Forensic Ballistics

The Science
Of Firearms Identification
And Practices
CHAPTER 1

BALLISTICS

The term “ballistics” is defined as the “science of the motion of projectiles;

“Science” refers to the systematized body of knowledge;

“Motion” refers to movement or mobility; and

“Projectile” refers to metallic or non-metallic objects propelled from firearms.

BALLISTICS – is a science in itself because it evolved from systematic knowledge,

research and development, training, experience and education of those
who pioneered in this field.
Specifically, the term “ballistics” refers to the “science of firearms identification
which involves scientific examination of ballistics exhibits – fired bullets, fired shells,
firearms, and allied matters – used in crimes.
Origin

The term “ballistics” itself was derived from the Greek word “ballo” or “ballein” which
literally means “to throw”.

Its root was derived from the Roman war machine called “ballista” – a gigantic bow or
catapult which was used to hurl missiles or large objects such as stones at a particular
distance to deter animals (games) or enemy forces.

The meaning of the term, however, has greatly broadened since the development of
ballistics.

“Ballistics” is frequently used synonymously in the press and in police parlance to

“firearms investigation and identification.
 The term “Forensic” as applied to ballistics, or to any other subject, suggests a

relationship to courts of justice and legal proceedings, and the term was derived from

the Latin word “forum” meaning a marketplace where people gather for “public

disputation” or “public discussion”.

Thus, the title “Forensic ballistics” and “Firearms Identification” have come to

mean one and the same things in the minds of the public, and they can be used

interchangeably.
BRANCHES

The science of ballistics and firearms identification is divided into the following
branches: Interior Ballistics, Exterior Ballistics, Terminal Ballistics, and Forensic
Ballistics./

A. Interior ballistics – refers to the properties and attributes to then projectiles

(bullet) while still inside the gun. This extends from the
“breech” to the “muzzle” of the gun. It involves all reactions that
take place while the bullet is still in the gun. These include
the following:

1. Firing pin hitting the primer

2. Ignition of the priming mixture
3. Combustion of the gunpowder
4. Expansion of the heated gas
5. Pressure developed
6. Energy generated
7. Recoil of the gun
8. Velocity of the bullet in the barrel
9. Engravings of the cylindrical surface of the bullet
B. Exterior Ballistics – refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet after it
has left the gun muzzle.

This branch involves the following:

1. Muzzle blast – the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun due to the
sudden escape of the expanding gas coming in contact with the
air in the surrounding atmosphere at the point.
2. Muzzle energy – energy generated at the point.
3. Trajectory – the actual curved path of the bullet during its flight from the gun
muzzle to the target.
4. Range – the straight distance between muzzle and target.

a. Accurate (effective) range – the distance within which the shooter has
control of his shots, meaning he can place his
shots at the desired spots.

b. Maximum range – the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled

from a firearm.
5. Velocity – rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.
 6. Air resistance – resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight.

7. Pull of gravity – downward reaction of the bullet toward the earth center
due to its weight.

8. Penetration – depth of entry on target.

C. Terminal ballistics – refers to the effects of the impact of the projectile on the
target. This involves the following:

1. Terminal accuracy – size of the bullet grouping on the target.

2. Terminal energy – energy of the projectile when it strikes the target.

3. Terminal velocity – speed of the bullet upon striking the target.

4. Terminal penetration – depth of energy of the bullet in the target.

D. Forensic ballistics – refers to the investigation and identification of firearms
by means ammunition fired through them. This is the real
branch of the science which the police use as their guide
in field investigations. This includes the following:

1. Field investigation – this is conducted by the first officers on the

case in the field when they investigate a case or
cases wherein firearms have been used. This is
a routine job of the investigating officers,
preservation, and transmittal of ballistics
exhibits like fired bullets, fired shell, firearms,
and allied matters.

2. Technical examinations of the ballistics exhibits – this is the job

performed by the firearms examiners in the
laboratory. It involves marking of the
evidence firearms, test firing of evidence
firearms to obtain test bullets and test shells
for comparative purposes,
photomicrography under the bullet
comparison microscope, preparation
of comparative charts, and the making of
reports on the findings and observation of the
firearms examiner.
3. Legal proceedings (court trials) wherein the Ballistics Report of the
Firearms Examiner and the Ballistics Exhibit –
fired bullets, fired shells, firearm or firearms, and
allied exhibits are presented during the trials of
the case in a court of justice.
 It is of importance for the students of the firearms investigation and
identification to be well informed on ammunitions. In our discussion of ammunition,
we shall limit ourselves to metallic cartridges and modern shotgun shells since
these are the types which will greatly be encountered in most cases under
investigation. Most criminals prefer to use revolvers and pistols in their crimes
because these type of firearms are easy to hide or conceal before, during and
after the commission of their crimes. Another reason why they generally use these
two types of firearms is that ammunition for these weapons are easy to obtain.
Ammunition for various types of firearms is spoken of in several different
terms. Originally, the word “ammunition” means any unfired assembly of cartridge
case, powder, primer, and projectile which may used in a firearm. But today the
word is generally used when referring to a “supply of assembled cartridges” in
bulk as in boxes or lots. It also often used to refer to the supply a person may be
carrying in his pockets. The term “round” refers to a single cartridge.
 In ammunition and firearms parlance, shotgun cartridges are commonly referred to as a
“shell” or “shotshell”, while rifle ammunition is spoken of as “metallic” or “cartridges”.
When an investigator uses the term “cartridge” he invariably refers to some revolver, pistol,
or rifle cartridges, while in speaking of any shotgun ammunition he will use the term “shell”
or “shotshell” as above mentioned. The layman uses the above mentioned terms
indiscriminately, although as a general rule he speaks of “cartridges” when referring to a
pistol, revolver, or rifle ammunitions, and “shells” when referring to shotgun. But a “fired” or
“empty cartridge” is also referred to as a “shell” even though “fired cartridge case” is strictly
the correct designation.
Among the uninformed the word “bullet” is most misused, as it is commonly used to
apply to any sort of an unfired cartridge. Actually, the bullet is only that solid portion of the
cartridge which leaves the muzzle of the gun, and which does the “striking” or the “killing”.
The word can really or properly be used only in connection with pistol, revolver, or rifle
ammunition, but other common designations for the bullet are “projectile”, “ball”. The latter
is the relic of old muzzle- loading days when all rifle projectiles were round lead balls.
 Although these are available in special types, various patented bullets for use
in modern shotguns, the word “bullet” is never correct in connection with shotgun
ammunition as generally manufactured. The group of small, round, lead
projectiles, which leave the muzzle of a fired shotgun is properly termed as
“pellets” or “shots”. The entire charge when moving through the air, can be
properly referred to as the “pattern”, strictly speaking the pattern is the registered
relative “distribution” of the entire load upon the target.

As we have mentioned before, there are many ways of classifying

ammunitions used in various types of firearms. One such classification is
according to the location of the primer such as the (1) pin fire cartridge (2) rim fire
and (3) fire cartridge.
Pin Fire Cartridge

The first cartridge of a self exploding type which enjoyed any real general use
was the type termed the “pin fire” commonly attributed to Monsieur Le Facheux of
Paris, about the year 1836. Pin fire cartridges were made for all types of small arms
and in two or three types of case combination.
One common type was similar in appearance to a modern shotgun shell in that
it had a head of brass and a tube of rolled paper or cardboard. Inside the head of
the cartridge, and fixed there by a wad or meal cup, was a percussion with a pin
resting on its denoting compound.
The pin protruded out through the side of the head proof the case. Its
protruding end is hit by a hammer coming down vertically onto the side of the
cartridge instead of penetrating horizontally from its rear. This type of cartridge is
now obsolete.
Rim Fire Cartridge

The most simple form of modern cartridges is the “rim fire cartridge”. The name “rim
fire” is derived from the fact that this type of cartridge can be fired only if the cartridge is
struck by the hammer or firing pin on the rim of the case. In this type of cartridge the “priming
mixture” is contained or located in a cavity inside and around the rim of the cartridge which is
its very sensitive area. If a rim fire cartridge is stuck anywhere in the sensitive area, the
priming substance is crushed between the front and rear of the case rim. This detonates or
ignites the priming mixture, causing a flash of flame. The frame from this detonation or ignition
ignites the propellant or the gunpowder which is quickly converted into a gas under high
pressure. Since the heated gas instantly seeks more room than that offered by the inside of
the cartridge case, it exerts pressure on the entire inside of the case as well as on the base of
the bullet. The base of the case is supported by the breechblock of the gun, and the sides of
the case are supported by the walls of the chamber, so the gas takes the easiest path by
pushing the bullet out of the case and out through the barrel.
 Rim fire cartridges may be identified by the smooth base of the cartridge case,
which may or may not have a headstamp imprinted on it. These headstamps are
merely letters or designs placed on the base of the cases by the manufacturer to
identify his products. This rim fire cartridge are generally found in caliber .22s. They
can be fired in caliber .22 pistols, caliber .22 revolvers, and caliber .22 rifles. Rim fire
cartridges can be further classified as :

Caliber .22 Short- short bullet, short shell

Caliber .22 Long- short bullet, long shell
Caliber 22 L.R.- long bullet, long shell
Caliber .22 Magnum- extra long bullet, extra long shell

Center Fire Cartridges

In modern center firing pin ammunition the firing pin blow on the cartridge, in the
center of the primer, crushes the priming mixture between the primer cup primer cup
and anvil of the primer. The resulting flame passes through the “vent” or “flash hole”
and this ignites the powder charge or the propellant. On this center fire cartridges,
the priming mixture is contained in the primer cup which is located on the center area
of the base of the cartridge.
 The firing pin cup must strike the center area of the primer, because a blow to
one side or the other will not sometimes crush the priming mixture between the
primer cup and the anvil.
In this type of ammunition headstamps are frequently used and these consists
of the designs or letters imprinted on the shell-head, that area around the primer.
The designs or letters are placed there to identify the manufacturer or maker of the
ammunition. Sometimes, as in caliber .45 ammunition, the last two digits of the
year of the manufacturer is indicated. Most of this headstamps are found in the
shellhead of the base of the ammunitions are of great value to the field
investigators as well as to the firearms examiner in the laboratory, because these
headstamps assist them in narrowing down their search for a particular crime gun.
Indeed, these headstamps are of great value in the field of firearms investigation
and identification.
Shotgun Shell
A shotgun is a single unit of ammunition for shotguns. It consists of a
tubular case, either paper, plastic, or metal, with a metallic base,
containing the primer, powder or propellant, wads, and shots or pellets.

Shotgun shell is fundamentally different from those employed in

pistols, revolvers, and rifles. It is usually larger; it to function from smooth
bores capable of withstanding far less pressure. It is necessary in the
shotgun shells to have a fast burning powder that will not give too high an
initial pressure.

Shotgun shells may have all metal case, but generally they are made
with a paper or cardboard tube and a mental base. Shotgun shells are
equally of the center-fire type. When a shotgun shell is fired, the powder
charge is instantaneously converted into a high pressure gas, in the same
manner as a centerfire cartridge. Instead of bullet being forced through the
gun barrel, however, the gas pressure forces the over-powder wad and all
the components ahead of it out of the shell by straightening out the crimp
holding the closing wad in place.
 The over-powder wad and the filler wards serve to seal the gun
bore and prevent the gas pressure from leaking around the shot charge. As
the various wads and shot charge leave the barrel, the wards drop to the
ground a short distance from the muzzle, Although considerable variations
will be found in this distance, depending not only in the equipment being
used but also on the conditions under which the shot was fired.
In some investigations, these wads are prime importance to the
investigator because at times, these wads are recovered at the scene,
sometimes also right inside the body of the victim. Unburned gun powder
can sometimes be recovered. All these should, of course, be preserved
since wads and powder, together with the pellets, serve as bases to identify
at least the maker of the ammunition, and the type and gauge of the
shotgun used.
CHAPTER IV
BU L L ETS
I. DEFINITION
A Bullet is a metallic or non metallic, cylindrical projectile propelled from a
firearm by means of the expansive force of gases coming from burning gunpowder.
Under this definition the term may also include projectiles propelled from
shotguns, although strictly speaking these projectiles designed to be propelled from
shotguns are termed “shot”, “slug”, or “pellets”. In a layman’s viewpoint a
projectile fired from a firearm is called “slug” although what he actually means is a
“bullet”.
II. ORIGIN
The term “bullet” originated from the French word “boullette”, a small ball. In
common police parlance a bullet may be called “slug” which is colloquial term in
itself. The projectile of most small-arms ammunition primarily means a projectile
from a rifled arm which is cylindrical or cylindro-conoidal in shape as opposed to
a round projectile which Is more commonly called either a ball or a shot.
 However, in government parlance, a cartridge containing a bullet is still called
“ball cartridge”, from the original terminology of the days when all bullets were
balls.

III. MODERN CONCEPT

Bullet in the modern concept or sense has come to mean primarily a projectile
propelled from a rifled firearm which is cylindrical in shape. The core is a slug of an
alloy of lead, antimony, and sometimes tin. Armor-piercing bullets for the small
arms have jackets of similar material to the standard bullet, but have, in addition to
the lead and antimony filler, a core of tungsten chrome steel which continues to
penetrate armor after the jacket and filler have been stripped away by contact with
a resistant surface.
IV. CLASSIFICATION

A. Basically, there are two kinds of bullets, according to mechanical

construction.

1. Lead Bullets- those which are made of lead or alloys of this

metal- lead, tin and antimony- which is slightly harder than pure
lead.
2. Jacketed Bullets- those with a core of lead covered by a
jacket of harder material such as gliding metal, a copper-alloy of
approximately 90%. Some European manufacturers have been known
to use steel as a jacket material from time to time. The primary function
of the “jacket” in a bullet is to “prevent adherence of metal (lead) to the
inside of the gun barrel.” Copper plated steel may be used instead of
gilding metal for the jacket of caliber .45 bullets.
B. Another way of classifying bullets is according to “shape” as shown below:

Round Nose Pointed Nose

Flat Base Boat tailed

Wad type Semi Wad

Square Base Hollow base

Rifle Bullets:

There are many types of targets that can be destroyed by small

missiles or projectiles. In order to secure the maximum effect against
each target, there are many types of bullets or shells. These bullets are
described in details in training manuals on ammunition. There are five
principal types, two or more of which may be combined into one bullet.

1. Ball bullets have soft lead cores inside a jacket and are used
against personnel only.
2. Armor Piercing bullets have hardened steel cores and are fired
against vehicles and other armored targets in general.
3. Tracer bullets contain a compound at the base usually similar to
barium nitrates, which is set on fire when the bullet is projected.
The flash of smoke from this burning permits the flight of the bullet
to be seen.
4. Incendiary bullets contain a mixture, such as phosphorus or other
material, that can be set on fire by impact. They are used against
targets that will readily burn such as aircrafts or gasoline depot.
5. Explosive (fragmentary) bullets - contain a high charge explosive.
Because of their small size, it is difficult to make a fuse that will work
reliably in small arms ammunition. For this reason the use of high
explosive bullets is usually limited to 20-mm and above.
CHAPTER V
CA RT R I DG E CA S E S
I. DEFINITION

A cartridge case is a tubular metallic or non metallic container which

holds together the bullet, gunpowder and the primer.

Another term for “cartridge case” is a “shell”. They can be used

interchangeably. The cartridge case is the portion of the cartridge that is
automatically ejected from the automatic firearm during firing and this
remains at the scene of the crime. This is a firearm evidence that can help
trace a particular firearm from which it was fired.

Cartridge cases of all types are made by machine operation known as

“drawing”. The procedure starts with a ribbon of metal such, as brass,
copper or steel, from which small cups are punched. The cups are then
fed to drawing machines on which a center die pushes the cup through
another die smaller in a diameter than the cupping die. This operation
makes the wall of the cartridge case longer and thinner. The drawing
continues through a number of dies until a cylindrical tube with a closed
end of the proper size results. Machines could forge a bump in the rim
and primer pocket at the closed end and cut in the extracting grooves.
II. FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIDGE CASES

The functions of cartridge cases are basically the same whether it is

fired in revolvers, pistols, rifles, shotguns, or machine guns. These
functions are the following:

1. It serves as means whereby the bullet, gunpowder, and primer are

assembled into a unit.
2. It serves as a waterproof container for the gunpowder.
3. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the
cartridge case are forced against the walls of the chamber by the
pressure. It serves as a “gas seal” at the breech end of the barrel.

III. PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE

4. RIM – the projecting rims of rimmed and semi rimmed cases serve the
purpose of limiting the forward travel of the cartridges into their
chambers and thus also limit the clearance, if any, between the heads
and the supporting surface of the bolt or breechblock.
2. PRIMER POCKET - primer pocket performs triple functions of (a) holding
primers securely in central position, (b) of providing a means to prevent the
escape of gas to the rear of the cartridge, and © providing a solid support for
primer anvils, without which the latter could not be fired.

3. VENTS OR FLASH HOLES - the “vent” or “flash holes” is the hole in the web
or bottom of the primer pocket through which the primer “flash” imparts ignition
to the powder charge. It is the “opening” or “canal” that connects the priming
mixture with the gunpowder.

4. THE HEAD AND BODY- the “head” and “body” constitute the “cork” that plugs
the breech of the barrel against the escape of the gas.

5. NECK - the term “neck” is applied to that part of the cartridge case that is
occupied by the bullet. In cases of bottleneck form, the neck is apparent but in
so-called “straight” cases which have only a slight taper, it is not.

6. CANNELURES - shell cannelures are the serrated grooves that are sometimes
found rolled into the necks and bodies of the cases at the location of the bullet
bases to prevent the bullets from being pushed back or loosened.
7. CRIMP- The “crimp” is that part of the mouth of a case that is turned upon the
bullet. Its function is two-fold: (a) it aids in holding the bullet in place, and (b) it
offers resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck which affects
the burning of the gunpowder.

8. BASE- the bottom of the case which contains the

a) the primer which contains the priming mixture.

b) The shellhead which contains the headstamp, caliber, and year of
manufacturer.

9. SHOULDER- that portion which supports the neck.

10. EXTRACTING GROOVE- the circular groove near base of the case or shell
designed for the automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing.
IV. CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE CASES

Small arms cartridge cases may be classified according to CASE SHAPE

and HEAD FORM.

1. There are 3 general shapes of the cartridge cases.

Tapered
 Most modern center-fire rifle cartridge cases are of bottle-neck type, since
this case form provides the greatest powder capacity commensurate with overall
case length. The tapered case form is vey rare although presently it is now
being used in the so called “Magnum Jet” cartridge, caliber .22 cartridges of this
type manufactured currently were introduced many years ago. All rim-rifle
cartridges and most center-fire revolver cartridges that are now manufactured
have straight cases.
 These are all straight shape cartridges. The rimmed type is generally designed to
be used in revolvers and in carbines. The diameter of the base of the cartridge is very
much bigger than the diameter of the body of the cartridge. These are found in
calibers .30 (carbine), .32, .38, .357.

The semi-rimmed types are designed to be used in automatic weapons like pistols
and submachine guns such as the super .38 and UZI submachine guns, caliber 9mm.
These are the cartridge cases normally found at the crime scene, because they are not
automatically ejected for every firing of the firearm. And these cartridge cases found at
the crime scene are of great value in tracing the very firearm or weapon that fired them.

The rimless type of cartridge cases are those cases wherein the diameter of the
base of the cartridge case is the same as the diameter of the body of the cartridge case
or shell. This type of cartridge cases used in caliber .45 automatic pistols, caliber .45
Thompson Submachine Guns, and the Caliber .45 Grease Gun. These cartridge cases are
also automatically ejected from the firearm after every firing. The cartridge cases or
shell remain at the scene of the crime, and these cartridge cases help very much in
tracing the particular guns from which they were fired.
CHAPTER V
PRIMERS
I. DEFINITION

The primer is that portion of the cartridge which consists of a brass

or gilding metal-cup containing a highly sensitive mixture of chemical
compound, which when struck by the firing pin would detonate or ignite.
Such an action is called “percussion”

Primers are used for igniting the gunpowder or the powder charge.
A blow from the firing pin on the primer cup compresses the priming
mixture or composition between the cup and the anvil, and this causes
the composition to detonate or explode. This detonation or explosion
produces “flame” which passes through the “vent” or “flash hole” in the
cartridge case and this ignites the gunpowder or powder charge or the
propellant.

The priming mixture may be contained in a separate primer cup, as

in the center fire cartridges and shotgun shells, or it may be contained in
the bottom rim of the cartridge as in the rim fire ammunition.
II. ORIGIN

Alexander John Forsythe is credited with being the first one to conceive the idea of
using detonating compounds for igniting powder charges in small arms by “percussion”
and in 1807 he obtained a patent on this idea. Forsythe is the Scotch Presbyterian
Minister bt he was also a chemist, a hunter and a well known authority on firearms. He
spent much time and attention to the development of better means of ignition, and his
first successful priming mixture was one composed of potassium chlorate, charcoal
and sulphur in powered form.

Primers are used for igniting propellant powders and the promptness, adequacy,
and uniformity with which they ignite powder charges play a vital role or part in the
performance of the ammunition. It is not enough just to have primers explode when
they are struck, they must all explode alike.
III. PARTS OF THE PRIMER (Center fire Cartridge)

In a typical center fire cartridges, there are four parts- the primer cup, the priming
mixture, the anvil and the disc.

Primer Cup
-this is the container of the priming
mixture. Primer cups are made of the
brass, gilding metal, or copper, depending
upon the kind.
Priming Mixture - the highly sensitive chemical mixture contained in the primer
cup. This priming chemical itself varies in composition depending upon the
manufacturer.

Anvil - The portion of the primer against which the priming mixture is crushed by
a blow from the firing pin. Primer anvils must be hard, rigid, and firmly supported
in order to provide the resistance necessary to firing the priming mixture.
4. DISC – piece of small paper or disk of tin foil which is pressed over the
priming mixture. The purpose of this disc of tin foil is twofold:
a. To help hold the priming mixture in place and
b. To exclude moisture.

IV. COMPOSITION OF THE PRIMING MIXTURE

The priming chemical compound itself varies in composition, although the

investigation of this is usually beyond the realm of interest to the firearms
examiner or police investigator. Priming compounds are divided into two
classes, corrosive and non corrosive. One of the chemicals in corrosive primers
is potassium chlorate which, in ignition, produces potassium chloride.
Potassium chloride draws moisture from the air, and this moisture speeds the
rusting and corrosion in gun barrels. Advances in “primer” chemistry over the
years produced new composition in which the potassium chlorate has been
eliminated by the substitution of other chemicals. These newer primer is of the
non corrosive type have practically replaced the corrosive type.
 Every manufacturer has its own formulate but the following mixture may
be taken as a “typical” of the mercuric primers of twenty or twenty five years
ago:

Potassium Chlorate ( initiator and fuel) ……………………………….45%

Antimony Sulphide (element and fuel)…………………………………23%
Fulminate of Mercury (eliminator)……………………………… ..... ....32%

Basically, the above are the “ingredients : of a typical mercuric priming

mixture. In such mixture, the fulminate of the mercury is the initiator, the
potassium chlorate acts both as an initiator and a fuel, and the antimony
sulphide is both the frictional element and a fuel. The product of combustion of
this mixture would be “gaseous”.

When the World war I came, the standard mixture used by Frankford
Arsenal and known as FH-42, had the following composition”

Sulphur…………………………………………………………………..21.97%
Potassium Chlorate……………………………..........………............47.20%
Antimony Sulphide………………...……………………………......…30.83%
 During the later part of the World War I. In may 1917, troubles began
with misfires in the Frankford Arsenal Service Ammunition and so the
Ordnance Department directed Frankford Arsenal to adopt and use the
Winchester Repeating Arms Company’s primer, the 35-NF which was then
giving satisfactory results. This priming mixture had the following
composition:

Potassium Chlorate …………………………………………………….53%

Antimony Sulphide ……………………………………………………..17%
Lead Sulpho-cyanide………………………...…………………………25%
Trinitro- toluo (T.N.T.) …………………………… …………………….5%

At this time also, a typical rim fire primer used in the .22 caliber
ammunition had the following composition as obtained by chemical
analysis in the Frankford Arsenal Laboratories. This was from the United
states Cartridge Company’s “N.R.A.” .22 caliber Outdoor type cartridge:
Potassium Chlorate …………………………………………………..41.43%
Antimony Sulphide………………………………………… …………..9.53%
Copper Sulfo-cyanide……………………………………….………….4.70%
Ground Glass……………………………………………………….....44.23%

The Germans have their own composition which contained barium

nitrate in the place of potassium chlorate, together with some picric acid to
strengthen the mixture. Their formula was as follows:

Fulminate of Mercury …………………………………………………39%

Barium Nitrate …………………………………………………………41%
Antimony Sulphide ……………………………………………………...9%
Picric acid ………………………………………………………………..5%
Ground Glass …………………………………………………………...6%
 It also developed that the Swiss Army had been using a non-
corrosive primer since about 1911. this was based on the formula of a
Swiss inventor name Ziegler. This Swiss formula was:

Fulminate Nitrate ………………………………………………….40%

Barium Nitrate ……………………………………………..………25%
Antimony sulphide …………………………………………...……25%
Barium Carbonate …………………………………………………..6%
Ground Glass ………………………………………………….........4%
CHAPTER VII
GU N P O W D E R
I. DEFINITION

The gunpowder or powder charge in a cartridge is the propellant which,

when ignited by the primer flash, is converted to gas under high pressure and
this propels the bullet or shot charge through the barrel and on to the target.

In more recent times the general term “ gunpowder” has been replaced by
the term “propellant”. “Another term that is being used for it is “powder charge“
All these terms can be used interchangeably because they refer to the same
thing. The weight of the powder charge or propellant in a cartridge is expressed
in grains in English speaking countries and in grams in the countries using
metric system.

An understanding of powders, their burning characteristics and the ways in

which their burning rates may be changed are of primary interest to experts or
firearms examiners as well as the police investigators. Sometimes the
investigators may be guided accordingly in their investigation by knowing their
answer to some problems pertaining to gunpowder. For example, the police may
want to know whether or not a “crime gun” was recently fired, and this through
the help of the chemists or by chemical analysis of the by-products of
combustion can be ascertained to a certain degree.
II. CLASSIFICATION and COMPOSITION

Generally there are two types of powder used in small arms. There are the (1)
black powder (2) smokeless powder.

1. Black Powder- although black powder features less importantly, it is still

utilized by some manufacturers especially Europeans. In recent times black
powder has been almost completely superseded by smokeless powder,
and it is seldom used as a propellant in modern cartridges. The standard
ingredients of “black powder” are potassium nitrate, sulphur and charcoal,
although their proportions may vary somewhat as follows:

Potassium nitrate ……………………………………………….75%

Sulphur ……………………………………………..……………10%
Charcoal ………………………………………...……………….15%

Black powder relies for its explosive properties on “three qualities” which are
typical of all explosives:
 Black powder relies for its explosive properties on “three qualities”
which are typical of all explosives:

First, when ignited it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air
and this burning is rapid.
Second, in burning, it gives off a large amount of gas.
Third, a considerable amount of heat is also evolved.

Black powder is one of the most dangerous explosives to handle

and store, because of the ease with which it can be ignited. It is very
easily ignited by heat, friction, flame or spark. It is subject to rapid
deterioration on absorption of moisture, but if kept dry it retains its
explosive properties indefinitely.
2. Smokeless Powder-

The term “smokeless powder” is a misnomer for they are neither powder nor
are they smokeless, the later term being applied to them only because they do not
give off huge cloud of white smoke like the black powder. This is the type of powder
commonly used now in modern small arms ammunition. It is the most powerful of
the propellants. All propellant in current use have a nitro- cellulose base and are
commonly known as smokeless powder. Various organic or inorganic substances
are added to the nitrocellulose base during manufacture to give improved qualities
for special purposes.

The two main classes of smokeless powder are the (1) Single base Propellant
or nitrocellulose and (2) Double-base propellant. The single0 base powder contains
only pure nitro glycerine gelatinized with nitrocellulose. Almost all smokeless
powder grains have a perfectly definite shape, such as small squares, discs, flakes,
strips, pellets or perforated cylindrical grains. Double base propellants are those
having nitrocellulose and nitro glycerine as their major ingredients, accompanied by
one or more minor ingredients as an centralite, vaseline phthalate esters, inorganic
salts, etc. The minor ingredients are used for various purposes, such as to insure
stability, reduce flash, or flame temperature, (or both) and improve ignitability.
Double-base propellants are gray green to black in color, and the grains are similar
in size and shape to the single base propellants.
 Almost all smokeless powder grains have a perfectly definite
shape, such as small squares, discs, flakes, strips, pellets, or
perforated cylinders. The powder is made in different shapes to
obtain certain types of burning. The cylindrical grains are made in
various diameter and lengths. Since the powder grains are small, they
ignite more readily and burn more freely than cannon powder. When
moisture is present or abnormal temperatures prevail they are subject
to more rapid deterioration than the larger grains.
 CHAPTERVIII
ARMS MANUFACTURING PROCESSES RELATED TO
FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
 It is very important that a ballistics technician or firearms examiner
be sufficiently familiar with the various steps in the manufacture of a
firearm in order that he will be able to explain the source or cause of the
different markings which may be found on a firearm evidence which shall
be the basis of his identification. There should always be a sound reason
for all markings, scratches, or dents visible on firearms evidence and it is
the function of the firearms examiner to determine how and why they were
made, and also to interpret their significance both to himself and to the
court. Most of these markings are transferred on the firearm evidences by
deliberate or accidental operations of the tools during the process of
manufacture.
HOW THE BARREL IS MADE
All barrels, regardless of the type of weapon for which they are
being made, are manufactured from a solid piece of metal. The metal
may be cylindrical in form or it may have an irregular shape with
projecting portions which are later machined into sights, fastenings, or
other parts. The metal from which the barrel is made is carefully
selected for its chemical and metallurgical structure , thus assuring a
high quality product after the various machine operations and heat
treatment are completed.
 The first step on the process is the driling. A special deep-hole dril is used, through the center of
which lubricating oil is forced under pressure. This operation results in a comparatively rough hole of
uniform diameter which extends longitudinally from one end of the barrel to the other. The interior
surface at this stage bears numerous scars and scratches resulting from the irregular cutting of the dril
an d the metal chips which mark the finish.
In barrels intended for rifles the next step consists of reaming the driled hole for its entire
length.
This removes some of the scars and scratches left by the driling operation. The reamer removes metal
from the entire surface because it is slightly larger in diameter than the drill. In shotgun barrels which
are to have some degree of choke , cutter or reamer is used to finish the muzzle end. This completes
the bore operations on a shotgun.
If the barrel is to be rifled, it is done by means of several rifling methods. Some of the rifling
methods used to make the riflings inside a gun barrel are the following:
(1) Hook-Cutter System
(2) Scrape –Cutter System
(3) Broaching-System
 The tools used in these methods are called the cutter , scraper, broach, and button.
After the rifling operation is completed, the barrel is lapped. This is the polishing operation
in which a lead plug closely fitting the inside of the barrel is drawn back and forth on a
rod carrying wit h it a polishing compound. This operation polishes both the land and
groove areas of the barrel and removes many of the larger imperfections resulting from
the running from one end to the other. If it is a rifled barrel, the inside has spiral grooves
on the inner surface extending for its complete length.
The important fact for the firearms technician or examiner to remember is
that no matter how many polishing and finishing operations are used by a gun-maker,
all of the scars and imperfections on the inside of a barrel are not removed. As the rifling
cutter wears, small imperfections on its surface are transmitted to the surface of the barrel.
And in similar manner the accumulation of metal chips removed by the cutter wil scratch
the barrel as it passes along.
Even the button-system imperfections wil remain after the lapping and finishing operations
are completed.
 These microscopic scars remaining in the lands and the grooves will make a series of striations
on every bullet which passes through the barrel. It is the comparison of these striations on fired
bullets
which is the basis of bullet identification.
BREECH-FACE MANUFACTURE

Another face of firearms manufacture which is of great importance to the firearms identi-
fication field is the finishing operations on the breechface of the weapon.This is that portion of the
firearm against which the cartridge case and the primer are forced backwards when a cartridge
is fired in the chamber.As this occurs, the primer and the base of the cartridge case or shell, will be
imprinted with the tool markings on the breech face of the gun.This happens because the base
of
the cartridge case is softer than the breech face of the firearm, and it naturally follows that when a
soft surface comes in contact with a harder surface under tremendous pressure, itis the softer
surface that is engraved or imprinted with the tool marks from the harder surface.
 FORENSIC FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
In our present era, we are so materialistic minded that we must have a concrete basis for an
opinion or a fact before we will accept it.What then is the basis for firearms identification? I believe in
answer to this question we have this to say:

1. Firearms identification is actually a refined toolmarks identification.

2.Then natural wear and tear of the tools involved.
3.When a softer surface comes in contact with a harder surface, it is the softer surface that will acquire
or be engraved or marked with impressions scratches from any irregularities on the harder surface.
4.The fact that no two things are absolutely identical or alike.

Taking each separately and beginning with the barrel, we start with barrel blank.A hole,
later called the bore, is first drilled through the blank.The diameter of this hole is near the size of the
desired caliber ofthe gun.The drilling is done by what is referred to as a barrel drill or deep-hole drill.
It has only one cutting edge.This drill is made of the best and hardest tool steel.The barrel steel, on
the other hand, is of the best and hardest steel.This drilling process is a very terrific operation, and
when completed leaves a rough undersize hole.
 To complete the enlarging process, the barrel is then reamed out to a larger diameter.This is done
by several types of reamers---the roughing, finishing and burnishing reamer.We now have a
smooth bore barrel.The cutting edges of the drill and the reamers are irregular since they them-
selves had to be manufactured and sharpened and it is humanly impossible to sharpen these tools
and not leave a few irregular or nicks on their cutting edge.To give a bullet the desired spin, the spiral
grooves are cut lengthwise of the barrel. This is done by one of several methods now available.
When these grooves have been cut to the desired depth, a processknown as lapping is done.This
is a process consisting of a mixture of oil and abrasive; the purpose of which is to eliminate the rough-
ness of the interior of the barrel of the gun; however, it is not possible to completely rid the interior of
the barrel of all of the tool markings.As a result, the interior of the barrel is filled with microscopic tool
marking or irregularities.

Comparison of these marking (breech face markings) is the means of identifying whether
or not a particular cartridge case or shell was fired from a particular gun.The finaloperation in the fini-
shing of a breech face of the gun.THESE SCRATCHESOR STRIATIONSVARY FROMGUN.AND
ITCAN BE SAIDTHAT NOTWOGUNSWILL LEAVETHEAME SCRATCHESOR IMPRESSIONS
ONA FIREDCASEOR PRIMER.Similarly to breech face markings, extractors, ejectors and firing pins
often bear characteristic scar or marks resulting from the manufacturing process.These will also
frequently leave their marks or impression on a fired case primer.
 When a cartridge is fired in a firearm, the expansive force of the powder charge
create a tremendous pressure within the chamber of the firearm . The impulsive action
of this rapid expansion drives the cartridge case violently against the breech face of the
weapon , irregularities present in this surface leave identifying impressions upon the receptively-
malleable metallic case, and especially upon the primer. These breech face markings exhibit
characteristic indicative not only of class with respect to resolver types, but also of the products
of specific manufacturers.

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS

Generally , the marks found on “fired bullets” are:

1. Land marks - caused by the lands

2. Groove marks - caused by the grooves
3. Skid marks – due to worn out barrel
4. Stripping marks – due to bullet “jumping” the riflings.

Land marks and groove marks together are called “rifling marks”. These are found
on cylindrical or peripheral surface of the fired bullets and these are caused by the riflings
inside the gun barrel. These land marks and groove marks are distinct and clear on the
cylindrical surface of the fired bullets that had passed through a new gun barrel. Skid marks
are generally found on bullets fired from revolver s. These marks are found more or less on
the anterior portions of the fired bullets and caused by the forward movement first of the bullet
form the chamber before it initially rotates as required by the riflings inside the
gun barrel.
Stripping marks are generally found on bullets fired through “loose fit” barrels wherein the
riflings are already badly worn out.

MARKS FOUND ON “FIRED SHELLS”

Generally, the marks found on “fired shells” are the following:

1. Firing pin mark

2. Breech face marks
3. Extractor mark
4. Ejector mark
5. Shearing marks
6. Chamber marks
7. Pivotal marks
8. Magazine lips markings

Most of these marks are found on the base of the base of the fired shells or
cartridge
cases, especially those find from automatic weapons such as the calibre .45 Automatic Pistol,
calibre .45 Thompson Submachine Gun, and the calibre .45 Grease Gun.
Not all these marks can be registered in every firing of the weapon, but a combination of some of
these markings can be utilized by the firearms examiner in order to arrive at a definite determination.
These markings are transferred to the base of thecartridge caseor shell whenever an explosion takes
place in the chamber of firearm. Since the base of the base of the shell is made of softer metal than
the hard tempered steel of which the breech face of the gun ismade, naturally the transfer of tool-
marks takes place from firearm cartridge case. The firing pin marks are generally found on the primer
cup, which is the central area of the base of the cartridge. This is true most especially in center – fire
cartridges, wherein the priming mixture is contained in the primer cup located in the center of the
base. However, in the rim-fire cartridges, the firing pin strikes the cartridge in any portion along the rim
wherein the priming mixture is contained. The breech face markings are found most generally on
the base of the cartridge case. Extractor marks are mostly found on shells fired from pistols, rifles,
shotguns, and machine guns. The extractor marks are found in their extracting grooves.. Ejector
marks are generally found in cartridges fired from “automatic weapons”, and they are located near
the rim also. “Shearing marks”, which are sometimes called “secondary firing pin mark”, are found in
the primer near the firing pin mark. The “magazine lips” markings are found at two points of the rim
of the base of shell and these are caused by the magazine lips during the loading of the cartridges
into the magazine for firing. These marks serve as a good guide for the firearm examiner in determi-
ning more or less the relative position of the cartridge in actual explosion in the chamber of the suspe-
cted firearm submitted for examination. “Chamber marks” are mostly found around the body of th e
fired cartridges case and they are caused by the “irregularities” in the inside walls of the chamber.
 The identification of firearms evidence is predicated on the principle that softer
metals used in the manufacture of bullets and cartridge cases or shells are indelibly
imprinted with the metal patterns of the hard steel surface of the firearms with which
they come in contact. In the manufacture of a rifled arm, lands and grooves are cut into
the interior surface of the barrel for the purpose of twisting the bullet into a spin as it
progresses through the gun barrel. The ballistics significance of this twist on the bullet is
to cause it to hold straight through in its course after it leaves the muzzle of the weapon.
In cutting these lands and grooves, which together are called “ riflings ” , the hard steel
surface of the barrel is left, even after final polishing, with microscopic infections or
irregularities caused by the cutting tools. Subsequent use and wear also contribute to
this pattern of imperfections. The fired bullet is generally cut by the lands as it passes
through the barrel in such a manner that an examination of this bullet surface were
readily indicate the width of the lands and grooves and the direction of and degree of
pitch of the twist. This information in itself frequently permits firearms identification
experts to determine the model of the gun or make of the gun from which the bullet
was fired for the reason that different manufacturers in different models utilized varying
number of lands and grooves of different width, twisting either right or left with varying
degree. But even more important is the fact that these fired bullets bear microscopic
scratches or striations within the land and groove marking resulting from imperfections on
the surface of the interior of the barrel. These imperfections, of course, are accidental and
the pattern formed is unique to any particular gun. It is easy to realize that the soft metal
bullet forced through the tight fitting barrel by the terrific pressure of thousands of pounds
per square inch resulting from the explosion wil be more or less permanently engraved
with the irregular surface of the hard steel of the barrel.
 In actual practice the firearms identification expert fires a number of test shots through
the barrel of the suspected weapon and compares then with questioned missile or bullet for
the purpose of determining whether or not similar microscopic markings are found on both.
Normally a “questioned” bullet is com-pared with two or more “test” or “ standard” bullets
under the bullet comparison microscope. The evidence bullet and the test bullets are
compared in several portions.

The breech face of the firearm when finished must have some filing done to completely
finish it and remove burns. Thus filing leaves file marks on the breech face. With one’s naked
eye it is difficult to see these file marks on the breech face. The breech face may appear a
little bit smooth, but actually when seen and examined under the microscope it will appear to
contain microscopic or minute irregularities or striations on its surface. This part of the gun is
also made of fine hard steel and after the cutting and filing of the same, no effort is made on
the part of the manufacturer to reduce this surface to mirror-like finish for the reason that such is
not necessary for the proper functioning of the weapon.

This microscopically irregular surface therefore serves as a die to permanently stamp the
soft metal surface of the primer or cartridge case as it is forced hard against the breech block
by the terrific power of the explosion. Thus the irregular pattern design of the tool markings
on the hard steel breechface is transferred to the softer brass of the cartridge.
 Likewise the machine or tool markings left during the process of manufacture of the
extractor, the ejector and the firing pin are impressed on or imparted to a cartridge when
fired in a firearm. As when examining bullets, the firearms examiner or identification expert
fires or discharges a number of test shots in a suspected gun and the n compared the
microscopic imprints on the base of the test shells with the evidence shell in question.

During the manufacture, regardless of the hardness of the stool steel material, the
tools become worn during their passage down to the bore and will leave different
markings at one end of the barrel than from the initial cut made to begin the drilling of the
barrel. These tools must be re - sharpened, giving different set of markings on the cutting
edge, replaced entirely. Likewise, no man can file a piece of work exactly alike twice. For
each of these persons the markings on the breech faces of different weapons will not be
identical, therefore due to this wear, tool markings will be different from one fire arm to
another.

A bullet is either made almost completely of lead or a lead core with a cupro - nickel
envelope or casing (the so - called metal case of jacket bullet ). A primer is made of a
crushable material, and the cartridge case of brass. Each of these metal is much softer than
steel.