DCT FORENSIC BALLISTICS

HISTORY OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS

In June 1900 an article appeared in the Buffalo Medical Journal, by Dr. A.L. Hall, to
the effect that bullets fired through different makes and types of weapon, of the same caliber,
were impressed with rifling marks of varying type. Unfortunately, Dr. Hall never expanded on
his original article.

In 1907, as a result of riots in Brownsville Texas, where members of the US Infantry

opened fire, staff at the Frankfort Arsenal were tasked, with identifying which of the weapons
were fired. As a method of identification, magnified photographs of the firing pin impressions
on the cartridge case were used. By this means they were able to positively identify that of the
thirty nine (39) cartridge cases examined, eleven (11) were fired from one weapon, eight (8)
from a second weapon, eleven (11) from a third, and three (3) from the fourth. The six
remaining cartridge cases were not identified. As to the recovered bullets, the examiners
concluded that the bullets bore no distinctive markings as to the particular weapon from which
they were fired. The only conclusion reached, were that they had, by the rifling characteristics,
been fired from either a Krag or Springfield rifle.

In the year 1912, Victor Balthazard, a medical practitioner in the city of Paris who
studies on probability models with fingerprints, bullet comparison, animal hairs, and blood
splatter patterns, took photomicrographs of bullets lands and grooves in an attempt to identify
the weapon from which the bullet was fired. From these examinations he came into conclusion
that the cutter used in rifling a barrel never leaves exactly the same markings in its successive
excursions through a barrel. He does reason that it is possible to identify, beyond reasonable
doubt, a fired bullet originated from the barrel of a certain weapon and none other. The
significance of Balthazard’s work cannot be overestimated, for it is upon this premise that the
whole of modern bullet identification rest.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS

In its broadest sense, the term “ballistics” is defined as the science of the motion of
projectiles and the condition governing that motion. Science refers to the systematized body of
knowledge; motion refers to movement or mobility; and projectile refers to metallic or non
metallic objects propelled from a firearm. Ballistics is a science in itself, because it evolved
from systematic knowledge, research and development, training, experience and education of
those who pioneered in this field.

In it narrowest sense technically speaking, the term ballistics refers to the science of
firearms identification which involves the scientific examinations of ballistics exhibits – fired
bullets, fired shells, firearms and allied matters – used in crimes. With the application of this
science, it is now possible, with the aid of the proper techniques, to determine with degree of
certainty whether or not a certain fired bullet or cartridge case was fired from a particular
firearm. It also involved the used of such equipment as the bullet comparison microscope,
stereoscopic microscope, shadowgraph, onoscope, bullet recovery box, chronograph,
helixometer, taper gage, calipers and analytical balance.

The term ballistics itself was derived from the Greek word BALLO or BALLEIN
which literally means to throw. It roots was also said to have derived from the name of an
early Roman war machine called the BALISTA – a gigantic bow or catapult which was used to
hurl missiles or large objects such as stone at a particular distance to deter animals or enemy
forces. The meaning of the term, however, has greatly broadened since the development of the
“science of firearms identification.” And so today, the word ballistics is frequently used
synonymously in the press and in police parlance to “firearms investigation and
identification”.

R O N A L D V I L L A N U E VA Y U S I Page 2
DCT FORENSIC BALLISTICS

The word FORENSIC as applied to ballistics, or to any other subject, suggest a

relationship to courts of justice and legal proceedings and the term was derived from the Latin
word “FORUM”, meaning a market place, where people gather for public disputation or public
discussion. Thus the title forensic ballistics aptly describes the subject under consideration –
the science of investigation and identification of firearms and ammunition used in crimes.

The term ballistics, forensic ballistics and firearms identification have come to mean
one and the same thing in the minds of the public, and can be used interchangeably.

BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS

The science of ballistics or firearms identification is divided into the following

branches – Interior Ballistics, Exterior Ballistics, Terminal Ballistics and Forensic Ballistics.

INTERIOR BALLSITICS

Interior (Internal) Ballistics refers to the properties and attributes of the projectile while
inside the firearm. This extends from the breech to the muzzle of the firearm. It involves all the
reactions that take place while the bullet is still in the firearm. These include the following:

1. Firing pin hitting the primer;

2. Ignition of the priming mixture;
3. Combustion of the gun powder;
4. Expansion of the heated gas;
5. Pressure developed;
6. Energy generated;
7. Recoil of the firearm;
8. Velocity of the bullet in the barrel of the firearm;
9. Rotation of the bullet in the barrel of the firearm; and
10. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of bullet.

EXTERIOR BALLISTICS

Exterior (External) Ballistics refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet after it
has left the gun muzzle. This branch involved the following:

1. Muzzle Blast – the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun due to the
sudden escape of the expanding gas coming in contact with the air in the
surrounding atmosphere at the muzzle point.
2. Muzzle Energy – energy generated at the muzzle point.
3. Trajectory – the actual curved path of the bullet during its flight from the
gun muzzle to the target.
4. Range – the straight distance between the muzzle and the target.
a. Accurate (effective) range – the distance within which the shooter
has control of his shots, meaning he can place his shots at the
desired spot.
b. Maximum Range – the farthest distance that a projectile can be
propelled from a firearm.
5. Velocity – rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.
6. Air resistance – resistance encountered by the bullet towards the earth
center due to its weight.
7. Pull of Gravity – the downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth
center.
8. Penetration – depth of entry of the projectile to the target.

R O N A L D V I L L A N U E VA Y U S I Page 2
DCT FORENSIC BALLISTICS

TERMINAL BALLISTICS

Terminal Ballistics refers to the effects of the impact of the projectile on the target.
This involves the following:

1. Terminal Accuracy – size of the bullet grouping on the target.

2. Terminal Energy – energy of the projectile upon striking the target.
3. Terminal Velocity – speed of the bullet upon striking the target.
4. Terminal Penetration – depth of entry of the bullet in the target.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Forensic Ballistics refers to the investigation and identification of firearms by means of

ammunition fired trough them. This is the real branch of the science which the police use as
their guide in field investigations. This includes the following:

1. Field Investigations – this is conducted by the police investigators in the

field when they investigate a case or cases wherein firearms have been used
in the commission of a crime. This is a routine job of the police investigator
and this involves the recognition, collection, marking, preservation,
packaging and transmittal of ballistics evidence to the Crime Laboratory
like fired bullets, fired cartridge cases, firearms and allied matters.
2. Technical Examinations of Ballistics Evidence – this is the job performed
by the firearms examiner in the crime laboratory. It involves examination
and the conduct of test firing of evidence firearm to obtain test bullets and
test cartridge cases for comparative purposes, photomicrography under the
bullet comparison microscope, preparation of comparative charts, and
making of reports on the findings and conclusion of the forensic firearms
examiners.
3. Legal Proceedings (Court Trials) – this is the presentation of ballistics
evidence and ballistics report to the courts of justice by the forensic firearms
examiner.

BRIEF HISTORY OF FIREARMS

EARLY HAND CANNON

The first reported used of firearms is difficult to ascertain with any degree of certainty,
but a number of instances are reported in Spain between 1247 and 1311. On the records for the
Belgian City of Ghent there are confirmed sightings of the used of hand cannons in Germany
in 13132. One of the earliest illustrations concerning the used of hand cannons appears in the
15th century fresco in the in the Palazzo Publico Sienna, Italy.

R O N A L D V I L L A N U E VA Y U S I Page 2
DCT FORENSIC BALLISTICS

The first recorded used of hand cannon as a cavalry weapon appeared in 1449 in the
manuscripts of Marianus Jacobus. This shows a mounted soldier with such a weapon resting
on a fork attached to the pommel of the saddle. It is interesting to note that the use of the
saddle pommel to either carry or aim the had cannons could be the origin of the word “pistol”,
the early cavalry word for the pommel of the saddle being “pistallo”.

The early type of handgun was simply a small cannon of wrought iron or bronze, fitted
to a frame or stock with metal bands of leather thongs. These weapons were loaded from the
muzzle end of the barrel of the firearm with powder, wad and ball. A small hall at the breech
end of the barrel, the touch hole, was provided with a pan into which a priming charge of
powder was placed. On igniting the priming charge, either with a hot iron or lighted match,
fire flashed through the hole and into the main powder charge to discharge the weapon.

These early could have been little more than psychological deterrents being clumsy,
slow to fire and difficult to aim. In addition, rain or dump weather had an adverse effect on the
priming charge making it impossible to ignite.

THE MATCHLOCK

The matchlock was really the first major advance in pistol as it enabled the weapon to
be fired in one hand and also gave some opportunity to aim it as well.

The construction of the matchlock was exactly the same as the hand cannon in that it
was muzzle loaded and had a touch hole covered with a priming charge. The only difference
being that the match, a slow burning piece of cord used to ignite the priming charge, was held
in a curved hook screwed to the side of the frame. To fire the firearm, the hook was merely
pushed forward to drop the burning end of the match into the priming charge. As these
weapons became more sophisticated, the curved hook was embellished and took on the form
of a snake and became known as the weapons serpentine.

Eventually the tail of the serpentine was lengthened and became the forerunner of the
modern trigger. Further refinement included the use of a spring to hold the head back into
safety position. The final refinement consisted of a system whereby when the tail of the
serpentine was pulled the match rapidly fell into the priming compound under spring pressure.
This refinement, a true trigger mechanism, provided better ignition and assisted aiming
considerably.

It was during the era of the matchlock that reliable English records appeared and it is
recorded that Henry VIII, who reigned from 1509 until 1547, arm many of his cavalry with
matchlock. The first true revolving weapon is also attributed to the period of Henry VIII. This
weapon consists of a single barrel and four revolving chamber. Each chamber is provided with
each own touch hole and priming chamber which has a sliding cover.

R O N A L D V I L L A N U E VA Y U S I Page 2
DCT FORENSIC BALLISTICS

The major defect with the matchlock design was that it required a slow burning match
for ignition. As a result, it was of little use for surprise attack or in dump or rainy condition.

THE WHEELLOCK

With the advent of the wheellock the lighted match used in the matchlock was no
longer necessary. This important innovation in the field of firearms design made ambush
possible as well as making the firearm a practical weapon for hunting.

When fired from the shoulder the wheellock was often referred to as an arquebus from
the shape of the butt which was open curved to fit the shoulder. Another name strictly only for
much heavier caliber weapons, was the hacquebut which literally means “gun with a hook”.
This referred to a hook projecting from the bottom of the barrel. This hook was placed over a
wall, or some other object, to help take up the recoil of firing.

In its simplest form the wheellock consisted of a serrated steel wheel, mounted on the
side of the weapon at the rear of the barrel. The wheel was spring loaded via a chain round its
axle with a small key or spanner similar to a watch drum. When the wheel was turn with a
spanner, the chain wound round the axle and the spring was tensioned. A simple bar inside the
lock work kept the wheel from unwinding until released with the trigger. Part of the wheel
protruded into small pan, the flash pan or priming pan, which contained the priming charge for
the touch hole. The serpentine, instead of containing a slow burning match, had a piece of iron
pyrite fixed in its jaws. This was kept in tight contact with the serrated wheel by means of a
strong spring. On pressing the trigger, the bar was withdrawn from the grooved wheel which
then turned on its axle. Sparks produced by the friction on the pyrite on the serrated wheel
ignited the priming charge which in turned ignited the main powder charge and fired the
weapon.

The wheellock was a tremendous advance over the slow and cumbersome matchlock. It
could be carried ready to fire and with a small cover over the flash pan it was relatively
impervious t all but the heaviest rain. The mechanism was, however, complicated and
expensive and if the spanner to tension the spring was lost, the firearm was useless.

There is some dispute as to who originally invented the wheellock, but it has been
ascribed to Johann Kiefuss of Noremberg, Germany in 1517 and records shows that the
wheellock was still being widely manufactured in Europe as late as 1640, but by the turn of the
century it was making way for its successor.

R O N A L D V I L L A N U E VA Y U S I Page 2
DCT FORENSIC BALLISTICS

THE FLINTLOCK

The ignition system which superseded that of the wheellock was a simple mechanism
which provided a spark by striking a piece of flint against a steel plate. The flint was held in
the jaws of a small vice on a pivoted arm, called the cock. This was where the term “to cock
the hammer” originated.

The steel, which was called the frizzen, was placed on another pivoting arm opposite to
the cock and the pan containing the priming compound was placed directly below the frizzen.
When the trigger was pulled a strong spring swung the cock in an arc so that the flint struck
the steel a glancing blow. The glancing blow produced a shower of sparks which dropped into
the priming pan igniting the priming powder. The flash produced by the ignited priming
powder traveled through the touch hole thus igniting the main charge and discharging the
weapon.

The flintlock represented a great advance in weapon design. It was cheap, reliable and
not susceptible to damp or rainy conditions. Unlike the complicated and expensive wheellock,
this was a weapon which could be issued in large number to foot soldiers and cavalry alike.

As in the case of most weapons system, it is very difficult to pinpoint an exact date for
the introduction of the flintlock ignition system. There are indications of it being used in the
middle of the 16th century, although its first use cannot be established with acceptable proof
until the beginning of the 17th century and this type of firearm was used for almost 200 years.

THE PERCUSSION SYSTEM

In the year 1807 Alexander John Forsyth, a Scottish Minister, revolutionized the
ignition of gun powder by using a highly sensitive compound which exploded on being struck.

R O N A L D V I L L A N U E VA Y U S I Page 2
DCT FORENSIC BALLISTICS

This compound, mercury fulminate, when struck by a hammer, produced a flash strong enough
to ignite the main charge of powder in the barrel. A separate priming powder and sparking
system was no longer required. With this invention the basis for the self contained cartridge
was laid and a whole new field of possibilities was opened up.

Once this type of ignition, known as percussion system, had been invented, it still took
some time to perfect ways of applying it. From 1807 until 1814 a wide range of systems were
invented for the application of the percussion priming system including the Forsyth Scent
Bottle, Pill Locks, Tube Locks and the Pauly Paper Cup.

The final form, the percussion cup, was claimed by a large number of inventors. It is
probably attributable to Joshua Shaw, an Anglo-American living in Philadelphia in 1814.
Shaw employed a small iron cup into which was placed a small quantity of mercury fulminate.
This was placed over a small tube, called a nipple, projecting from the rear of the barrel. The
hammer striking the mercury fulminate in the cup caused it to detonate and so send a flame
down the nipple tube igniting the main charge in the barrel.

THE PINFIRE SYSTEM

The pinfire weapon was one of the earliest true breech loading weapons using a self
contained cartridge in which the propellant, missile and primer were all held together in a brass
case. This was introduced to the UK at the Great Exhibition in London in 1851 by Lefaucheux.

In this system the percussion cup was inside the cartridge case while a pin, which
rested on the percussion cup, protruded through the side of the cartridge case. Striking the pin,
the weapon’s hammer drove the pin into the priming compound causing it to detonate and so
ignite the main propellant charge. The pin, which protruded through the weapon’s chamber,
not only served to locate the round in its correct position, but also aided extraction of the fired
cartridge case.

The pinfire was at its most popular between 1890 and 1910 and was still readily
available in Europe until 1940. It had, however, fallen out of favor in England by 1914 and
was virtually unobtainable by 1935.

The really great advance of the pinfire system was, however, not just the concept of a
self contained cartridge but, obturation, the ability of the cartridge case under pressure to swell
and so seal the chamber preventing the rearward escape of gases. While the pinfire was a
significant step forward, it did have a number of drawbacks, not least of which was the
propensity of the cartridge to discharge if dropped onto its pin.

R O N A L D V I L L A N U E VA Y U S I Page 2
DCT FORENSIC BALLISTICS

THE RIMFIRE SYSTEM

The rimfire cartridge is a thin walled cartridge with a hallow flanged rim. Into this rim
is spun a small quantity of a priming compound. Crushing the rim with the firing pin causes
the priming compound to explode thus igniting the propellant inside the case.

The initial development of this system was made by a Paris gunsmith, Flobert, who had
working examples of it as early as 1847. It was, however, some time before it gained
acceptance and it was not until 1855 that Smith and Wesson manufactured the first revolver to
fire rimfire cartridges. This was a hinged frame .22” caliber weapon in which the barrel tipped
up by the means of a hinge on the top of the frame. This enabled the cylinder to be removed
when loading and unloading the weapon.

Although a great step forward, the rimfire was only suitable for high pressure weapons
in small caliber. Anything above .22” and the soft rim necessary for the ignition system,
resulted in cartridge case failures.

THE CENTER FIRE SYSTEM

This was the great milestone in weapon and ammunition development. In center fire
ammunition, only the primer cup needed to be soft enough to be crushed by the firing pin. The
cartridge case could thus be made of a more substantial material which would act as a gas seal
for much higher pressure than could be obtained with rim fire ammunition.

Once again the precise date for the invention of the fire center fire weapon is difficult
to ascertain although there is a patent issued in 1861 for a Daws center fire system. Probably
no invention connected with firearms has had as much effect of the principle of firearm
development as the obturating center fire cartridge case. Although invented around 1860, the

R O N A L D V I L L A N U E VA Y U S I Page 2
DCT FORENSIC BALLISTICS

principles are still the same and are utilized in every type of weapon from the smallest
handgun up to some of the largest artillery pieces.

WEAPON TYPE AND THEIR OPERATION

Terrible confusion exists as to what is a pistol, revolver, self loading pistol and
automatic. This is very basic firearms nomenclature, but it is often wrongly applied. The use of
the correct term is absolutely essential if any credibility is to maintained.

HANDGUNS

There are three (3) basic types of handgun: single shot, revolving and self loading
pistols. In English nomenclature all handguns are pistols; some are single shot pistols, others
are revolving pistols and the rest are self loading pistols. The Americans take a slightly more
laid back approach with the terminology using revolvers and pistols. Pistols are also referred to
as semi-automatics.

The term automatic is often misused, and when applied to a pistol should be used with
great care. Correctly used the term signifies a weapon in which the action will continue to
operate until the finger is removed from the trigger or the magazine is empty – hence
automatic.

A true self loading pistol will, after firing, eject the spent cartridge case then reload a
fresh round of ammunition into the chamber. To fire the fresh round the pressure on the trigger
has to be released and then re-applied.

A few true automatic pistols have been commercially manufactured. Examples are the
Mauser Schnell-Feuer pistol and the Astra Model 902. Fully automatic pistols have, however,
never been a commercial success due to near impossibility of controlling such weapon under
full automatic fire. Each shot causes the barrel to rise during recoil and before the firer has
time to reacquire the target within the sights, the next round has fired causing the barrel to rise
even further. Even at close range it is unusual for more than two shots to hit a man-sized
target.

SINGLE SHOT

The vast majority of single-shot pistols are .22 LR (Long Rifle) calibers which are
intended for target use. Generally, the barrel is hinged to the frame with some locking
mechanism to keep it in place during firing. On unlocking, the barrel swings down allowing
the empty cartridge case to be remove and a fresh one inserted. Other type exists in which the
barrel is firmly fixed to the frame and some form of breech block which either swing out, pulls
back or slides down to exposed the breech end of the barrel for loading/unloading.

REVOLVER

A revolver is a weapon with a revolving cylinder containing a number of firing

chambers (basically a revolving magazine) which may be successively lined up and discharged
through a single barrel.

The earliest form of revolvers includes a snaphaunce revolver made in the days of King
Charles I, said to have been made before 1650 and an even earlier weapon made during the
reign of Henry VIII some time before 1547.

R O N A L D V I L L A N U E VA Y U S I Page 2
DCT FORENSIC BALLISTICS

Those early revolvers were, surprisingly enough, practically identical to the actions
covered in Colt’s early patent. The actions for those early patents are still in use today in the
Colt Single Action Army or Frontier Model.

SELF LOADING PISTOL

The principle of the self loading pistol was grasped long ago, but without the necessary
combination of a self-contained cartridge, smokeless propellant and metallurgical advances it
was not possible to utilize the principles involved.

It is reported in the Birche’s History of the Royal Society for 1664 that a mechanic had
made a claim of being able to make a pistol which could shoot as fast as presented and stopped
a will.

A self loading pistol is a short barreled firearm designed to fire a single projectile
through a rifled bore for every pressed of the trigger.

R O N A L D V I L L A N U E VA Y U S I Page 2