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EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER Q2 to the rocks.

This process is called


ARIEL WAYNE DAMO Physical weathering, also known as Oxidation.
mechanical weathering, takes place when
WEATHERING OF ROCKS rocks are broken into smaller pieces because Dissolution is the process in which rocks
of any natural or anthropogenic forces. This weather because of its reaction to acids.
When rocks and minerals break down into process only changes the physical appearance When an acidic water (rainwater with
pieces or dissolve, it is called weathering. of the rock and does not alter any of its dissolved carbon dioxide) reacts with rocks,
Weathering happens not just on its own. This composition. The following processes below minerals from rocks dissolve leaving them
is possible through the following agents: contributes to the physical weathering of with holes or cavities.
water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and rocks:
changes in temperature. The more exposed The last type of chemical weathering is
the rock is to weathering, the more it Frost wedging happens when water gets microbial activity. Microbes break down
becomes very vulnerable to breaking. For inside the cracks of rocks. The water inside minerals from rocks by changing its
example, rocks buried beneath the surface are the rock freezes which cause the crack’s composition making it more vulnerable to
less vulnerable than those rocks on the expansion. The cracks get deepen and more weathering. An example to this is the
surface areas because they are very exposed water enters and freezes. The alternate presence of lichen in a symbiotic
to agents like wind and water. freezing and thawing episodes breaks the relationship. This lichen is both fungi and
rock into small pieces along the joint lines. algae. Fungi releases chemicals which wears
Once rocks have been broken down into tiny down the minerals from rocks. The minerals
pieces, a process called erosion transports were then eaten by algae.
them away into different areas. The process
of weathering and erosion is responsible for EARTH’S INTERIOR AND ITS
the creation of some famous landmarks MECHANISMS
around the world like the Delicate Arch in Abrasion takes place when rocks wear away
Utah and Kapurpurawan Rock Formations in because of constant collision of loose CONVECTION
Ilocos Norte, Philippines. particles The movement within a fluid induced by the
tendency of colder, denser material to sink
One of the most natural creation resulted Biological activity is sometimes considered under the influence of gravity and hotter, less
from erosion is the canyon or a deep, narrow a different type of weathering, biological dense material to rise, which ultimately
channel with steep sides. weathering. However, many still results in the transfer of heat.
acknowledges it as part of physical
weathering as the process only changes the 3 MAIN SOURCES OF MANTLE
physical appearance of rocks. Biological CONVECTION
activity includes plants and animals as agents
of weathering. For example, when roots of Primordial heat is the internal heat energy
plants grow, they exert more pressure to accumulated by dissipation in a planet during
rocks which causes them to slowly break. its first few million years of evolution. The
Animals like rabbits can move rock main contributions to the primordial heat are
fragments to the surface as they dig into soil. accretional energy – the energy deposited by
Rocks get to be more exposed to more infalling planetesimals – and differentiation
A river canyon is made when the pressure weathering. energy.
from a river cuts deep into the river bed. The
sediments then from the river bed were Salt crystal growth is another factor of Decay of Radioactive Isotopes. Certain
carried downstream (erosion) which resulted physical disintegration of rocks. The force elements, known as radioactive elements
to the creation of canyons. The river that lies exerted by salt crystal, formed when water such as potassium, uranium, and thorium,
down at the bottom of the canyon is called evaporates from the rock’s pores or cracks, break down through a process known as
entrenched river. What makes it different causes the rock to fall apart. radioactive decay, and release energy. This
from other rivers is that the river from radioactive decay in Earth's crust and mantle
canyons do not change its course. CHEMICAL WEATHERING continuously adds heat and slows the cooling
of the Earth.
For thousands of years weathering and Chemical weathering on the other hand
erosion gradually and constantly change the changes the composition or molecular
landscape of Earth. Hence, no matter how structure of the rock. For example, when Tidal Friction from the Moon’s pull. Tidal
hard the rock is it cannot resist the forces of carbon dioxide from the air or soil combines friction on the Earth prevents the tidal bulge,
nature-weathering and erosion with water, this can dissolve the rock. The which is raised in Earth's seas and crust by
process itself is called carbonation. the Moon's pull, from staying directly under
Carbonation produces a weak acid, called the Moon.
carbonic acid. Other processes of chemical
weathering includes the following: MAGMA FORMATION

. Hydrolysis is a chemical type of weathering As the denser tectonic plate subducts, or


which changes the composition of minerals sinks below, or the less-dense tectonic plate,
from rocks when they react with acidic water. hot rock from below can intrude into the
TYPES OF WEATHERING This results to the production of clays and cooler plate above. This process transfers
soluble salts. heat and creates magma. Over millions of
The process of weathering is divided in 2 years, the magma in this subduction zone can
types-physical and chemical weathering. When iron in rocks get to be exposed to create a series of active volcanoes known as a
oxygen, it creates iron oxide. The iron oxide volcanic arc.
PHYSICAL WEATHERING produces a rusty-colored weathered surface
These are the following places magma can be chains (polymerize). These silica chains It is important in the formation of igneous
formed: make the magma more viscous. Crystals start rocks because it is one of the main processes
to form as magma continues to cool. of magmatic differentiation.
Mid-oceanic ridges - rising magma in the
mantle convection cell brings heat to the Viscosity is an extent of a fluid’s resistance Crystal settling happens when heavier
surface, transferring heat to the overlying to flow. Magmas with low viscosity flow minerals crystallize first and settle down
rocks. faster than those with high viscosity. while the less dense minerals crystallize at
Temperature, silica content and volatile the final stages. Bowen’s reaction series
Mantle plumes - the transfer of heat and content affect the viscosity of magma. The shows that heavier minerals such as olivine
decompression result to magma generation. It table below shows the factors that affect the and Calcium-rich plagioclases are created
has a deeper source of heat. viscosity of magma. first, leaving the magma more silicic.

Subduction zones - oceanic crustal rocks are Partial Melting as described in Bowen’s
formed along the spreading centers typically reaction series, quartz and muscovite are
beneath several kilometres of seawater. The mostly formed under low temperature
presence of water during generation results to conditions, making them the first to melt
the formation of hydrous minerals. As the from the parent rock once exposed in higher
oceanic slab is down-thrusted along temperature and/or pressure. Partial melting
subduction zones, the change in temperature of an ultramafic rock in the mantle forms
and pressure conditions brings about mineral basaltic magma.
instability.
Magma mixing happens when two different
As the denser tectonic plate subducts, or Norman L. Bowen explained why certain magma rises up, with the more buoyant mass
sinks below, or the less-dense tectonic plate, minerals occur together while others are overtakes the slower rising body.
hot rock from below can intrude into the almost never linked with one another. In the
cooler plate above. This process transfers early 1900s, Bowen heated powdered rock Convective flow then mixes the two
heat and creates magma. Over millions of material until it melted. He cooled down the magmas, producing a single, and
years, the magma in this subduction zone can molten material and observed the minerals intermediate (between the two parent
create a series of active volcanoes known as a that formed in the rocks. He repeated this magmas) magma.
volcanic arc. process with gradually lower temperatures Assimilation or contamination of magma
and the results led him to the now called by crustal rocks is a reaction that occurs
What Happens After Magma Formation Bowen’s reaction series. Based on his works, when the crust is mixed up with the rising
Once it is formed, it moves in an upward one can conclude from the minerals present magma. When magma rises to the surface,
flow because it is less dense than other rocks in a rock the conditions (temperature and the surrounding rocks may dissolve (due to
under the Earth and can feed into a volcano pressure) under which the rock had formed. the heat) and eventually get mixed with the
or cool and crystallize into intrusive igneous magma. This scenario produces change in the
rock. If it feeds into a volcano, magma will Bowen’s reaction series chemical composition of the magma unless
eventually erupt and become lava. Certain minerals are unchanging at higher the material being added is the same as the
melting temperature and crystallize before magma...
All igneous rocks originate beneath earth’s those stable at lower temperatures.
surface in the molten state called magma. Crystallization in the continuous and Rocks Under Different Types of Stress
Magma is hot molten rock containing discontinuous branches takes place
chemical elements from uppermost mantle simultaneously. Continuous branch contains Rock deformation includes any change in
called the asthenosphere. It also contains only plagioclase feldspar. Discontinuous shape, position, and/or volume of a rock in
dissolved gases such as water, carbon branch describes how ferromagnesian response to stress. When layers of rocks are
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and possibly few minerals in the magma are changed if tilted, folded, or misplaced, this indicates that
crystals. temperature changes. The primary formed deformation has occurred.
Magma is formed in the mantle where the crystals, olivine, reacts with the remaining
subducted oceanic plate is located. melt as the magma cools down, and Stress is the force per unit area applied on
Temperatures and pressures in this area are recrystallizes into pyroxene. Continued the rock layers.
extremely high to cause water to sweat into cooling will transform pyroxene into
the mantle. The addition of water into the hot amphibole. If all of the iron and magnesium Strain is the change in shape or volume of
mantle rocks causes rock to melt and form in the melt is consumed before all of the the rock that undergone stress. Thus, stress
magma. This magma begins to rise because it pyroxene recrystallizes to amphibole, the causes the strain on rock layers.
is less dense compared to its surroundings. ferromagnesian minerals in the solidified
mantle would be amphibole and pyroxene. The magnitude of stress is not just a function
At deeper levels in the surrounding mantle of the amount of stress but also relates to the
rock, magma rises and passes through Magmatic differentiation area over which the force is applied. There
mineral grain borders and cracks. At lower Any process that causes magma composition are different stages of deformation. These are
levels, magma may no longer rise because its to change is called magmatic differentiation. as follows:
density is almost the same as that of its Over the years, various process have been
surroundings. When the magma solidifies at suggested to explain the variation of magma Elastic deformation - occurs when the strain
an area, it forms different types of plutonic compositions observed within small regions. is reversible. This means that material that
bodies.At very high temperatures (over returns to its original shape once the stress
1300°C), most magma is completely liquid Crystal Fractionation that deforms it is removed.
because there is too much energy. Silicon and Crystal fractionation, is one of the most
oxygen combine to form silica tetrahedral. important geochemical and physical Ductile deformation - occurs when the
As cooling continues, compounds of processes operating within crust and mantle strain is irreversible. Rocks layers or the
tetrahedral start to link together to make of a rocky planetary body, such as the Earth.
materials respond to stress by bending or continental shelves, form the sides of ocean Continental Rise. This feature found gently
deforming without breaking. basins. sloping area before the ocean floor and at the
base of the continental slope and formed by
Fracture deformation - is an irreversible Tectonic activity constantly changes ocean emerging accumulate deposits at the mounts
strain wherein the materials breaks because basins. Seafloor spreading and subduction of many submarine canyons.
these are mostly brittle. are the most important types of tectonic
activity that shape ocean basins. Continental Shelf. As shown closely in
Low temperature, low confining pressure, figure 4, a continental shelf is a shallow,
and high rate of strain increase the brittle Seafloor spreading happens along the gently sloping part of the continent crust.
properties of rock. High temperature, high boundaries of tectonic plates that are moving
confining pressure and low rate of strain apart from each other. These areas are called Continental Slope. This part of the ocean
increase the ductile properties of rocks. The mid-ocean ridges. New seafloor is created at basin extends and slopes after the continental
material’s composition determines the point the bottom, or rift, of a mid-ocean ridge. shelf. The boundary between the continental
at which brittle-ductile transition occurs. Ocean basins that have mid-ocean ridges are slope and shelf is called continental shelf
expanding. The Atlantic basin, for instance, break.
Folds are formed when rock layers or is expanding because of seafloor spreading.
materials are deforming plastically under The planet’s surface is made up of about 70
compressive stress. Most of these materials % of ocean basins.
do not return to their original shape. If stress
is increased, the rocks may undergo more Features on the ocean basin are obtained by
folds and even fracture. There are three types using different technologies such as echo
of folds: sounder, side-scan sonar, and satellites.

Monocline occurs when there is a simple Sonar is used to determine accurately the
bending of rock layers so that they are no time between the emission of a strong
longer horizontal. Subduction happens along the boundaries of acoustic pulse, and the detection of its echo.
tectonic plates that are crashing into each
Anticline occurs when a fold bends upward. other. In these subduction zones, the heavier The measurement of ocean depths and the
plate moves underneath, or subducts, the charting of the shape or topography of the
Syncline occurs when a fold bends lighter one. Ocean basins that experience ocean floor can be measured which is called
downward. subduction, such as the Pacific basin, are a bathymetry.
shrinking.
Faults occurs when too much stress is applied Ocean basins are divided into three major
to rock layers. Rocks will undergo fracture or Structures of Ocean Basins provinces such as continental margins, deep-
rock materials will break. If there is a sudden ocean basins, and oceanic or mid-ocean
motion along faults, it causes the rocks to Mid-oceanic Ridge. This feature constitutes ridges.
break and move suddenly. The energy 23 % of the Earth’ surface. It is normally
released during the movement of fault called found rising above the ocean floor at the Five Ocean Basins from Largest to
earthquake. center of the ocean basins. Some volcanic Smallest
islands are part of the mid-ocean ridge 1. Pacific
Slip is the distance that rocks move sideways system like Iceland. 2. Atlantic
a fault. It can be up or down the fault plane. 3. Indian
Slip is relative. This is because there is Ocean Trenches. They are long narrow, 4. Southern
usually no way to know whether both sides steep-sided depressions that contain the 5. Arctic
moved or only one. That angle that faults lie greatest depths in the ocean.
to the horizontal of the surface of the Earth is
called the fault’s dip. If the fault’s dip is Abyssal Hill/Plain. As shown in figures 3,
inclined relative to the horizontal surface, the this another raised feature found within ocean
fault is a dip-slip fault. There are two types of basins. Remember that an ‘abyss’ is
dip-slip faults. something that is very deep. Therefore, an
abyssal hill is found on the deep ocean floor,
Normal faults are described when the meanwhile, abyssal plains are so flat because
hanging wall drops down relative to the they are covered with sediments that have
footwall. been washed off the surface of the continents Ocean Basin and Continent Boundaries
for thousands of years.
Reverse faults are when the footwall drops Both the continental and oceanic crusts lie
down relative to the hanging wall. Seamounts. These feature can be very large over a more uniform layer called mantle.
submerged volcanic mountain reaching However, in terms of location and thickness,
Strike slip faults are vertical fractures where heights up to 10,000 feet as shown in figure ocean basins lie much lower than sea level,
the blocks have mostly moved horizontally. 3. However, they remain submerged under more dense, and thin. Meanwhile, the
the surface of the water. continents stand high above sea level, light,
Oblique-slip fault is a fault which has and thick.
components of dip slip and strike slip. Guyot. It is similar to a seamount, but it is
submerged volcanic mountain with a flat top. The Pacific Ocean basin is the largest in the
LESSON 3: THE STRUCTURE AND Guyot’s structure is due to erosive processes world. It is more than 155 million square
EVOLUTION OF OCEAN BASINS caused by waves after years (refer to figure kilometers (59 million square miles)all of the
3). continents could fit into it. It is also the
Ocean basins are the largest depressions on oldest basin; researchers say its rocks are 200
Earth. Edges of the continents, called million years old.
Uranium dating this time contain half of the earth’s deposits
The Pacific basin is partly surrounded by the The oldest known crystal on earth is the of minerals.
Ring of Fire, a zone of intense tectonic zircon crystal from Australia. It remained
activity, including many earthquakes and intact for an incredible 4.4 billion years The appearance of the multicellular organism
volcanoes. The Ring of Fire touches Alaska, which is of almost same age of the planet also appeared in this eon. In this eon also, the
the Americas, New Zealand, and eastern earth. The radioactive isotope used to first soft bodied invertebrates appeared and
Asia. determine the absolute age of zircon crystal the first bacteria and blue green algae begin
was uranium which decayed into lead atoms. to free oxygen to the atmosphere.

DATING OF ROCKS AND GEOLOGIC Example of Carbon Dating An eon is subdivided into eras. The
TIME a tree which is a living thing takes in carbon- Phanerozoic eon for example, is subdivided
14 and carbon-12 at the same time. When the into 3 major eras. These 3 eras are paleozoic
Rocks are composed of layers or features tree dies, the carbon-14 starts to decay and era which means ancient life; mesozoic era
called strata (singular, stratum). These layers become less while the carbon-12 is which means middle life and cenozoic era
are used to determine the age of rocks. There unchanged. Then the ratio of carbon-14 left which means present life.
are two ways/methods to determine the age to the unchanged carbon-12 is measured.
of rocks. With this, the absolute age of the fossil is An era is subdivided into Periods, f or
determined. Carbon-14 has a half-life of example, in the paleozoic era, there are 6
Methods of Dating Rocks 5,730 years meaning, every 5730 years, the periods, namely: Permian, Carboniferous,
parent isotope will produce two daughter Devonian, Silurian, Ordovician and
Relative Rock Dating is used to determine isotopes and these daughter isotopes will Cambrian periods. Permian period is known
the comparative or relative age of the rock to produce another daughter isotopes and so on. as the “age of amphibians”; Silurian period is
each other. However, this technique cannot where the first insects appeared; jawed fish
give the exact age of the rock. It is only used and vascular plants also appeared in this
to arrange geological events based on rock Younger rocks can be dated using carbon-14. period; corals first appeared in Ordovician
strata. Relative rock dating is guided by the Igneous rocks contain the radioactive period while the Cambrian period is the age
three basic laws which is known as Steno’s isotopes which make them good for of trilobites.
Laws, authored by Nicolaus Steno. These radiometric dating. In sedimentary and
laws are the bases in determining the relative metamorphic rocks, scientists will look for The Mesozoic era has 3 periods and these are
ages of rock layers or features. the presence of igneous rocks imbedded in Triassic wherein dinosaurs are dominant in
them to determine their absolute ages. this period; Jurassic period wherein birds first
Steno’s Laws appeared in this time and Cretaceous period
ROCK AGES AND GEOLOGIC TIME which is the mark of the extinction of
Law of Superposition states that the older dinosaurs. In the Cenozoic era of the
stratum lie below the younger layer. Chronostratigraphy is the branch of Phanerozoic eon, the ice age occurred.
stratigraphy that studies the ages of rock
Law of Crosscutting states that any feature layers or features in relation to geologic time. A Period is further subdivided into Epochs.
such as fault that cuts across a sequence of Scientists use Geologic Time Scale or GTS An epoch is a time scale which is longer than
rocks is younger that everything it cuts. to explain which event on earth occurred first an age but shorter than the period. In the
and which event occurred last. This GTS is a Carboniferous period, there are two epochs,
Law of Inclusion states that any rock, chart that mark as a guide on the earth’s namely: Pennsylvanian and Mississippian.
fragment, clast or intrusion that is included major events in its history.
inside of another rock is older than the rock An epoch is subdivided into Ages. The
in which it is included The discovery of the fossils and the oldest Mississippian epoch has 3 ages. These are
rocks are the bases of these markings in the Tournaisian, Visean and Serpukhovian.
Absolute Rock Dating or Radiometric GTS. For example, when a fossil is Triassic, Jurassic and cretaceous periods of
Dating is used to determine the absolute age discovered, scientists determine the absolute Mesozoic era is the “age of Reptiles”;
of the rock. In this technique, the decay rate age of the fossil by using radiometric dating Devonian period part of the Paleozoic era is
of radioactive isotopes which are embedded and once the absolute age is measured, they the “age of fishes” while Cenozoic era is the
in the rock are measured. Isotopes are can tell in what part of geologic time the “age of mammals”.Our current time where
elements with equal number of protons but organism had existed we are now belongs to Halocene Epoch of
different masses. There are some types of the Quaternary Period of Cenozoic era.
absolute dating. The extinction of the dinosaurs is another
example. We know that dinosaurs appeared In order to identify the ages of the rocks and
TYPES in the period that belong to Mesozoic era, fossils found in our planet through
and they become extinct as recorded in the exhumation, scientists use radiometric dating
Carbon dating cretaceous Triassic period of the geologic which uses the radioactive isotopes present in
Carbon-14 dating or radiocarbon dating is a time scale. Geologic Time Scale is divided the exhumed artefacts. After determining the
good technique in determining the absolute into time span.Eon. This is the largest time age of the artefact, the age is compared to the
age of fossils found in rocks. Fossils are span. geologic time scale above.
remains of organisms preserved in rocks.
There are only two major eons in the GTS For example, in the fossil record, the
Potassium dating and these are Precambrian and Phanerozoic. trilobites were dated to some 540 to 488
Another example of a radioactive isotope Precambrian is divided by Hadean, Archean million years ago and they belong to the
used in absolute rock dating is potassium-40. and Proterozoic events in the GTS. The Cambrian period. Trilobites are the relatives
It has a half-life of 1.25 x10 E9 years when it Earth’s history before the formation of the of the present day crabs and lobsters.
undergoes a beta decay. first and oldest rock belong in this time. This
time span lasted from 4.6 billion to 541 Once the absolute age has been computed
million years ago. The rocks that belong in using the radioactive isotope present in the
rock, the scientists will then compare its age
with the Geologic Time Scale to tell which
period it belong.

SUMMARY OF LESSON 4

There are 3 basic laws of Stratigraphy. These


laws are proposed by Nicolaus Steno, a
Catholic priest and Danish Scientist.

Stratigraphy is the study of rock layers. It is


important because it holds the sequence of
the formation of each layer of the rock. It can
tell which part of the rock is the oldest and
youngest.

Relative dating is a technique used to tell the


geologic events in rock

Absolute dating uses Carbon-14, Potassium-


40 and Uraniums- 238 and 235

The absolute age of the rock is determined


only using the radiometric dating.

Radiometric dating makes use the radioactive


isotopes present in rocks.

Once the absolute age of rock is measured, it


is then compared to a scale called Geologic
Time Scale to identify the time the rock was
formed.

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