Stress w × x
Strain in the element = =
E E

50