Only Ias Psir Day 1 To 50 Synopsis

UPSC 2023
60 Days Daily Free Answer Writing Program for
PSIR synopsis
Day 1 to 50
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60 Days Daily Free Answer Writing Program for PSIR - UPSC 2023
Day 1 synopsis
Topic: - Political theory: meaning and approaches
Q.1 “Political theory is all about politics. It is an overview of what the political order is about. It is a
symbolic representation of what is ‘political’. “ Comment. (10 Marks)
Approach to the answer –

Introduction
• Write a brief introduction of political theory.
Body
• Explain the concept of 'Polity' and 'Political'.
• Explain the two approaches - scientific and normative - to political theory.
Conclusion
• Role and significance of political theory.
Introduction
The term 'theory' stands for systematic

knowledge. Thus 'political theory' denotes a systematic knowledge of political phenomena.
Thus, Political Theory is defined as “a body of thought that seeks to evaluate, explain and predict
political phenomena. As a sub-field of Political Science, the explanation of prediction of political
behaviour.
Body
In political theory , Polity, denotes an organization where rules are

made and decisions are taken for the whole community, and authority is exercised
over each member of the community. And the term 'Political' refers to something that is 'public',
as distinguished from private or something applicable to a limited number of persons.
In its broad sense, Political theory has two main branches: one is political philosophy or normative
theory, with its value, analytic, historical and speculative concerns. The other is empirical theory, with
its efforts to explain, predict, guide, research and organize knowledge through the formulation of
abstract models, and scientifically testable propositions
Defining the scope of political philosophy, Catlin explained: "Our concern here is with the kingdom
of ends or final values. So soon as a man begins to ask, 'What is for the national good?' or 'What
is the good society?', he is asking questions in philosophy." In short, Catlin proceeds to identify the
nature of political theory by pointing to its two important components: political
science and political philosophy. As he has suggested, political science deals with the facts of
political life (i.e. what is the real situation and which laws govern our actual behaviour) while
political philosophy is concerned with values (i.e. what is good for us).
In consonance with the requirements of scientific method political science proceeds by the
following steps:
a) Observation, which relies on sense-experience alone and rules out supernatural or
metaphysical causation (because it is beyond our sense-experience);
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b) Generalization which is based on observation of regularities leading to establishing the relation
and correlation between different factors or variables.
Political Science approach is favoured by the Behaviouralist who insists on studying the actual
behaviour of human beings in a political situation rather than describing salient features of political
institutions and their legal position.
According to Raphael, the fundamental purpose of Political philosophy has been the critical
evaluation of beliefs: "Philosophy differs from science in that science seeks explanation while
philosophy seeks justification". Thus Political philosophy is an attempt to give rational grounds
either for accepting or rejecting the beliefs which we normally take for granted without thinking
of any grounds thereof. It's concerned with the explanation of the concepts, such as the concept of
society, authority, social class, justice, liberty and democracy,
Conclusion
Hence, Political theory , through its two approaches tries to explain the political phenomenon and
establish norms and values that guide political behaviour. Andrew Hacker rightly observed that "Every
political theorist plays a double role. He is part scientist and part philosopher." Political theory is more
than a discipline; it is an intellectual exercise as also an activity. It is needed as a philosophy just as it
is needed as a science.
Q.2) Post-behaviouralism is a project to reform ideological conservatism and abstraction in

behavioural theory. Comment (10 marks)

Introduction
• Define post/neo behaviouralism as a reform movement, the social context around it and its
effort to turn political science from pure to applied science.
Body
• Briefly mention behaviouralism and how it crumbled under the weight of its own
weaknesses (due to its obsessive fixation in scientism it couldn't gauge the reality of protests
and unrest in America)
• Introduce Post behaviouralism, views of various scholars in its defence major being
Easton,and how post-behaviouralism took the centre stage
• Explain Easton’s 7 major traits of post behaviouralism, and also describe what post-
behaviouralism is not.
conclusion
• Conclude by showing how post-behaviouralism tried to harmonise the debate between fact
and value.
• Positive influence of post-behaviouralism on other domains like sociology, psychology, and
further how post-behaviouralism has kept political science relevant.
Introduction:

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Post-behaviouralism / Neo-behaviouralism (pioneered by David Easton) is a reform movement, in
development of political science. Having its root in the intellectual ferment and socio-political
turbulence that marked the American life in the middle and late 1960s, it aspires to convert political
science from a ‘pure science’ to ‘applied science’.
Body:
Political science after the 2nd world war witnessed a major methodological shift in the form of
behaviouralism. Charles Merriam, David Easton were its early proponents criticising historicism and
normativism for lack of any acute empirical inquiry.
However, rooted in reality, American Society, by the end of the 1960s, was faced with several
compelling socio-political issues such as
• civil rights movement,

• revolt of the black against white, racial riots
• feminist movements
• series of assassinations of major American political leaders (including of President John F
Kennedy)
• opposition to US’s involvement in Vietnam War,
• demonstrations in major American university campuses, public places among others
which compelled the younger generation intellectuals on one hand to question the efficacy and
response of the political and administrative systems to these problems while on other hand to raise
questions about the relevance and adequacy of their own work and questioned their civic
responsibility to the community.
Bernard Crick in his book “The American Science of Politics'' (1959) led the charge in attacking the
behavioural approach. He systematically rejected that political science should be empirical, predictive
and value-free. According to him Political behaviour is unique and recurring. And can’t be located in
isolated microevents of empirical findings, rather has to find its place out in the macro events around
it.
Similarly, Eugene J Meehan in his book “The Foundations of Political Analysis” (1971) argued that
values, emotions and biases can never be taken out from social science.
David Easton (ex-behaviouralist) admittedly took note of these criticisms and in his Presidential
Address to the American Political Science Association (1969) heralded ‘The New Revolution in
Political Science’ – which became the holy testament of the post behavioural critics of
behaviouralism.
He lamented that political science as an enterprise has failed to anticipate the crisis that is upon us,
he called out to behavioural political scientists who were taking refuge in their ‘ivory tower’ and busy
perfecting their methodology oblivious to outside reality, that if they fail to evolve, they risk being
reduced to ‘mere technicians for tinkering with society’
This constant reminder of the neglect of crucial and very relevant subjects in behavioural research
could be a trigger point which led to the post-behavioural revolution.
David Easton, who had earlier laid down the “intellectual foundation stone of behavioural
revolution”, now came out with seven major traits of post-behaviouralism and described as the
“credo of relevance” or “a distillation of the maximal image”.
His seven post-behavioural credos:
1. Substance must precede technique –more important to be relevant and meaningful for urgent
social problems than to be sophisticated in tools of investigation. It is better to be vague than
wrong.
2. Emphasis on social change – Unlike behaviouralist ideology of social conservatism tempered by
modest incremental change, Post-behaviouralism aim for social change and reform over social
preservation.

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3. Stress on Reality – In these times of crisis and social conflict we can’t afford to lose touch from
reality and shy away from the brute realities of politics and cocoon into abstraction like
behaviouralism does.
4. Stress on value loaded political science – Rather than value free/neutral research, post
behaviouralist should pursue value loaded research. As Easton said: “Values are an integral part
of our reality, so long as we are humans”
5. Importance of Human Values –Political scientists must protect human values of civilization,
discard their special privileges and entitlements and engage in social criticism whenever need
be.
6. Emphasis on Action oriented research – Political science to be an applied science and not natural
or pure science.
7. Politicisation of the profession – Its equally the role of intellectuals to determine proper goals for
society and make society better, (context – American youth protest in university campuses, under
the influence of humanist writings of Young Marx, civil rights movement etc)
Post behaviouralism didn’t seek a return to either classicism or traditional intuitionism rather a
sincere effort to improve the quality of research by building upon the existing behavioural
foundation. It should be viewed as ‘future oriented’, taking behaviouralism forward, with no intention
to undo the positive gains of behavioural revolution.
Conclusion-
Post behavioural movement ended the fact and value dichotomy. And much to its credit, other sister
domains like sociology and psychology too were positively influenced by post-behavioural credo and
shed their isolated study and embraced interdisciplinary approach to their subjects.
Thus, we can conclude that if traditionalism is thesis and behaviouralism is anti-thesis then post-
behaviouralism is synthesis. It has kept political science relevant and arrested its decline.

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Day 2 synopsis
Topic: - Theories of the state: Liberal, Neo-liberal, Marxist,
Q.1) "Western political systems have also been shaped by liberal ideas and values, so much so that
they are commonly classified as liberal democracies." Analyse the evolution of liberalism in this
regard. (15 Marks, 150 Word)
Introduction
• Liberalism as an ideology.
Body
• Core tenets of Liberalism.
• Impact of liberalism on states of the west.
• Evolution of Liberalism from Classical liberalism to Positive and Neo-liberalism.
Conclusion
• How no state can claim to be truly liberal.
Introduction:
Liberalism as a developed ideology was a product of the breakdown of feudalism (A system of
agrarian based production that is characterized by fixed social hierarchies and a rigid pattern of
obligations) in Europe and the growth of a market or capitalist society was taking place
simultaneously. By and large it came into the 17th century . Liberals challenged the absolute power
of the monarchy. In place of absolutism, they advocated constitutional and later the representative
government. Liberals advocated an industrialized and market economic order ‘free’ from government
interference.
Body:
Liberalism is identified with the concept of liberty, though the notion of liberty keeps on changing.
The moral and ideological stance of liberalism is embodied in a commitment to a distinctive set of
values and beliefs such as: individualism, freedom, reason, justice and toleration.
• Individualism: It is the belief in the supreme importance of the individual over any social group
or collective body. It draws attention to the uniqueness of each human being i.e., individuals are
defined primarily by inner qualities and attributes specific to themselves.
• Freedom: As per definition, freedom is the ability to think or act as one wishes, a capacity that
can
• be associated with the individual, a social group or a nation
• Reason: Since liberalism is very much part of the Enlightenment project and the central theme
was
• the desire to release humankind from its bondage to superstition and ignorance and unleash an
‘age
• of reason’.
• Justice: It denotes a particular kind of moral judgement, in particular one about the distribution
of rewards and punishment. In short, justice is about giving each person what he or she is ‘due’.

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• Toleration: French writer Voltaire held that “I detest what you say but will defend to the death
your right to say it”. Toleration is both an ethical ideal and a social principle
Although guided by these basic tenets, Liberalism has never been a monolithic ideology. The earliest
stream of Liberalism Was Classical Liberalism. Classical liberal ideas developed during the transition
from feudalism to capitalism,
They demanded equality before law and equality of opportunity at par with the king and feudal lords.
Thus , classical liberals called for a limited state. In the beginning of 20th century , Modern liberalism
was born. During this time, working classes grew in numbers and so did their exploitation under
capitalism. They were also becoming conscious of their exploitation. We see the rise of left
movements (old social movements). In such situation, liberalism reform itself to
protect itself. Thus Modern Liberalism proposed a welfare state with developmental role for the
benefit of the disadvantaged and vulnerable.
However, the welfare states of the west became quite expanded states. This gave rise to Neo-
liberalism. Also called as Market Fundamentalists, they treated Market as God and called for rolling
back of the state. For neoliberals, the strategy of development is trickle-down effect. Once growth
will take place it will reach to the lower level. Thus, state should let the invisible hand of market play
its role. In the 1990s, neoliberalism gained hegemonic status and became common sense, expressed
as the TINA factor. The highest point of neo-liberalism was establishments of WTO.
However, since the Global Financial Crisis of 2008, Neo-liberal paradigm has taken a hit. It has resulted
in the revival of Keynesian thought which reversed the previously orthodoxy of market
fundamentalism.
However, despite the contradictions and ups and downs, Liberalism has been the dominant ideology
of modern west. So much so that they're often called as liberal ideas. Liberalism has strengthened
the rights of the people and has put limitations on powers of the state. The guarantee of freedom of
expression, freedom of mobility, independent journalism and strong judiciary has been the defining
feature of liberal democracies.
Conclusion
However, no state can claim to be truly liberal, as even the states of the west that claim to be the
torch bearers of liberalism show many illiberal qualities such as violence against minorities (e.g.,
Blacks), anti-immigration sentiments, rise of populist leaders etc. Thus, liberalism remains an ideal to
be cherished and any state can only try to be as liberal as possible.
Q.2) Explicate the principle of 'Limited State' and 'Positive State' in context of role of state in
distribution of resources. 10M
Introduction
• The importance of the concept of state in political science.
Body
• Classical Liberal approach of 'Limited state'
• Socialist criticism of the limited state.
• Positive liberals' modification of the Limited state into a state with positive role
• Criticism of positive state by Libertarians and Neo Liberal conception of Nightwatchman state.
Conclusion
• How the Positive state has become the most widely accepted principle of state.

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Introduction
As per J.W. Garner state has been the central concept of political theory since its inception. Every
political theorist has devoted some time to understanding and explaining the origin, functions and
limitations of the state as an entity. In the words of R.G. Gettel, ‘political science is the science of the
state’
Body
One of the earliest attempts to develop a comprehensive theory on state was made by Classical
liberals like John Locke and Adam Smith. According to this theory, the state is not a natural institution,
but an artificial device or instrument invented by men for their mutual benefit through a social
contract. It is created with a definite purpose, to serve certain social needs. Therefore, such a state
has only delegated powers and no real powers. The powers of the state are limited to protect
individual's freedom or liberty, to enforce contracts, to guarantee peaceful employment of property
and to provide the external conditions of law and order. Therefore, the state has no role in distribution
of resources. Spencer treated the state as a 'joint-stock protection company for mutual
assurance'. It should not assume any other function, or the people have the right to revolt.
Thus, for the proponents of Limited state, state is a necessary evil. It's evil because it limits liberty and
necessary because man is selfish by nature. However, such a narrow conception of state was criticised
by Socialists who called it a Bourgeois ideology designed to serve the interests of the Capitalist class.
Towards the beginning of the twentieth century, positive liberals like J.S. Mill, Harold J. Laski tended
to accommodate some tenets of socialist and idealist thought, which was responsible for the
emergence of the theory of 'welfare state'. Positive liberalism promoted the idea of welfare state,
as it pleaded for positive role of the state in securing welfare of its citizens, particularly of their
vulnerable sections.
Thus, Positive State conceded the welfarist role of the state in regulating the economic system in the
interests of the poor and deprived sections of society. In the words of Laski , "The State is the
keystone of the social arch. It moulds the form and substance of the myriad human lives with whose
destinies it is charged."
Positive state was an attempt towards democratization of economic power, that is, by ensuring
larger public control over vital instruments of production and distribution, reducing enormous
economic disparities by a progressive system of taxation and establishing a democratic state
increasingly concerned with the welfare of its citizens.
However, during the second half of the twentieth century some thinkers in the libertarian tradition
found the theory of 'welfare state' to be inimical to individual liberty, and sought to revive the
original concern of this tradition with laissez-faire philosophy. Libertarianism upholds full autonomy
and freedom of the individual and call for the Nightwatchman state. They criticised progressive
taxation as forced labour.
Therefore, while Limited state looked at the state as mere arbiter of conflicting claims, Positive state
looks at state as an institution of great significance that takes steps to promote the welfare of the
less privileged. In the present times, such a welfarist state has become the most widely accepted
ideal all across the world. States have taken huge Interest in building the capacity of the
downtrodden, bridging the social divide through welfare policies and redistribution of the wealth to
prevent its concentration in a few hands

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Conclusion
Despite its criticisms , in the contemporary world , the welfare state is the most widely accepted ideal.
Today , State is seen as an agent for moral improvement that is required to intervene in the
distribution of resources to secure the welfare of the citizens. Indian constitution establishes India as
a welfare state with an objective of securing social , economic and political justice for its citizens. The
ideals of Directive Principles of State Policy in part IV of the constitution provide Positive role to the
state rather than reduce it to a Limited Nightwatchman role.

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Day 3 synopsis
Topic: - Theories of the state: Pluralist, Post-colonial and feminist.
Q.1) Comment on Feminist Theory of State. (10 marks, 150 words)

Introduction
• Mention the significance of concept of state and the existence of different perspectives
Body
• 2 main views:
• State is a key actor and helps to improve conditions of women
• State is patriarchal and no justice can be expected.
• Substantiate on these by looking at 2 ideas: Power and regulation.
Conclusion
• While feminism is largely a social theory, it does contain views of the State but requires deeper
analysis.
Introduction
Garner notes that political science begins and ends with the State. Several thinkers and schools of
thought have developed ideas about nature and purpose of the State according to their point of views.
MacKinnon notes that there is no ‘feminist theory on state’. However, views of feminists on the State
may be regarded as the feminist perspective on the State.
Body
Feminist perspective or theory of state includes within it a wide range of perspectives and has
engendered different attitudes towards state power. Feminist perspective can be understood in two
aspects: (a) State as an instrument of power and (b) State as an instrument of regulation of public
sphere.
State: Instrument of Power

• Radical feminists believe that the power of the State is a reflection of the patriarchal nature
of society. In her book “Towards the Feminist Theory of State”, Catherine MacKinnon notes,
“When I look at the State, the State appears male to me”.
• Radical feminists note that as long as State structure remains patriarchal, one cannot expect
the State to ensure equal status to women. MacKinnon’s study on American institutions and
laws confirm this view.
• Social feminists have similar views as they view the State as a ‘mechanism for male social
control’ and note that there is convergence between the State and patriarchal forces.
• Zillah Eisensstein in her work “Radical Future of Liberal Feminism” has argued that liberal
state may represent itself as providing equal access or opportunity. However, such a state is
not bothered to ascertain to what extent power is shared by women. Male power is
embedded in different branches of the State apparatus and policies.
• And this exclusion of women from state power has wide implications. For example, women
being victims of warfare, unfavourable laws, environmental degradation or increased military
tensions among nations.
State: Instrument of Regulation of Public Sphere

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• Liberal feminists subscribe to the belief of state’s neutrality. They view the State as being
capable of playing a role in promoting equality or improving conditions of women. This is
evident from extension of voting rights or welfare benefits among others.
• State is identified as a key actor in meeting demands of women such as protection from
violence, reproductive rights, change in family law among others. However, Susan Moller
Okin in her book “Gender, Justice and Family” has pointed out that while State intervention
is desirable, yet so far it has not been beneficial.
• In most States, women’s lives are less touched by state regulation. To secure justice for
women, the sphere of personal relations must be regulated. In many countries, there are no
laws to regulate domestic violence, reproductive rights, marital rape among others. This idea
is expressed in the words “the personal is political”. According to MacKinnon, if anything,
regulation by the State has led to subordination of women.
• In regards to regulation by the State, Iris Marion Young calls for ‘differentiated citizenship’.
She notes that to equalise differences, the State must first differentiate equality and favours
affirmative action in favour of women.
Conclusion
While MacKinnon notes that while there is no ‘feminist theory of state’ as such because feminism is
a social theory. Yet feminists have expressed their views on the State. But a deeper or sophisticated
understanding of nature of the State is required. Liberal feminists believe in state’s neutrality and its
role in achieving gender equality but to radical feminists, state is an instrument of power. Thus,
feminist perspective of state enrich the idea of the state.
Q.2) “There exist a structural mismatch between the political and social evolution in post-colonial
societies.” Analyse this with respect to Post-Colonial Theory of State. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
introduction
• Define a post-colonial state.
Body
• Explain the statement.
• Elaborate on the post-colonial theory of state.
Conclusion
• Significance of post-colonial theory of state.
Introduction
Post Colonial states are those states which had colonial pasts and still suffer or continue with colonial
legacy and are still under some form of neo-colonialism, basically the third world countries.
Body
The neo Marxist Scholars of 'dependencies School' call these States as ' peripheries' in which the
ruling class acts as an instrument of bourgeois sitting in metropolitan/core countries. Structuralists
like Hamza Alvi,on the other hand, have called the developing state an 'overdeveloped state' .

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According to Hamza Alvi, there’s a structural mismatch between the ‘political’ and
‘social’ evolution in post colonial states resulting in an overdeveloped state.
Although the political system has taken the form of a modern state, society remains feudal and
traditional. Therefore this mismatch between the political and social development creates many
repercussions.
Unlike western countries where the capitalist state

developed naturally with the rise of indigenous bourgeoisie class, the state in post
colonial societies is an imported institution imposed by colonial masters. Thus, acquire a
relatively autonomous role rather than being the instrument of any one class.
On the contrary, in western countries, there’s a match between the level of

political and economic development. Once the
economic system became modern capitalist, elements of superstructure also
changed accordingly i.e. modern nation state came into existence. According to Hamza Alvi, t
his mismatch exists in third world countries owing to their colonial legacy.
There are various other views on the nature of the post colonial state. The study of developing areas
has been the major preoccupation Of Scholars of modern comparative politics. The nature of the
states in these societies can be discussed by utilising various methods which have been developed in
comparative politics.
For example : if we apply the 'political development' approach these countries can be called '
Prismatic societies' in the words of FW Riggs. Gunnar Myrdal has given the concept of 'soft state' for
India.
In the words of Samuel P Huntington, most of these States have witnessed 'political decay'. In the
words of Riggs,they are all on the ' development trap'
Conclusion
Thus, post colonial theory of state highlights the peculiar features of these states that are otherwise
not observed in the mature Democracies of the western world.

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Day 4 synopsis
Topic: - Justice: Conceptions of justice with special reference to Rawal’s theory of justice and its
communitarian critiques.
Q.1) “Communitarians generally contend that the Rawlsian liberal self is overly individualistic, and
that therefore justice as fairness is insufficient to provide for important shared and communal
values." Critically Examine. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

Introduction
• Introduce with the Communitarian school of thought and the origin of Communitarian thoery of
Justice.
Body
• Explicate the liberal theory of justice given by Rawls.
• Present the Communitarian critique of Rawls' thoery.
• Elaborate on the Communitarian conception of justice.
Conclusion
• Conclude by summarising Communitarian view and establishing that both liberal and
Communitarian have their own merits.
Introduction
Communitarian school of thought developed as a criticism to the universal pretensions of the liberal
school of thought. The main target has been Rawls' theory of justice whose original position is
described as the 'Archimedean point' from where the principles of justice can be derived. Thus , while
Liberalism is universalist , Communitarians call for Particularism.
Body
Rawls in his book 'A Theory of Justice' has given a rational procedure to arrive at the principles of
justice. In his theory of Justice as Fairness , people in their original position are under a veil of
ignorance when they arrive at the lexical order of the principles of justice. Principles thus established
are applicable universally across all societies around the world.
However , Communitarians criticized Rawls. According to communitarians, Rawls' conception of "self"

is wrong. They argue that Rawls looks at man aa an "unencumbered self" which means atomistic man
or an abstract individual ,one who can abstract himself out of his community, culture, religion and a
person who can be completely rational. Michael Sandal in his book, "Liberalism and the limits to the
justice" criticised Rawls conception of self , society and justice.
For Rawls, man is an 'unencumbered self'-whereas for Sandal man is an
'embedded self'. According to Sandal, we could never be in the original position. Real persons are
moral. They are situated in the society. People in real life take decisions based on what they
understand as good. Individual idea of good is shaped by his communities, choices and practices.
Thus , Communitarians argue that Idea of justice can't be understood without

the framework of community. Justice is not the art of integration or homogenisation , Justice is the
art of differentiation. Rawls should have taken more respectable view of the society. Justice is the

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human construction and no singular understanding is possible. Michael Walzer in his book, "Spheres
of Justice" holds that "different goods
ought to be distributed differently.."
According to Will Kymlicka, communitarians believe that the value of community is not sufficiently
recognized in Rawls' theories of justice. Communitarians hold that an individual finds self-fulfilment
by accepting the prevalent social role practices and situations within the community, and not in
isolation from his fellow-beings. Thus 'rights' can't be prior to 'good' and "self" is not prior to
'community'.
Conclusion
In the light of the Communitarian critique Rawls in his book 'Political Liberalism' held that Justice as
fairness may not be universally applicable. But in any democratic political culture , based on the
reasoning , reciprocity and toleration ,people will develop overlapping consensus on principles of
justice despite having their comprehensive doctrines. Thus Communitarians made a strong case for
the need for pluralism and non-liberal conceptions of Justice protecting political theory from the
hegemonic tendencies of the western Philosophers.
Q.2) "Justice as fairness" by Rawls is different from the idea of "Justice as proper placement" of
Aristotle. Examine this view comparing Rawls theory of Justice with that of Aristotle's. (15 Marks,
250 Words)

Introduction
• Define justice and explain it's significance in political theory.
Body
• Talk about various views on Justice focussing on Aristotle and Rawls.
• Outline the differences between these two approaches.
Conclusion
• Conclude with a comment on both the approaches and explaining how Rawls' approach is better
suited to the modern liberal world.
Introduction
Justice is one of the central concepts in political theory. The term ‘justice’ implies the quality of being
‘just’, ‘right’ or ‘reasonable’. It embodies an ideal which is akin to the ‘absolute truth’, yet it is
a dynamic idea because our realization of that ideal and our comprehension of truth is a continuous
process.
Body
Thus , in the words of W.B. Gallie Justice is an 'essentially contested concept'. There have been
various interpretations of the term Justice by different thinkers , prominent among them being the
theories put forward by Aristotle and John Rawls.
Aristotle represents the traditional conservative view on justice. He has given a very practical
approach to the concept of justice in his "Theory of proportionate justice". He describes justice in
two dimensions - Distributive justice which deals with policy making i.e. Legislation - related to the

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distribution of resources and honours etc. and Rectificatory justice is related to Judiciary. As per him
""It is unjust to treat equals unequally and it is equally unjust to treat unequals
equally." Therefore , if we treat less meritorious at par with the more meritorious person, it will be
injustice from the point of the Aristotle. Thus Aristotle looks at Justice as the 'Principle of proper
placement'.
However Aristotle's view of Justice was seen as inadequate in addressing the problems of the modern
world as he was unable to co-relate the ethical dimension of justice to its legal dimension. In this
background John Rawls developed his theory of Justice as Fairness.
Rawls presents the Liberal egalitarian view of Justice in his book 'A Theory of Justice' , based on the
foundation of human dignity. Rawls gives a theory of Justice that is based on Rational procedure and
also is advantageous to the least privileged. In Rawls' theory people under the condition of original
position arrive at two principles of justice in the lexical order. Firstly, equality principle where each
person is to have an equal right to liberty. Secondly, principle of fair equality of opportunities and
difference principle ensures that any departure from the principle of equality brings maximum
benefit to the least advantaged.
Thus , while Aristotle believes Inequality is natural , Rawls arranged inequalities in a way that they
benefit the worst-off section of the society.
Conclusion
In the present modern world it can be seen that Aristotle's distributive justice (rewards in accordance
with one's abilities) is far, far away from the realities of the political world as it's difficult to bring
about a balance between the ever-increasing population and ‘ever-decreasing opportunities of the
state'. On the other hand Rawls has sought to accommodate the requirements of substantive or social
justice along with the Aristotlian conception of proportionate justice thus giving a more wholistic
view of justice.

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Day 5 synopsis
Topic: - Equality: Social, political and economic; relationship between equality and freedom;
Affirmative action.
Q.1) Analyze the effectiveness of affirmative action in bringing a fair equality regime. (10Marks, 150
Words)
Approach to the answer :

Introduction
• Enumerate the concept of fair equality of opportunity and its relationship with AA
Body
• Define Affirmative Action.
• Effectiveness of Affirmative Action with examples.
• Criticisms of affirmative action along with justification.
Conclusion
• Appropriate way forward emphasizing the importance of affirmative action.
Introduction :
Affirmative Action Policy is based on the idea of fair equality of opportunity (FEO). John Rawls
developed the most renowned notion of FEO. FEO is the equality of opportunity which it emphasizes
that fair meritocratic competition requires the absence of arbitrary discrimination such as on the basis
of race, caste, gender. FEO also requires that persons have equal access to the resources necessary to
develop their talents.
Body :
Based on this idea, Affirmative Actions (AA) accords special concession in matters of admission to
educational courses, appointments, promotions, health-care, etc. to those who were deprived of
adequate opportunities due to discriminatory practices of the past for example, discrimination meted
out to Dalits in India and blacks in USA.
In India, Article 16 of the Constitution provides for positive discrimination in favour of backward castes
through the policies of reservation in jobs, education etc.
Several studies indicate that AA led to the increase in educational attainment, employment
opportunities, increase in representation and its spillover effects like better standard of living.
According to the 2011-12 Indian Human Development Survey, among surviving adults born before
independence literacy was 21% among SCs, 17% among STs, 37% among OBCs, which is currently
hovering around 65%. Also, currently 25% of parliamentarians belong to SC and ST. Yogendra Yadav
held that India’s bold experiment with policies of affirmative action in the twentieth century is
among the largest and most successful examples of social justice across the globe.
However, the notion that AA is a vehicle for promoting social justice has not been immune to criticism.
It has given rise to a debate on 'reverse discrimination' i.e. discrimination in favour of the deprived
sections results in discrimination against the general category. Pratap Bhanu Mehta argues that it has
created a new politics of conflict and competition.
Neo-conservatism holds that an attempt to establish literal equality by affirmative action would be
suicidal because it would undermine merit and kill individual initiative which is the foundation of social
stability and progress.
Others argue that such affirmative action is antagonistic to procedural justice. The more vocal
sections of the so-called backward classes might corner all the benefits meant for the deprived

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sections. As a remedy for this situation the Supreme Court of India suggested the concept of Creamy
layer in applying reservation policy.
It is also argued that penalizing the present generation who are not responsible for the injustice meted
out to the older generations would amount to distortion of substantive justice.
Pratap Bhanu Mehta warned that reservation leads to ghettoisation. Preferential treatment as a
policy hurts a person's dignity and self esteem and gives rise to a feeling of inferiority.
Suhas Palishkar held that quotas have become an instrument of political mobilisation rather than a
mechanism to ensure social justice. For example, issues of Maratha reservation, Jat reservation are
being exploited by political parties. Therefore, Yogendra Yadav and Satish Deshpande make a case
for a nuanced, multiple-indicator-based approach to deprivation in the case of OBC as they are a
heterogeneous lot.
Conclusion:
Hence, the question of reverse discrimination demands a very careful solution. The time has come to
put forward a change in affirmative action, not to get rid of it. There is a need to comb out the artificial
inequalities and safeguard equal opportunity for all. Only then, Affirmative action, will prove to be a
vehicle for social transformation.
Q.2) The concepts of equality and rights have evolved hand in hand enriching each other. Examine
(20)
APPROACH
INTRODUCTION
- Give brief elaboration on the importance of equality and rights in political theory.
BODY
- Explain views of different schools within political theory on equality rights.
- Explain how the analysis of rights and equality has enriched both concepts
CONCLUSION
- Give the balanced conclusion explaining the nature of relationship between 2 concepts
The three concepts—rights, liberty and equality—are as old as political theory. The modern idea of
equality is derived from the theory of rights. Rights and equality are core and contested concepts in
political theory. Analysis of the relationship between equality and rights is the chief area of study of
different schools within political theory.
The earliest notion of equality to have had an impact on political thought is what may be called
‘foundational equality’, suggesting that all people are equal by virtue of a shared human essence.
Such an idea arose out of the natural rights theories that dominated political thought in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The American Declaration of Independence, for example,
declares simply that, ‘All men are created equal’, and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and
Citizen states that, ‘Men are born and remain free and equal in rights’.
Classical liberals consider all men as a rational being endowed with the faculty of 'reason' and all are
entitled to equal rights. For Classical liberals, foundational equality was not associated with the idea
of equal opportunities or with the notion of equal wealth and social position. Writers such as John
Locke saw no contradiction in endorsing the idea that ‘all men are created equal’ at the same time as
defending absolute property rights. The idea that all human beings are possessors of equal rights is
the basis of what is usually called ‘formal equality’. In the words of Lord Acton “The passion for
equality made vain the hope for liberty”.

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Unlike classical liberals who give primacy to rights over equality, Marxist have given primacy to
‘equality of outcome’. Marxists have accepted that capitalism has brought about a form of equality in
that the marketplace judges’ people not according to social rank or any other individual peculiarities,
but solely in terms of their market value. This is why Marxists have portrayed legal equality as ‘market’
or ‘bourgeois’ equality, and argued that it operates as little more than a facade, serving to disguise
the reality of exploitation and economic inequality. According to Marx, Bourgeois rights were a vehicle
for political emancipation, but the granting of formal equality under the law was not enough to
overcome the individual’s estrangement from social existence so long as civil society remained
fractured by property rights. Thus Marx has suggested re-appropriation of the power to balance rights
and equality.
Early feminists such as Mary Wollstonecraft and J.S. Mill advanced their arguments in terms of liberal
individualism: gender, in their view, is irrelevant to public life because each ‘person’ is entitled to the
same rights in education, law, politics and so on. Wollstonecroft, for instance, argued that women
should be judged as human beings, ‘regardless of the distinction of sex’. Radical feminists, for their
part, argue that formal equality is inadequate because it applies only to public life and ignores the fact
that patriarchy, ‘rule by the male’, undermines the rights of women.
The late twentieth century has witnessed backlash against the drift towards egalitarianism, welfarism
and state intervention. New Right theories, such as those propounded by Robert Nozick in Anarchy,
State and Utopia (1974), have rejected any presumption in favour of equality. Instead, they have
championed a principle of justice based upon the idea of ‘rights’, ‘entitlements’ or, in some cases,
‘deserts’. They opposed subjugating economic rights for the sake of social justice and so called fair
equality.
Unlike Neo liberals like Nozik and Hayek, who advocate procedural equality in favour of rights, social
liberals try to achieve justice by achieving equilibrium between rights and equality. Social liberals like
Sen, Dworkin, Rawls have tried to balance equality with rights. Amartya Sen’s capability approach,
resource egalitarianism of Dworkin and Theory of Justice of Rawls, try to balance equality, liberty and
rights and achieve substantive justice or redistributive justice. They argue that Substantive equality is
achieved through state intervention in providing rights based education, health and employment and
when people are equal in terms of capability, they can enjoy their rights freely. This idea is more
relevant today because of entrenched inequalities as suggested by successive reports by Oxfam.
From the beginning of political theory, the evolution of the idea of equality bearing on the conception
of rights and vice versa. For example, theory of natural rights justifies procedural, legal and political
equality whereas theory of substantive equality justified socio-economic rights.
Thus, Rights and Equality are intrinsically related to each other. There is no value of rights in the
absence of equality. However, the two concepts are not always complementary. Achieving the perfect
balance between Rights and equality is the chief end of political theorists since Plato. Thus, the
evolution of ideas of equality, rights and relationship between the two has not just enriched these 2
concepts but political philosophy as a whole.

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Day 6 synopsis
Topic: - Rights: Meaning and theories; different kinds of rights; concept of Human Rights
Q.1) “Human rights were not born of men but they were born with them.” Analyse this statement
with respect to the evolution of Human Rights debate. (15 Marks, 250 Words)

Introduction
• Brief introduction of the idea of rights.
Body
• Evolution of the idea of Human Rights.
• Criticisms of the idea
Conclusion
• Importance of the idea of Human Rights.
Introduction
The idea of rights is an essential tool for analyzing the relations between individual
and the state. If the state is the means, and the individual the end, the state cannot have absolute
authority over the individual. If the state claims authority, individuals must claim rights.
Body
Human rights are those rights to which an individual is entitled by virtue of his
status as a human being. While civil, political and social-economic rights are
dependent on an individual's status as a citizen of a particular state, his human
rights are independent of such conditions. Therefore , the scope of human rights is very
wide. They act as benchmarks for the provision and expansion of civil, political and social-
economic rights.
Again, where an individual’s civil, political and socio economic rights are unavailable , he can still
expect to get some preferences under the gamut of human rights. For instance, a foreigner or
refugee or a prisoner or a proclaimed offender may not qualify for ordinary rights, yet he will
have a window of hope in the form of human rights.
Nonetheless ,the concept of Human Rights is a modern invention. The earlier ideas of Rights were
highly influenced by the Negative Rights theory of Liberals like John Locke or the Legal Rights theory
of Positivists like Jeremy Bentham and Thomas Hobbes. However these rights were seen as
inadequate in guaranteeing safety and security of every individual.
The problem of human rights emerged as a matter of serious concern for the
whole world after the Second World War (1939-45). During Nuremberg Trials
(1946) some German Nazis were tried for 'crimes against humanity' apart from war crimes.
This action was based on the assumption that 'human rights' are valid by themselves , these
are not bound by the laws of any nation. Any abrogation of these rights is liable to be regarded as
'crime against humanity'!

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In 1948 the United Nations issued a comprehensive list of human rights, known as
'Universal Declaration of Human Rights'. Its Preamble states
that the recognition of the inherent dignity and equality of all human beings and
their inalienable rights is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world.
However there has been till today , no agreement on what all rights shall be included in the definition
of Human Rights. In the liberal democratic political systems of the West European and North
American states traditionally the primary focus is on civil and political rights. On the other hand the
socialist perspective gives priority to economic and social rights. In fact, economic and social rights
are taken to come before civil and political rights.
There is also a debate on who should be granted these rights and what should be the definition of
Human? Should terrorists or suicide bombers also have human rights? The concept of Human rights
is also seen as an attempt of the west to interfere in the domestic politics of the south. Thus, the
debate is never ending.
Conclusion
Nevertheless , Human Rights are one of the greatest inventions of humankind. And
In the contemporary world the scope of human rights needs to be expanded
further. The problems of protecting life and health in the present-day society
have become more complex. The spread of terrorism, drug-trafficking and
environmental pollution are now threatening the life of people. It is the duty of the
state to save people from that threat. This duty of the state must be included in
the list of human rights.
Q.2) “Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek, in general, to be
himself at his best.” (Laski) Analyse this statement with respect to Plurality Theory of Rights. (15
Marks, 250 Words)

Introduction
• Give a brief introduction of Rights.
Body
• Liberal theory of negative rights.
• Laski's criticism of Negative Rights.
• Laski's theory of Rights.
Conclusion
• Summarise Laski's theory of Rights.
Introduction
The idea of rights serves as an essential instrument for the analysis of the relations between
individuals and the state. As the state claims authority, individuals must claim rights. Laski's work 'A
grammar of Politics' marked a watershed moment in the study of rights.
Body

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One of the earliest conceptions of Rights was put forth by the liberal scholar John Locke. It was called
the theory of Negative Rights.
Negative rights marks the sphere where the state is not allowed to interfere. Broadly speaking,
negative rights indicate the acts of the individuals which shall not be encroached upon by the state.
For example , 'freedom of thought and expression' is included in the category of negative rights.
However , Harold J. Laski believed that such a negative conception of rights was too narrow and
provided no scope for true human development. He held that "Every State is known by the rights that
it maintains. Our method of judging its character lies, above all, in the contribution that it makes to
the substance of man's happiness."
As a liberal thinker, Laski is a great champion of liberty. However at the same time he also turns out
to be a great champion of social justice. Thus he criticized the principles of the capitalist system, but
at the same time , didn't agree with the Soviet-type socialist system either for its suppression of
liberty. He believed that the democratic government can be effective in securing a synthesis between
liberal and socialist principles.
Laski based his theory of rights on moral foundations. Thus, Laski holds that rights are not concessions
granted by the state. On the contrary, they are superior to the state, because they help in
developing a standard to make judgment about the state itself.
Thus , Laski gives a list of Socio-economic Rights which he considers as necessary. In doing so , he tries
to strike a balance between rights and equality. He proposed a list of socio economic rights that must
be secured for individuals to live their lives with dignity. He proposes the following rights :
• Right to work, as an essential means to earn his livelihood.

• Right to insurance against unemployment.
• Humane conditions of work and fair wage
• Right to education.
Laski also criticized the absolute right to property. He held that "Right to property must be
subordinated to the maintenance of common welfare. This right loses its moral justification the
moment it becomes an instrument of power over others."
Conclusion
Laski's theory of rights tries to balance three essential aspects: rights of the individual; interests of the
various groups through which his personality finds ways of expression; and interest of the community
as a whole. Thus ,it can be said that Laski's theory of rights seeks to evolve a synthesis of individual
rights with common welfare.

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Day 7 synopsis
Topic: - Democracy: Classical and contemporary theories; different models of democracy-representative,

participatory and deliberative.
Q.1 "Democracy has a long tradition. But the notions regarding its essence and
grounds of its justification have been revised from time to time." Elucidate. (10 Marks,
150 Words)

Introduction
• Define democracy.
Body
• Different views on democracy.
• Democracy and development.
Conclusion
• Significance of democracy.
Introduction
The Greek word demokratia is a combination of the words demos (meaning the people) and
kratos (meaning rule). Abraham Lincoln's statement 'Democracy is the government of the
people, by the people, and for the people’ seems quite close to the meaning of ‘democracy’.
Body
Despite being the most widely accepted form of government in the whole world, democracy
has been a widely debated topic too.
Crawford Brough Macpherson has given an exhaustive analysis on various models of

democracy. He has critically examined the existing model of democracy and has given his
own model. He has classified the model of democracy as following –
1. Classical Model – classical model describes democracy not as a practice but democracy
as a philosophy. It focuses on Idea of democracy or values of democracy. It focuses on the
substantive aspect of democracy. Classical models do not give the empirical idea of
democracy. We come to know the values of democracy. There are two models in classical
theory –
• Protective model – Scholars – John Locke and Bentham : democracy is required for the
protection of rights. The values of democracy lies in the protection and giving rights and
liberty to people.
• Developmental model – Scholars – JS mill, Laski and T.H.Green : democracy is
necessary for development of a person because democracy is only able to protect or give
rights to people which are the conditions for development.
2. Modern Model – this model is further divided into two types:

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a) Elitist theory – Scholars – Pareto, Robert Michels and C Wright Mills – according to
them, oligarchy is the iron law. Masses never hold power. Power always lies with
elites.Market model of democracy is proposed by Schumpeter. Market model theory
believes that democracy is nothing more than sets of procedures. It is enough to call a
country a democracy, if it has a free and fair electoral system. This theory is also called
minimalist theory. The role of democracy is just to elect the elites. According to them, any
bigger role other than election of elites is neither possible nor desirable
b) Pluralist Theory: Scholars like Robert Dahl gave the concept of polyarchy . According to
him, democracy points towards interest groups politics. If for elite Scholars democracy is
oligarchy, for pluralist scholars democracy is polyarchy. It focus on procedural aspect of
democracy. Polyarchy is a more realistic view of liberal de mocracy. Liberal democracies
are not oligarchies nor they are ideal democracies. Polyarchy is approximate democracy
There have also been debates between democracy and development. LEE KUAN YEW is
the founding father of modern Singapore and a critic of western liberal democracy. He even
didn't believe democracy and the Indian model as a better option for third world countries. He
prefers ‘guided democracy’, ‘semi-authoritarian model’ as more conducive to development.
Priorities of third world countries is ‘development’ which is not possible without economic
growth. Democracy often delays decision making. It is weak in implementing discipline.
According to him, Problems in Indian Democracy are as follows:
Conclusion
However, despite the wide ranging debate on the idea of democracy, the attraction of
democracy is such that every nation claims to be democratic. Even outrightly autocratic
nations like China claim themselves to be Democratic. This shows the worldwide acceptance
of the credentials of the democratic form of government.
Q.2) Analyze the theory of democracy by Macpherson as a radical theory compared to the past
theories. (20 Marks, 250 Words)

INTRODUCTION
• Give brief elaboration on the concept of democracy. Also briefly highlight macpherson’s
theory of democracy
BODY
• Explain criticism of traditional theories of democracy by Macpherson
• Elaborate on Macpherson’s theory of democracy
• Explain how Macpherson’s theory is radical compared to other theories
CONCLUSION
• Give the significance of Macpherson’s theory of democracy
Since the dawn of political thought the question ‘Who should rule?’ has been a recurrent issue of
argument and debate. Perhaps no other political ideal is accorded the unquestioning approval, even
reverence, currently enjoyed by democracy. And yet it is its very popularity that makes democracy a
difficult concept to understand. C. B. Macpherson, a critical liberal and egalitarian thinker, has tried
to combine essential components of procedural and substantive theories in his Theory of democracy.
This has made his theory radical compared to past theories.

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C.B. Macpherson has built his theory of democracy by reverting to Aristotle and J.S. Mill while rejecting
Bentham's utilitarianism and the contemporary elitism of Schumpeter and Dahl. C. B. Macpherson in
his work, ‘The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke’ challenged the canonical
interpretation of seventeenth-century English political theorists by exploring their allegiance to
“possessive individualism,” the idea that man’s normative essence consists in his self-ownership. He
has criticised Hobbes for utter discards for the traditional concepts of society, justice, and natural law
and deduction of political rights from the atomized interest and will of disassociated individual
In his celebrated work Democratic Theory— Essays in Retrieval (1973) Macpherson argued that
Western democratic theory is characterized by two basic principles:
a) maximization of utilities and
b) maximization of powers.
Under the first principle, man is recognized as a consumer of utilities, that is essentially as a bundle of
appetites demanding satisfaction from society. In the second principle he has made distinction
between 2 types of powers. First one is extractive power based on coercion and the second one is
derived from J.S. Mill's revision of orthodox utilitarianism. It is an ethical principle which treats man
as a doer or creator, demanding development and application of his uniquely human capacities.
Based on the above, Macpherson has highlighted the inegalitarian nature of capitalist democracy.
Macpherson has criticized the market society model on the ground that it subjects human talents to
the rules of demand and supply. It stunts the natural capabilities of man and destroys his creative
freedom. Macpherson argued that in capitalist market society, developmental power of the poor
sections is negligible; their extractive power is nil. Their developmental power—which is the key to
one's creative freedom—is continuously eroded in such a society.
According to Macpherson, Essence of freedom lies in fully realizing his creative faculties. Real freedom
can be exercised through developmental power, as distinguished from extractive power.
Developmental power requires proper development of one's human potentialities and their
application to one's self-appointed goals, while extractive power involves making use of others'
potentialities for serving one's own ends.
Further he builds that the essence of democracy lies in emancipation of masses and creative freedom.
In his conception of democracy, developmental power of all is maximum and extracitive powers nil.
He further adds that, different types of systems which undertake to fulfill aspirations of masses, enjoy
support of masses, provide opportunity for empowerment of masses qualify as democracy
irrespective of structures and processes adopted. Thus, liberal democracies with universal suffrage,
competitive party system and civil liberties can't claim monopoly over democracy.
To achieve maximum creative freedom and equality for all, Macpherson supports the welfare model
of democracy. In his words, "It is only in the welfare-state variety of capitalism that there is a certain
amount of checking of economic power by the political power." He further advocates combining a
system of social ownership with institutions of liberal democracy in order to achieve maximum
developmental power and creative power for all. According to David Miller, Macpherson aims at
"reconstruction of the foundations of democratic theory employing an alternative model of man and
pointing toward a socialist economy with the freedoms of the liberal tradition."
Macphersons theory is based on a moralist view and humanist vision aimed at emancipating humans
from the competitive social order of capitalism and ushering in a new society which will promote
creative freedom. According to Alkis Kontos, Macpherson's aim is to "humanize individualism" by
extricating it "from dehumanizing .., capitalism and the possessive passions of the market society."
Thus, his theory of substantive democracy is radically different from past formal and procedural
theories of democracy. However, we can see similarities between Macpherson’s developmental
power and capability approach of Amartya sen.

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Day 8 synopsis
Topic: - Concept of power: hegemony, ideology and legitimacy.
Q.1) "The proper scope of political science is not the study of the state or of any other specific
institutional complex, but the investigation of all associations insofar as they can be shown to
exemplify the problem of power." (Watkins) Elucidate. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Introduce with the concept of power and it's centrality in the discipline of political science.
Body
• Elaborate on the concept of power.
• Different views on power.
Conclusion
• Conclude with how the realm of political science has expanded and though power remains
a vital concept, various other ideas have gained importance.
Introduction:
Power is the central concept of politics in the realm of Political science like money in the realm of
economics. Its centrality can be gauged from the fact that Political science is sometimes referred to
as 'Power studies'. The concept of power is the key to understand and analyse politics, political
institutions and political movements of the systemic process, both in the national and international
arena. It is the centre of political theory.
Body:
Thus, while the state, civil society, community and all other forms of associations figure in the political
studies , the discipline revolves around the concept of power. The exponents of the 'power' view of
Politics focus on the study of 'the acquisition, maintenance and loss of power'. H. Lasswell and A.
Kaplan have defined political science as 'the study of the shaping and sharing of power'.
However, like any other concepts in politics, power is also a contested concept. Power is normally
understood as the possession of control, authority, or influence over others, a relationship in which
an individual or a group is able to exert influence over the minds and actions of others. Robert Dahl
defines power as a kind of influence exercised 'when compliance is attained by creating the prospect
of severe sanctions for non-compliance'.
Classical Liberals defined power as belonging with the people. As per them people created the state
in the state of freedom. The state enjoys only delegated powers. People have right to change the
government in a constitutional manner. People have fundamental rights which limit the authority of
the state. On the other hand Positive Liberals defined power as the quality of state helps in the
capacity building. It removes the hindrances and makes us free. MacIver gives the concept of Service
state when he says that state
commands because it serves.
Marxists define power as a Class phenomenon. Thus , the class that controls the economic base of
the society enjoys all the power. For Marxists , state is not the legitimate power as it's an instrument
of the bourgeoise. However , Marxists view of power is criticized as monocausal and simplistic.

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Michel Foucoult gives an unconventional view of power. He defines power as a sociological
phenomenon running throughout the society as a network of capillaries. Hannah Arendt has given
the phenomenological view of power. She defines power as a characteristic of the human collective
exercised when people act in concert with each other in the public sphere. Thus she gives republican
view of power.
Antonio Gramsci gave the concept of hegemony. Hegemony is controlling the mind or the thought-
control process of others or simply put it as the ideological domination or it is the power as
domination as a whole. Use of force is resorted to only when the instruments of consent fail to work.
Thus, hegemony is a specific form in which bourgeoisie class is exercising power by generating the
consent and hegemony is created by the institutions of civil society. Max Weber has given the concept
of Authority which is Power that is seen as Legitimate. Thus , state exercises power because it has
the legitimacy for it
Conclusion
Therefore it can be seen that , power has been the central concept of political science , and it has been
interpreted differently by different thinkers. Although in present times various other concepts like
Justice , Equality , Rights have gained importance in the domain of political science challenging the
hegemony of power. Yet , Power remains a vital concern for modern political Philosophers as much
as it was for the likes of Plato and Aristotle..
Q.2) "Politics refers to the distribution and exercise of power within a society, and polity refers to
the political institution through which power is distributed and exercised." Analyse this statement
with the context of debate between Power, Authority and Legitimacy. (20 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Give a brief description of Politics and Polity and the difference between them.
Body
• Explicate how Power is central to the ideas of Polity or Politics.
• Elaborate on the concept of Power and it's various interpretations.
• The idea of Authority and how it is different from Power.
• Elaborate on the idea of Legitimacy.
• Criticism of the idea of Legitimacy.
Conclusion
• Legitimation crisis and how to prevent it.
Introduction
Polity is a discernible political identity that consists of any group of people who possess a collective
identity. This group will be under the authority of an advanced institutionalized social relations. Polity
can be manifested into forms such as state, nation, empire, political organizations or any other
identifiable resource-gathering formation. The word "Politics" is derived from the Greek word polis,
which means "city. “Politics refers to the processes and activities associated with government. It also
means anything associated with people who seek to govern or are currently serving in the
government.
Body

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However one thing common to both , Polity and Politics is the phenomenon of Power. In any society,
decisions must be made regarding the allocation of resources and other matters. Polity and Politics
are the methods of decision making. But who makes the decision and for whose benefit , this is solely
defined by who enjoys the power to make decisions. Its importance can gauged from the fact that
it's often said that "All politics is about power."
Robert Dahl defines power as a kind of influence , exercised 'when compliance is attained by creating
the prospect of severe sanctions for non-compliance. However , Power in its crude form is
unsustainable. Power, to be effective and stable, often takes the character of 'authority' which also
comprehends legitimacy; that is the capacity to secure willing obedience. It is authority which ensures
social acceptance and effective implementation of rules, policies and decisions.Authority consists of
two important components: Power and Legitimacy. Legitimacy of a rule or decision implies that the
members of society treat that rule or decision as beneficial to society as well as to themselves. In the
words of T.H Green 'will' not 'force' be the basis of the state".
The idea of Legitimacy was first developed by Max Weber. The need for the theory of Legitimacy and
Authority was felt post the Marxist criticism of the state. Marxist have challenged the state as an
instrument of coercion and appealed for revolution against the state. However , Weber held that
state does not represent naked power but represents authority i.e., if power is considered as a naked
sword, authority may be envisaged as a sword in its scabbard. The state continues because people
consider it as legitimate. Weber has given three types of Authority –
o Traditional (Based on long established tradition eg. Hereditary rule)

o Legal-Rational (Based on the office held by the individual eg. The bureaucracy)
o Charismatic (Based on extraordinary personality of the leader eg. A popular dictator)
However the idea of Legitimacy was criticised by David Beetham. Beetham held that mere belief in
Legitimacy of the state can't be taken to define the authority of the state. Powerful can manufacture
legitimacy through tools of propaganda and civil society. He proposed that power can be said to be
legitimate only if three conditions are fulfilled.
1. Power must be exercised according to established rules, whether embodied in formal legal codes
or informal conventions.
2. These rules must be justified in terms of the shared beliefs of the government and the governed.
3. Legitimacy must be demonstrated by the expression of consent on the part of the governed.
Conclusion
The idea of Legitimacy was further challenged by Neo-Marxists like Habermas who developed the
concept of Legitimation Crisis. As per them , It is essential to understand for the maintenance of any
system of political rule whether legitimacy is conferred by willing consent or is manufactured by
ideological indoctrination. Therefore along with the machinery through which legitimacy is
maintained, the circumstances in which the legitimacy of a regime is called into question and collapses
must also be focused upon. Habermas argued that within liberal democracies there are ‘crisis
tendencies’ which challenge the stability of such regimes by undermining legitimacy. Thus the debate
on Power , Authority and Legitimacy is a never ending one.

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Day 9 synopsis
Topic: -
Political Ideologies: Liberalism, Socialism, Marxism
Q.1) "The ideological stance of liberalism is embodied in a commitment to a distinctive set of values
and beliefs." Comment (10 Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Define Liberalism.
Body
• Mention the earlier traditions in political thought.
• Basic tenets of Liberalism.
• Critique of Liberalism.
Conclusion
• Significance of Liberalism as a philosophy.
Introduction:
Liberalism is a principle which insists on 'liberty' of an individual as the first and primary goal of the
public policy. Liberty, in its true sense, implies 'liberation from restrains , and in particular, from the
hinderances caused by an authoritarian state.
Body:
Liberalism was a product of the breakdown of feudalism in Europe, and the growth, in its place, of a
market or capitalist society. Liberal views were revolutionary in that they desired fundamental
reform and, at times, upheaval. The previous conceptions in political thinking that talked about the
monarchy's absolute power, apparently founded on the doctrine of the 'divine right of kings,' were
questioned by liberals. Liberals advocated for constitutional and, subsequently, representative
government in place of absolute monarchy.
Liberalism is an intellectual movement which seeks to accommodate new ideas in order to face new
situations and new challenges.
Basic tenets of liberalism
• Man is a rational creature and possesses immense potential to contribute to social progress as
well as to his own good;
• There is no fundamental conflict between a person's self-interest and the common good. In fact,
the term "common interest" refers to a point where the interests of various individuals are
reconciled;
• Man is endowed with certain natural rights that cannot be violated by any authority;
• civil society and the state are artificial institutions created by individuals to serve the common
good.
• Individual civil liberties, such as freedom of thought and expression, freedom of association,
and freedom of movement, are promoted by liberalism.
• Any restriction on individual liberty should be justified by ensuring equal freedom for others;

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• liberalism upholds freedom of contract. Without his own consent and consideration of mutual
benefit, no individual can assume any commitment.
• The state would act as an umpire in contract enforcement.
Liberals were criticised by Socialists who called it a Bourgeoise ideology. As per socialists individuals
do not live or work in isolation but live in cooperation with one another. Furthermore, everything
that people create is a social product in some way, and everyone who contributes to the creation of
a good is entitled to a portion of it. As a result, society as a whole should own or at the very least
control property for the benefit of all of its members.
Conclusion
However, liberalism deserves the credit for revolutionising the way relations between man and
Society or man and state were perceived earlier. It changed the nature of political science from
state-centric to individual-centric and brought in the concepts like Fundamental rights and
democracy which are seen as sine-qua-non for human existence today.
Q.2) It is said that Marx's understanding of state-society relations under scientific socialism has been
completely altered by his successors. Elucidate by focusing on the views of Marxism after Marx. (20
Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Write a brief introduction of Karl Marx.
Body
• Marx's understanding of state-society relations.

• Criticism of Marx's views.
• Revision of Marx's views by Neo-Marxists.
Conclusion
• How Marx's focus on matter as determining factor of state-society relations still remains the
central concept of Marxism.
Introduction
Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a philosopher, author, social theorist, and economist. He is famous for his
theories about capitalism and communism. Marx, in conjunction with Friedrich Engels, published The
Communist Manifesto in 1848; later in life, he wrote Das Kapital. In his works , Marx has propounded
the ideals of a scientific socialism. Marx described his doctrine as scientific socialism and dismissed
earlier socialists as utopians.
Body
In Communist Manifesto Marx has given the Materialistic interpretation of history. Trying to explain
the origin of society , Marx held that since production is the most basic human activity and The act of
production is social. It is for production that society has come into existence. The early society was of
hunters and gatherers. Therefore the Society represents the division of labour. Thus, the most basic
structure of the society is the economic structure. This became the basis for Marx's Base and
Superstructure model.

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Under this model, the Base is of economic structure. The base is the foundational part of the
superstructure. All other structures - family , church , school , civil society are dependent upon this
base. For Marx even state is not independent of the economic base.
The economic produces two distinctive classes of people in the form of - Haves and Have nots. Those
who are ‘haves’ are exploiters and those who are ‘have-nots’ are exploited. There can't be conciliation
of interest b/w exploitation. Their relation is inherently or contradictory or dialectical. As clear from
the base and super-structural model, state/church/media etc. They are never independent of the
base. The class which controls the economic structure also controls the
superstructure. Thus, Church, state etc. are all controlled by the dominant class. Why owners are the
dominant class? Those who own resources can control other structures.
However , Marxists after Marx don't agree to this monocausal interpretation of history by Karl Marx.
It is no longer believed that the superstructure is wholly dependent on the base. Recognition of a sort
of interdependence between base and superstructure has led to extensive analysis of various aspects
of superstructure by Neo-Marxists like Gramsci , Theodor Adorno , Max Horkheimer.
Gramsci gave the concept of ideological hegemony to explain the continuation of the capitalist state.
Thus , it's not through Economic power that the dominant class controls the state , rather by creating
a hegemony through intellectuals. To overawe this hegemony, it would be necessary to develop
counter-hegemony. Thus , Gramsci revised Marx's Historical Materialism as well as his idea of
Revolution. Thus , Gramsci proposed two stage revolution - war of position and war of maneuver.
While Gramsci added a social and cultural framework to understand state-society relations , Eduard
Bernstein revised many vital aspects of Marxism. Bernstein held that human beings should be treated
as ends in themselves and never as means or instruments, whether by capitalists (who used workers
as human machines) or by communists (for bringing revolution). Bernstein noted that rising wages
and better working conditions meant that—contrary to Marx’s prediction of the immiseration of the
proletariat—the lives of workers in advanced capitalist countries were actually improving.
Bernstein further added that the emergence of trade unions and working-class political parties in late
19th-century Europe presented opportunities that required revisions in Marx’s theory and therefore
in Marxian political practice. Thus , there was a need for evolutionary socialism rather than
revolutionary socialism of Marx.
Another challenge to Marx's Socialism was presented by his follower Lenin. While Marx thought that
class-consciousness would develop in working class spontaneously due to economic misery and
leadership would come from their ranks. Lenin on the other hand, considered that a disciplined
communist party could only arouse political consciousness amongst workers. It must be noted that
Marx was completely opposed to the idea of communist party. Further , while Marx proposed
Communism for developed capitalist societies , Lenin introduced communism in Feudal Russia.
Conclusion
Therefore it's said that Marx's understanding of state-society relations under scientific socialism has
been completely altered by his successors. However , it must be understood that even today , Marx's
ideas that called for freeing the state from the clutches of wealthy sections reverberates worldwide.
Occupy wall street movement , Protests in Thailand , Bolivia etc are all examples that Marx's
diagnosis of society-state relations hold true even today

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Day 10 synopsis
Topic: - Political Ideologies: Fascism, Gandhism and Feminism
Q.1) "Fascism emerged as a radical movement based on the rejection of liberalism, democracy and
Marxist socialism." Comment. (10 Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Define fascism..
Body
• Origin of fascism.
• Criticism of fascism
Conclusion
• The end of Fascism.
Introduction:
Fascism is a term used to define a kind of political system that emerged in the Europe in Inter-war
period of 1930s. Word fascism is derived from word fascia that was being used in Italy to refer to a
political group or band, usually of revolutionary socialists. Mussolini employed the term to describe
the paramilitary armed squads he formed during and after the First World War that fascism acquired
a clearly ideological meaning.
Body:
Robert Paxton defines fascism as "a form of political behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation
with community decline, humiliation, or victimhood and by compensatory cults of unity, energy, and
purity, in which a mass-based party of committed nationalist militants, working in uneasy but
effective collaboration with traditional elites, abandons democratic liberties and pursues with
redemptive violence and without ethical or legal restraints goals of internal cleansing and external
expansion.
Whereas Liberalism, democracy and socialism are 19th century ideologies, fascism is a child of the
20th century and more specifically it is an inter-war period ideology. Thus , it's seen as a rejection of
Liberalism , democracy and socialism.
The treaty of Versailles imposed by the liberal west on Germany and Italy was seen as humiliating.
Furthermore , Fascists criticised the overemphasis of Liberalism on individual liberty. Fascists believed
that Nation's interest was supreme and individual liberty can be compromised as long as it serves the
internet of the nation. In words of Mussolini "There is nothing above the nation , before the nation
or beyond the nation".
Democracy was the new thing in continental Europe. It hadn't taken the roots then. Democratic
governments, primarily coalition governments, appeared weak, unstable to deal with a political and
economic crisis. Fascist leaders promised stability and superiority. The idea of 'lebensraum' was
propagated to promise a strong nation with wider borders to serve the German population.

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Further , the fear of spread of communism led Hitler and Mussolini to get support from capitalists
trying to protect themselves. Fascists considered themselves as right of the centre ,thus they were
highly critical of the communists. While communists talked about distributing power among the
working class , Fascists believed in concentration of power in the central leadership called the Junta.
Fascism can be considered as an extreme type of power politics. It is also known as the Hodge podge
of ideologies. It is difficult to understand because it is very unique and complicated in itself. It is seen
as political opportunism. There is hardly any mutual understanding of Fascism and hence different
scholars
interpret it differently. There have no regards for ethics, values and morality and thus difficult to know
'what they are for' rather than understanding what they are against it. Nonetheless, the defining them
of fascism is the idea of an organically unified national community, embodied in a belief in ‘strength
through unity’.
The individual, in a literal sense, is nothing; individual identity must be entirely absorbed into the
community or social groups.
There has also been a disagreement on the reasons behind the origin of Fascism. While scholars like
Laski called it Desperate attempt to defend capitalism , Hannah Arendt , blamed political confusion
and economic turmoil coupled with rise of populist leaders as the reasons behind fascist regimes. On
the other hand scholars like Eric Fromm have traced the roots of fascism to human psychology and
called it ‘the fear of freedom’. He held that men are pulled towards Powerful leaders who guarantee
them safety and security.
Conclusion
However , with the end of World war II , Fascist regimes disappeared and it was believed that Fascism
as an ideology was defeated. This led to Daniel Bell calling it an End of Ideology. Hannah Arendt called
Fascism as Pathology of 20th Century and called for republicanism to prevent rise of fascist regimes
in the future , thus advocating an active citizenry as a cure for fascist regimes.
Q.2) Despite convergence of deep concern with the plight of downtrodden, Gandhism is a radically
different ideology than Marxism. Examine (20 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Introduce by citing the significance of Gandhi and K. Marx in the world philosophical stage.
Body
• Explain their point of convergence in one paragraph

• Explain how Gandhism is radically different than Marxsim by giving various examples
Conclusion
• Conclude the answer with the relevance of philosophies of both the thinkers in the contemporary
world.
Introduction
Mahatma Gandhi and Karl Marx, the two great personalities of all time, as referred to by many people
and prominent scholars, had both conflicting as well as mutual narratives and ideologies that have

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greatly shaped world politics. Both though being from dis-similar backgrounds, the two greats had
shared common ideas like the elimination of poverty in society, and upliftment of the downtrodden.
Body
Both Gandhi and Marx had a similar belief that it is capitalism that has led to stark inequality in society
in terms of economic values. Both agreed on a stance that society needs a change, needs an ideal
society where class differences would vanish away. Hence, sometimes felt that their philosophies
were akin to each other. But on deeper analysis, it is revealed that their differences were more
pronounced than their similarities. In fact Sunil P Elayidom in his work ‘Gandhi and Marx: The yogi &
the commissioner’ says, “Gandhi and Marx, two visionaries, two different paths, look pretty similar at
top but equally contrast in deep down.”
Gandhi and Marx had many points of convergence, yet irrespective of that, there is radical
difference in philosophies in both the points.
1. Gandhi and Marx both envigned for stateless society, but Marx viewed state as an instrument of
class domination and Gandhi saw the state as a soulless machine for coercion of individuals and
visioned ‘Non-violence’ is necessary for society to become self-regulated but for Marx violence is
the only way of revolution. In Fact scholars like K. G. Mashruwala says, "Gandhism is Communism
(Marxism) minus violence."
2. Both had deep concern for poor strata of society. Marx proposed the idea of a communist society
whereby the proletariat or the working class would snatch the power away from the bourgeoisie.
He believed in the idea of “Dictatorship of the Proletariat.” On other hand Gandhi’s idea of
Sarvodaya society was built upon the rock basis of ‘economic equality.’ However, unlike Marx, he
did not believe in coercion or application of force, rather, in his concepts of ‘Trusteeship’ and later
Vinoba bhave’s ‘Bhudan’(based on Gandhian values), people and rich landowners would
voluntarily come forward to offer or share the surplus land with the needy.
3. Both Strive for classless society. Marx regarded class conflict as the instrument of social
transformation. For
Gandhi the division of society into classes to a mental outlook based on the contempt for
physical labour as against Marx’s base and superstructure model.
4. Marx considered religion as “the opium of the masses''. He viewed religion as a social evil that
needed to be done away with. To him, religion prevented people from claiming their rights and
climbing higher up the social ladder as they accepted their situation to be preordained and as their
ultimate fate. On the other hand Gandhi was a spiritualist. Gandhi’s idea of Gramraj or Gram
Swaraj was influenced by the idealism of Ramraj. He viewed religion as a reformist measure.
Gandhi himself was a very spiritual person and said that there can be no politics without religion
as it would be a corrupt soul without religion.
5. Marx called on advanced technology as a liberating force. Whereas Gandhi favoured simple
technology as for him advanced technologies are tools of economic inequality that will lead to the
plight of workers.
6. Marx anticipated that after socialist revolution and fullest development of forces of production,
‘the state will wither away.’ On the other hand Gandhi hoped that when non violence is adopted
as a universal principle, society will become self regulated and the state would become
redundant.
7. Marx’s future society ruled by principle ‘from each according to his ability, to each according to
his need.’ Gandhi’s vision of future society consists of self disciplined individuals with a sense of
moral responsibility towards social needs.
8. Karl Marx was a conflict theorist. He believed that society was characterised by two groups or
classes, that is, the ‘Haves’ and the ‘Have-Nots’, the oppressor and the oppressed and the
exploiter and the exploited. He considered that social change was caused by tensions between

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competing or contrasting interests in society. Gandhi, on the other hand, proposed the treatment
of all forms of work and all types of employees and workers as equal and important. He believed
that the life of a sweeper, a tiller, or a sewage cleaner was worth living. Gandhi glorified and
justified the caste-based division of labour as they contributed to the smooth functioning of
society.
Conclusion
Hence, Marx and Gandhi envisioned a socialist society free of inequality and injustice where there will
be just rights for even the last mile person, they had very different ideas, measures, and principles.
Nevertheless, both are respected and viewed as great social thinkers and philosophers of all times.
Today, with ever increasing inequality (social, economic) convergence of the best of both is the need
of the world.

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Day 11 synopsis
Topic: - Indian Political Thought: Dharamshastra, Arthashastra and Buddhist traditions;
Q.1) Buddhist Tradition and Hindu Tradition of Dharmashastras of Indian political have outspoken
differences but have similar assumptions. Examine (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Brief introduction to ancient Indian political thought.
Body
• Buddhist tradition.
• Hindu tradition.
• Differences between the two.
• Similarities between the two.
Conclusion
• Despite the differences, the underlying thought is the same.
Introduction:
According to Bhikhu Parekh, although ancient Indian political thought displays remarkable continuity,
it also undergoes important changes in response to new theoretical problems posed by the rise of
new religious traditions, especially Buddhism, which is considered to be the ‘Rebel child of Hinduism’.
Body:
Hinduism & Buddhism – comparison of their political thoughts
1. On origin of state
While Hindu political thought associate origin of state with ARAJAKTA (‘anarchy’), Buddhist
political thought, on the other hand, associate it with ‘fall of man’ / ‘corruption’ emerged after
origin of private property/materialism.
Buddhism subscribes to the contractual theory of state.
2. On the ruler
Unlike Manu smriti, which treats king as the 'son of god' the divine basis of the royal power is
rejected in Buddhism. According to Buddhist , the king is an elected representative
(Mahasammat).
3. On duties of the ruler

In this context, Buddhism believes that the king must rule in the most righteous manner for the
people’s welfare. Thus, Buddhism advices the ruler to be liberal, selfless, noble and act according
to the dharma. King is seen as an institution for moral regeneration.
4. On form of the government

Unlike Hinduism, which supports monarchical form of government, Buddhism considers
republican government as the best practice in which the King (Mahasammat) is elected by the
people. Moreover, the Buddhist tradition
promotes deliberative democracy for the determination of public issues. Buddhist ‘Sanghas’ were
the earliest examples of deliberative democracy.

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5. On gender
Unlike Hinduism which is ‘Patriarchal’, Buddhism gives ‘Equality of status to women by admitting
them into sanghas’.
However, apart from these differences, there are certain similarities als. Like Hinduism, which revolves
around the concept of ‘DHARMA’, Buddhism also revolves around the concept of ‘DHAMMA’ (‘Duty’).
It also continued to share some basic Hindu beliefs such that previous life determines his destiny in
this life and the idea of a knowledgeable person to be the king.
Further , both Hinduism and Buddhism called for protection of the good, impartial justice, friendship
for neighbouring Kings, and monetary and spiritual advantages to all kinds of people and the state was
to provide basic amenities to it's citizens. According to both Buddhist and Hindu doctrine, ethical
principles applied uniformly to rulers and subjects, as well as to the King's public and private actions.
Not only this , According to Jataka stories, the King should avoid lying and fury, and he should not
repeat anything he has done in the past when under the grip of passion and vice. Similarly , even Hindu
tradition called for a Philosopher King who knew the difference between virtue and vice , who did not
indulge his senses too much and who lived a principled life.
Therefore , while ther exist some differences in Hindu and Buddhist political thought. There are many
similarities too , showing that they differ only in degrees and not in kind.
Conclusion
It is in this context of similarities with the Hindu political thought that, despite being its most radical
critique, Buddhist challenge didn’t lead to radical transformation or reformulation of Hindu tradition.
Q.2) Comment on the drawbacks of Dharmashastra text as a source of ancient Indian political
thought. (10 Marks, 150 word)
Introduction
• Give brief elaboration on Indian political thought
Body
• Give brief elaboration on Dharmashastra

• Critically analyse and highlight criticism of dharmashastra tradition
Conclusion
• Give the balanced conclusion showing importance of Dharmashastra
Introduction
According to Bhikhu Parekh, Hindu political thinkers conceptualised political life in terms of two
central concepts namely, dharma and danda. The dharmashastra concentrated on exploring the
dharma of individuals and social groups, including the government. They provided a code of conduct

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covering the entire human life including political life.
Body
The concepts in Dharmashastras that are subjected to criticism include the propositions that duties
are more significant than rights, that women are under perpetual guardianship of their closest male
relatives. According to Sir Henry Maine, Dharma-shastra was a kind of priestcraft, intended to keep
the lower castes, the Shudras and Dalits (formerly untouchables), under the control of the higher
castes.
However, Dharmashastras, being religious in nature, it is very difficult to isolate facts of politics from
it. Dharmasutras give an idealised picture of society and politics which hardly reflect reality. Most of
the scholars who have Indian political thought have taken the authority of these sources for granted
although its time, place and authenticity are riddled with uncertainties.
Second, most of the works on Indian political traditions were written during the nationalist movement
with a purpose to counter the imperialist ideology of the Western scholars. While appreciating the
contributions of nationalist scholars to inculcate a feeling of self-confidence among the people during
the nationalist movement, one must properly understand the limitations of this approach. R. S.
Sharma, an eminent historian, has pointed out four important limitations of this nationalist and
revivalist approach to the study of Indian political thought.
They are:
1. By a fulsome adoration of ancient Hindu institutions, it tended to alienate the Muslims.

2. The approach gives a false sense of past values. It glossed over the fact that, whether it was
monarchy or republic, the two upper varnas dominated the two lower varnas who were generally
excluded from all political offices.
3. Many Indians fought shy of the religious aspects of ancient Indian polity and, as if to cover a sense
of guilt, took too much pains to prove the secular character of the ancient Indian state. They little
realised that even in the Western world, theocracy existed till the first half of the 18th century.
4. Fourthly, in its zeal to prove itself a superior civilisation, it hardly showed any interest in studying
the ancient institutions in the light of the evolution of primitive tribes as known from anthropology
Conclusion
However, as a broad social code, dharmashastras served as an authoritative conductor for Hindu
jurisprudence for a long time in Indian social history. It is primarily concerned not with legal
administration, but with the right course of conduct in every dilemma. Thus, despite its drawbacks,
dharma shastras are a basic pillar of Indian political philosophy.

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Day 12 synopsis
Topic: - Indian Political Thought: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Sri Aurobindo, M.N.Roy
Q.1) Critically Examine the Political thought of Sri Aurobindo for its impact on Indian nationalism.
(15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Introduce Aurobindo Ghosh and talk about his impact
Body
• Describe colonial and moderate view of India as a nation.
• Write about criticism by Ghosh and his view on nationalism.
• Write about criticism made on Ghosh’s theory of nationalism.
Conclusion
• Balance the answer by providing clarity on Ghosh’s thoughts.
Introduction:
Aurobindo Ghosh is called the prophet of Indian nationalism. He has synthesized philosophies of both
east and west into an integrated philosophy. According to Rabindranath Tagore, “World will come to
know the essence of India through the writings of Aurobindo.” Aurobindo Ghosh’s political thoughts
on nationalism have created a deep impact on the course of the national movement.
Body:
Britishers had challenged the identity of India as a nation. They held that India is not a nation, but just
a ‘geographical expression’. Moderates like S. Banerjee propagated the soft theory of nationalism and
accepted India as not a nation but instead a ‘nation in making.’ Extremist leaders like Tilak and
Aurobindo Ghosh rejected the approach of both colonial masters and moderates. They held India as
a nation from the beginning.
Aurobindo Ghosh had been influenced by the concepts of German scholars like Herder and
Hegel who conferred the concept of ‘cultural nationalism’ which says nation is natural, the nation has
a spirit. To meet the spirit, he gave a more ‘bold theory of nationalism’. Aurobindo Ghosh in his series
of articles “New lamps for old” warned moderates to stop praising the British. He said If we continue
to praise the British, it will weaken the morale of those who aim to fight the British.
None has explored the meaning of ‘Freedom’ as broad and passionately as Aurobindo did.
He developed an integral vision of human freedom that became his legacy through India, to the world.
For him, freedom was an eternal aspect of the ‘human spirit’, as important and permanent to life as
breath itself. His whole concept of freedom is based on the notion that there is in man an evolving
soul requiring freedom for its evolution. Hence, freedom is something which is an unconditional
prerequisite for development of human spirit.
According to Aurobindo, there is a universal spirit in the world and every nation is a reflection
of one or the other dimension of that universal spirit. India has been chosen by God (universal spirit)
for a divine mission of preaching ‘spirituality.’ However a nation cannot propagate the message of
universal spirit being in chains. Since universal spirit is with India now, India is bound to emerge as a
free nation. Aurobindo advocated passive resistance for this process.
Indian nationalism is eternal. He was influenced by the ‘neo-vedantism’ of Vivekananda and
the teaching of ‘Sanatana dharma’. Aurobindo Ghosh has based Indian nationalism on the idea of
Sanatana dharma. Aurobindo’s nationalism was also influenced by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s idea

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of ‘mother India’ as ‘goddess Kali’. Which held that all Indians are children of mother India. We can
not accept our mother in chains. He symbolized India with the goddess Kali, the shakti. He warned
that the shakti of mother India is challenging the British empire.
Aurobindo Ghosh’s political thoughts are criticized by the scholars on the lines that his
consciousness on nationalism appeals on the lines of Hinduism. The articulation of the nation as a
mother goddess and the use of terms like ‘Sanatan dharma’ impacted the Muslim section negatively.
This resulted in not only decreasing participation of Muslims in national struggle (swadeshi
movement), but made it easy for the British to spread its ‘divide and rule’ policy.
Conclusion
Aurobindo Ghosh was the first person to give a complete theory of India's independence. Though
there are some criticisms of ‘radicalism’ and ‘communalism’ being seen in his theory of nationalism,
in reality, it was based on ‘universal unity’ based on a common way of life of Indians. Hence as rightly
praised by Radhakrishnan, “undoubtedly Aurobindo Ghosh is the greatest intellectual of our age.”
Q.2) Radical Humanism is a philosophy of social life which is based on the philosophy of Nature.
(M.N. Roy) Examine. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Brief introduction of M.N. Roy
Body
• Concept of Humanism
• M.N. Roy's Idea of Radical Humanism and its features
Conclusion
• M.N. Roy as a champion of science and modernity.
Introduction
M.N. Roy was an Indian revolutionary, radical activist and political theorist, as well as an important
philosopher of the 20th century. Roy was the founder of the Mexican Communist Party and the
Communist Party of India.
Body
Humanism is an attitude which gives primary importance to Man and his faculties and aspirations.
The basic theme of Humanism is the significance placed on human beings, it keeps individuals at the
centre of all the ends of human activities.
Radical humanism is an important contribution of M. N. Roy towards modern political thought. The
primary goal of Roy's Radical Humanism is to coordinate the philosophy of nature with social
philosophy and ethics in a monistic system.It is for this reason that Roy claims it as "humanist as
well as materialist, naturalist as well as nationalist, creativist as well as determinist".
The following are the components of Roy's Radical Humanism :

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• Freedom: It is the most important goal for a man hence Radical humanism focuses on the
realisation of freedom in the widest sense. It's not enough to gain freedom from bare
necessities, rather freedom in the widest sense means freedom from all fears, natural and
supernatural.
• Roy places man at the centre of his philosophy: For Roy, ‘man is the measure of everything’.
Thus, as a radical humanist his philosophical approach is individualistic in nature.
• Reason: It is a method to realise freedom. He does not talk about the reason based on a
spiritual basis or as an inherent quality of soul. He sees Reason as a method of man's
struggle for surviving.
• Importance of Society: Man is social by nature , not because he enjoys it , but out of
necessity. Man can't survive on its own. Man requires others for his survival. The foundation
of society is in man's struggle for survival.
• Ethics: It includes values and norms which are practised in a society. Ethics is the basis of
society. He doesn't talk about the ethics that is seen as divine in origin. Rather his ethics is
human made , based in reason.
• Maximum individual freedom – realised when society is formed on the basis of cooperation
and decentralisation.
He considers freedom to be of ultimate value. While rationality provides dynamism to a man, the
urge for freedom gives him direction. Roy's conception of human nature becomes the basis of origin
of society and state. He regards their origin to the need of man for promoting his freedom and
material satisfaction.
Conclusion
Roy's major aim was to achieve humanist politics. This will lead to purification and rationalisation of
politics. To him, politics can be practiced without power and corruption thus making morality in
political practice possible. Roy advocated for 'Revolution by Consent of the people’ to resist tyranny
and oppression by nonviolent means. Thus , he wanted to establish true democracy in India. He was
a true champion of Science , modernity and morality in modern India.

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Day 13 synopsis
Topic: - Indian Political Thought: M.K. Gandhi, B.R. Ambedkar,
Q.1) “Political tyranny is nothing compared to the social tyranny and a reformer who defies society
is a more courageous man than a politician who defies Government.” (Dr. B. R. Ambedkar) Analyse
the statement in context of Dr. Ambedkar's views on Social and Political democracy. (15 Marks, 250
Words)
Introduction
• Briefly describe Dr Ambedkar as a leader
Body
• Describe Dr Ambedkar views on democracy
• Why he gave Supremacy to social democracy as compared to political democracy
• tell the benefits of social democracy succeeding political democracy
Conclusion
• Relevance in the present context of Dr Ambedkar ideas
Introduction:
Dr. Ambedkar was one of the main Architects of the Indian Constitution. He is considered to be the
leader of a community rather than the leader of the nation- because of his Emphasis to work for the
betterment of people of low caste and communities.
Body:
He was a strong advocate of democratic government because he believed that only democracy can
provide equal rights and opportunities to all sections of the society, including the untouchables and
the marginalized. In this regard, he considered democratic values to be a way of life rather than
just a belief. He wanted democratic values to be a part of not just the political sphere but also the
personal, social and economic sphere.
According to him, on one hand it is important to provide and ensure the political democracy to the
people, so that they are immune to the Political Tyranny- Rule of one person; but along with that, it
is equally important to ensure the realization of social democracy to each person.
Under social democracy- he wanted to work for the upliftment of people of low caste and remove
untouchability. He also wanted to create a society based on equality, fraternity and Justice. Dr
Ambedkar devoted his life to remove untouchability. he believed that the progress of the nation
would not be realized without the removal of untouchability. He further believed that the process
of removing the practice of untouchability is not simple- it will require the abolition of entire caste
system in totality.
He believed untouchability to be the practice of slavery for entire Hindu society. He said that, “while
untouchables are enslaved by The Hindu castes, the people of Hindu caste are themselves under
slavery of religious sculptures”. In his book, “annihilation of caste”, he suggested to put Dynamite
on Vedas and Manu smriti and blast them. He said this because he believed that the caste system
cannot be ended without ending Hinduism itself.
That's why Dr Ambedkar considered social tyranny to be worse than being under Political
Tyranny. He says that, under Political Tyranny, only some people take decisions on your behalf- thus

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taking away your freedom of choice. But under social Tyranny- even the people of same
community differentiate among others because of casteism and untouchability.
So, he ascertains more values to those leaders who worked for the evolution of social tyranny as
compared to those working for abolishing the political Tyranny.
Dr Ambedkar was a strong believer of the fact that- “economic and political issues must be resolved
only after achieving the goal of Social Justice”. Thus, he gave Supremacy to social democracy as
compared to political or economic democracy. This was because according to him if political
emancipation precedes social emancipation, it will lead to the rule of upper caste Hindus- so
despite getting freedom the people of lower caste will be under constant atrocities by upper caste.
Conclusion
Thus, Dr Ambedkar tried to create a sense of Self respect among the untouchables and lower caste
people by giving more importance to social democracy than the political democracy. the relevance of
his ideas can be seen in the present context also, where people of different caste and class started
living in India with peace and harmony among themselves. We have different communities which
comprise of people of all sections of society living together. Thus, signifying the concept of “unity in
diversity”.
Q.2) How far do you agree with Gandhi's views based on non-violence was apt instument of State?
Analyse this with respect to his statement "Non-violence is an act of faith and not a matter of
choice." (10 Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Introduce Mahatma Gandhi as a thinker and briefly describe Gandhian Philosophy
Body
• What is real Gandhian philosophy
• Tell comments of different scholars on Gandhian methodologies
• Tell importance of Non-Violence for Gandhi Ji
• Give arguments to support that Non-Violence is not just a choice, rather it is embedded in each
human
Conclusion
• What is the relevance of Gandhian philosophy in present context
Introduction
Mahatma Gandhi is aptly called “Mahatma” for his great thinking and way of living. His beliefs and
views took the shape of a philosophy called “Gandhian Philosophy”. Gandhian ideology is the set of
religious and social ideas adopted and developed by Mahatma Gandhi, first during his period in South
Africa from 1893 to 1914, and later in India.
Body
Gandhian philosophy is not only simultaneously political, moral and religious, it is also traditional
and modern, simple and complex. It embodies numerous Western influences to which Gandhiji was
exposed, but is rooted in ancient Indian culture harnessing universal moral & religious principles.
Gandhi ji himself denied the existence of any school of thought like Gandhism and just described
himself as a man of action. He described his life as experiments with truth.

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Gandhiji developed these ideologies from various inspirational sources vis Bhagvat Geeta, Jainism,
Buddhism, Bible, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Tolstoy, John Ruskin among others. Tolstoy's book 'The
Kingdom of God is within you' had a deep influence on Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhiji paraphrased
Ruskin's book 'Unto this Last' as 'Sarvodaya'.
These ideas have been further developed by later "Gandhians", most notably, in India by, Vinoba
Bhave and Jayaprakash Narayan and outside of India by Martin Luther King Jr. and others.
According to Gandhi, Non-violence is the fundamental principle of Gandhism. For him, non-violence
was an article of faith and a matter of religion. He made his objective of life to understand the truth
or God where he believes in the continuity of ends and means. If the objective of life is to attain God,
the mean cannot be those of Shaitan.
He was also influenced by Jesus Christ-Jesus was the symbol of love and humanity. According to
Gandhi, He cannot tell what is ultimate truth. He showed that Ahinsa is the path or a way of life to
be followed if one wants to understand God.
He believes that Violence belongs to the world of animals, because either their soul is sleeping or
underdeveloped. There is no role of hinsa in the life of humans because humans have souls and
reason.
According to Gandhi, Ahinsa should not be understood in the Limited sense of not committing
violence. Ahinsa is based on the feeling of love and brotherhood. Only Ahinsa is the source of
peace.
He believed that, “I have to take responsibility if someone is my enemy, my enemy is a part of

myself”. so, he wanted to rectify himself rather than the other person. according to him nobody can
hurt the other person without hurting themselves. Similarly, no one can degrade the other person
without degrading themselves.
Thus, Ahinsa is linked to the concept of human dignity. so, Gandhi suggested to observe answer in
thoughts, speech and actions. He suggested that anything can be employed between humans towards
animals as well as towards the environment.
Thus, he believed that Non-Violence is deeply embedded in each human being. It is not just a matter
of choice, rather it’s a faith that everyone carries with themselves. The only need is to understand
the voice of the soul and follow the right path of Non-Violence.
Even for the state, Non-violence can prove to be an apt instrument of securing welfare to its citizens.
Citizens of a state have the right to organize protests and demand various measures from the govt.
Here, the method used can go a long way in securing the welfare of the people. Non-violent and
peaceful methods used to fulfil the demands and make the citizens understand will be conducive for
the betterment of society. Whereas, any violent means can lead to destabilization of the government
and erosion of trust and faith from the government.
Despite Gandhi Ji’s idea and philosophy of Non-Violence, we have witnessed several cases in
International Politics also, where use of Force is inevitable to protect the National Interest. For
example, in a state of war, if the enemy is using offensive attacks, it would not be wise to follow
Non-Violence there. Rather, offensive strikes need to be launched in retaliation. Even Hobbes
suggested to punish those who are breaking the national law to protect the national Interest. But
these extreme steps should only be taken when Non-Violence cannot yield the result. And if given an
option, it should be non-violence only that should be preferred over violent means.
Conclusion
Gandhian ideologies shaped the creation of institutions and practices where the voice and
perspective of everyone can be articulated, tested and transformed. According to him, democracy
provided the weak with the same chance as the strong. Functioning on the basis of voluntary

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cooperation and dignified & peaceful co-existence was replicated in several other modern
democracies. Also, his emphasis on political tolerance and religious pluralism holds relevance in
contemporary Indian politics.

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Day 14 synopsis
Topic: - Western Political Thought: Plato, Aristotle,
Q.1) Aristotle is a political realist, but in it, he has not lost sight of politics existing to achieve its
moral ends. Examine this in context of Aristotelian view of Politics and contrast it with Plato and
Machiavelli’s views. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Write a short introduction of Aristotle.
Body
• Aristotle as a realist.
• Idealist in Aristotle.
• Comparison with Plato and Machiavelli.
Conclusion
• Aristotle as a moderate realist
Introduction:
Aristotle is regarded as the father of political science as he was the first to analyse, critically and
systematically the then existing constitutions and classify them. He studied 158 constitutions. His
classification of constitutions is still useful in understanding constitutions in a comparative sense
Body:
Aristotle is regarded as a political realist as he believed that the real exists in this world and can be
known through a sense of perception or observation. According to him, every phenomenon has two
aspects: form and matter. As against Plato, Aristotle gives significance to what constitutes matter,
whereas Plato believes in idea as being real and held that whatever is visible is the shadow of the
form.
Aristotle, however , believed that what is visible is also important as it is itself the result of numerous
elements that make it, the form only plays the role of activating it, in guiding it to attain its end which
is ethical. Thus , while Plato treated the form (the idea) as the supreme truth , Aristotle believed that
both form and the matter were complementary to each other.
He is considered the father of political science for introducing scientific method in political theory. He
studied 158 Constitutions and tried to understand the good and the bad elements in each one of
them. Thus , he adopted the rigorous empirical approach to political science. His Theory of
Revolutions gives a scientific , psychological explanation of the revolutions and a practical roadmap
to prevent the revolutions.
His idea of Polity in contrast to Philosopher King of Plato also shows the realism in Aristotle. Aristotle
held the 'We must not sacrifice the good for the best'. Thus , unlike the idealism of plato , Aristotle
takes the middle path and tries to achieve what is possible in the real world.
Aristotle is a political realist, but in it, he has not lost sight of politics existing to achieve its moral ends.
In fact Aristotle does not regard politics as a separate science from ethics; politics is the completion
and a verification of ethics. Thus , he is a realist but unlike Machiavelli who separated ethics from
politics , Aristotle believes that Ethics is an integral part of politics.

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Ethics and politics are so closely related he believes that political life helps us in seeing what ethical
life should be like. As politics, he argues, is the science of practice and a means for the achievement
of moral virtues.
While Machiavelli believed that ethics had no role in politics and politics has its own ethics , Aristotle’s
political theory is intimately based in his ethical theory. His theory of justice, for example, is based on
his ethics. For Aristotle, justice is virtue, a complete virtue, morality personified.
For Aristotle, the state is not merely a political community , it is what gives expression to a man’s
whole life. gives man a good life which, in turn, means a moral and ethical living. While Machiavelli's
Prince is free to use any method to achieve National interest and Prince is above the citizens , for
Aristotle , only rule that is guided by the law made by adult citizens is legitimate.
Conclusion
Thus , Aristotle was not an idealist like Plato but he was not also a realist in Machiavellian terms.
Aristotle took the middle path and tries to strike a balance between ideal and real , politics and ethics.
He can be considered a moderate realist.
Q.2) The Republic of Plato is by all means the greatest of all his works. Comment. (10 Marks, 150
Words)
Introduction
• Give a brief introduction to the republic book of Plato
Body
• Start your answer by telling the importance of the Republic
• Which questions have been dealt with in the book?
• How has it justified the theory of philosopher king?
• Special Emphasis is given on Justice
• Mention about some Scholars who talked about the republic’s relevance
Conclusion
• What is the main relevance of the republic even in the present era?
Introduction
The Republic is a Socratic dialogue, authored by Plato around 375 BC, concerning justice, the order
and character of the just city-state, and the just man. It is Plato's best-known work, and has proven
to be one of the world's most influential works of philosophy and political theory, both intellectually
and historically.
Body
The Republic by Plato is a text that describes the importance of being just in the world, and by being
just, one is happy. It is a text that describes an ideal city and a way through which just and
philosophical governance can create happiness. Today, Plato's The Republic is an important part of
the western literary canon.

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In this book, Plato asks the ultimate questions about justice and happiness, and the answers to those
questions are ever-evolving. His text is also vital for learning to question what is in fact known. This
questioning is a critical skill in all disciplines.
The main content of “The Republic” can be understood as the “Constitution of Plato’s Ideal state”.
He gave the concept of philosopher king, and in this book, he talks about the powers of the king, do’s
and don'ts, etc. for the king. He has also talked about various theories to justify his institution of the
philosopher King.
Plato has written “The Republic” in dialectics form, i.e. Rational reasoning to find an answer. He
focuses on deriving the answer from the person asking questions himself. For this, he uses the Theory
of Knowledge, given by his teacher Socrates.
“The Republic” deals extensively with the Theory of Justice. In fact, the subtitle of Plato’s Republic is
“concerning justice”. He wants to make Athens an ideal state. Hence, he wants Athens to be based
on the idea of Justice. So, he has extensively covered this concept in this book.
To explain his theory of justice, He gave a dialectical approach with four characters- Cephalous,
Polemarchus, Thrasymachus and Glaucon. And by talking to all of them and asking different
questions, Plato gave his ultimate idea of Justice.
Philosopher Simon Blackburn has written a new book about The Republic, gently reminding those of
us who have forgotten why it remains so important. Blackburn argues that today's neo-conservative
movement was influenced by The Republic, though he says the connection stems from a
misinterpretation of Plato's text.
One of the major criticisms of Plato’s Republic is its utopian nature. Aristotle has said that the
remedies given in the Republic are worse than the disease itself. Theory of Communism, as mentioned
in the Republic seeks to abolish the time tested institutions like Family and property which is highly
irrelevant in today’s times also.
Conclusion
Though based in a utopian world, The Republic talks about some concepts that were way ahead of
time. Plato’s Theory of education, in which he emphasized the importance of education for everyone.
His emphasis on gender equality, where he tried to create workforce comprising of both Men and
women, is a relevant example even today. His theory of Philosopher King still holds potential in which
he lays emphasis on ruler class being educated. Thus, despite its idealism, we cannot discard the
importance of “The Republic” even in today’s era.

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Day 15 synopsis
Topic: - Western Political Thought: Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke,
Q.1) Explain Machiavellian view of politics. To what extent do you think it led to the development
of a new vigour in political science with the emergence of realism, secular thinking and break of
idealism and moralism. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Brief introduction of Nicolo Machiavelli
Body
• Machiavelli's views on politics.
• How Machiavelli's views gave rise to the Realist school of thought.
• His views on Religion and ethics.
• Criticism of Machiavelli's views
Conclusion
• Significance of Machiavelli.
Introduction:
Machiavelli was Born in the year 1469 in Florence part of Italy and belonged to an affluent family and
was well educated for a public career. His memorable literary works out of which the "Prince" and the
"Discourses" stand out most prominently. Their contents spelt out his political thought that led to the
development of a new vigour in political science with the emergence of realism, secular thinking and
break of idealism and moralism.
Body:
Machiavelli's ideas on politics can be best understood in the context of his idea of "Universal
Egoism". He did not believe in the essential goodness of Human nature, he held that all men are
wicked and essentially selfish. Selfishness and egoism are the chief motive forces of human
conduct.
Machiavelli has explained politics as it is , rather than as it ought to be. If we look at politics as it is,
politics is nothing but a struggle for power. Machiavelli wants Prince to understand the nature of
the profession in which he is going to enter. He suggests that prince should not try to find goodness
in politics.
Politics is not an inspiring field. Prince needs to learn how to be bad rather than how to be good.
Thus, Machiavelli gives a realistic view of politics. Realists are known as children of Darkness. They
suggest to be skeptical about the intentions of others. Only with a realistic approach Prince can
minimize his losses. He suggested to the prince that any people will be with him only until he can
fulfill their demands and not after that. So, he wanted the prince to work only in the national
interest and not in the interest of a particular society.
In the words of Machiavelli “Prince should be like a fox and lion. He should be clever like a fox to
understand the traps and should be brave like a lion to defend himself from attacks by wolves.”

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Machiavaelli identified politics as the struggle for the acquisition, maintenance and consolidation
of political power. As such Machiavelli's work is not an academic treatise or value oriented political
philosophy; it is in real sense Realpolitik.It deals with the machinery of the government which the
successful ruler could make use of. He is thus called the originator of the Realist school of thought.
He is also called the First modern political thinker. It is because of his views on Religion. One of the
major contributions of Machiavelli is that he separated religion from politics and set the tone for
one of the main themes of modern times, namely secularisation of thought and life.
In other words, Machiavelli gave the state its modern connotation. His state is the nation free from
religious control. He has freed the state from the medieval bondage of religion. He called the state
as the highest form of human association which has supreme claim over men’s obligations. Even
religion can not claim man's obligation. Thus , state is superior to the church.
Machiavelli is also known for The separation between ends and means. It is for this reason
Machiavelli has been criticized as immoral. Machiavelli was the first person who could dare to
suggest that politics and ethics are two different domains. He was the first person to establish the
autonomy of politics from ethics. He held that Political actions are to be judged not from the
yardstick of religion on ethics/morality.
However , Machiavelli was criticised by Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi held that 'Fascism and
Imperialism are just an expression of Machiavellianism'. Machiavellianism is even today used in a
negative sense in the political discourse.
However , Machiavelli is not immoral nor he is teaching immorality. He is permitting the prince to use
whatever means prince think are in the best interest of nation. It is not only important that prince
take right decisions but also timely decisions. The ethics or religion may create dilemma for a prince
which may harm national interest.
Conclusion
Finally, It's the Machiavelli's amoral look at politics that gave rise to the Realist school of thought in
International politics. Lord Palmer held that there is no permanent friend or enemy in international
politics , showing the impact Machiavelli has had in political theory. Furthermore , he is called him the
father of European secularism. France's Laicite that maintains strict separation between state and
religion is inspired by Machiavelli. Thus, Machiavelli remains the thinker who is although criticized the
most for his ideas but it is he whose ideas are most followed in the society.
Q.2) Hobbes' political theory is, in his own perception, derived from his psychology which in turn is
based on his mechaliistic conception of nature. Examine (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Write about Hobbes as a thinker , his methods and philosophy used by him.
Body
• Explain how Hobbes' political theory is influenced by his own psychology.
• Explain how he used his psychology to develop a mechanistic theory of state
• Try to critics his ideas
Conclusion
• Conclude by giving contemporary relevance of Hobbes in present times.

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Introduction
Hobbes is considered as the first modern thinker , greatest individualist and a thinker of order who
gave absolute authority to the state for the sake of preservation of life . Hobbes in his book “ Leviathan
” has used the theory of social contract based on mechanistic conception of nature .
Body
Hobbes belongs to the school of social contract traditions. Hobbes considered the state prior to the
individual. State is made of individuals of equal worth and hence rejected by Plato's theory of myth
and organic state. As per Hobbes , equal citizens come together and form a state which is akin to an
artificial machine for the sake of preservation of life . This theory is known as the mechanistic theory
of state.
Hobbes built his political theory by keeping individuals at the centre. He adopted a resolutive
compositive method to show that man is individualistic by nature . He shows that his man is utilitarian
. So it is beyond the capacity of man to think about pleasure and pain of others . Since all are utilitarian
, all desire the things that give them happiness . This will create the dilemma of unlimited desires and
limited resources.
In such situations , where a man is insecure about his life and positions there is no scope for finer
aspects of human life . He will be busy saving his life and will not get time for industry and culture. His
life will be solitary , nasty , brutish poor and short .
It is because of the individualistic nature of man that the state of nature becomes the state of war and
reason for creation of absolute state . According to him, it is necessary to give absolute power to the
state to maintain peace and order and to preserve life .
Hence , Hobbes is also known as a thinker of order as his main concern was the security of life . But
he mentioned that only on one condition where man would be allowed to resist the state i.e when
the state deprives a person of his life in an arbitrary manner .
So we can say that Hobbes is an individualist as well as absolutist . Scholars like “Macpherson” say
that he begins as an individualist but ends as an absolutist .
Sabine suggests that Hobbes even ends as an individualist because despite creating absolute state. He
gives individuals the right to resist the state.
Conclusion
If we look at the state of life in third world countries which have failed , we cannot deny the Hobbesian
argument . Similarly , Hobbesian argument holds true in the context of international politics which in
the absence of common authority is often described as “ struggle of power ”

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Day 16 synopsis
Topic: - Western Political Thought: John S. Mill, Marx,
Q.1) Elaborate on JS Mill's idea of liberty and its critique by Earnest barker. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Introduce JS Mill and his concern about liberty
Body
• Describe his thoughts on liberty.
• Talk about uniqueness in his thoughts on liberty.
• Discuss Barker’s criticism of Mill’s inconsistencies.
Conclusion
• Balance the answer in conclusion by quoting the importance of Mill's concept of liberty.
Introduction:
JS Mill was the thinker of the early 19th century who was very concerned about ‘liberty for all.’ He
wanted liberty in every aspect of society and was an ardent supporter of ‘freedom’ and ‘utilitarianism’,
so is regarded as a champion of liberty. His writing (thinking) is caught up under the age of transition
and hence that is even reflected in his writings and so he is also known as an “inconsistent thinker.”
Body:
JS Mill is termed as the first person to elaborate and give a ‘complete’ theory of liberty. His concept
of liberty has its genesis in modification of concept of ‘utilitarianism’ given by Jeremy Bentham.
Unlike Bentham, Mill placed utility on twin piller of both ‘quantity’ as well as ‘quality.’ Unlike other
thinkers like Hobbes or Jeremy Bentham, Mill not only stressed ‘economic liberty’ but also the fact
that ‘socio-political’ liberty is equally important for the overall development of a person. His concept
of liberty is unique which is based on “Freedom of speech and expression.”
According to JS Mill freedom of speech and expression is a precondition for the
development of man’s personality. He said only economic (Property) freedom given by the state not
only harms individuals but also the state. In his own words “No state can become great by dwarfing
its people, because nothing great can happen by small people.” In this sense, he resembles Plato
when later said “State is individual writ large.” For Mill, liberty is the precondition for the utmost
form of utility.
JS Mill had the broader concept of liberty in his writings like Freedom of speech and
expression, Acting according to one's own will and idea, and right to association wherever and
whenever one wants. According to him the only form of precondition to be followed by a man while
practicing his liberty is the “Harm Principle.” That is while fulfilling one's liberty, man can not do
such activities which harm other’s liberty. Self-harm is not the problem. This “Harm principle” is to
be used by the state and if it finds so, the state can restrict the liberty of an individual. This principle
led to criticism of Mill.
According to Earnest Barker, JS Mill’s ‘‘harm principle’’ is the tool in the hands of the state
to misuse its power to restrict liberty. Earnest Barker even called JS Mill as “Prophet of empty liberty
and scholar of abstract individualism.” Prophet because he gave detailed reasons to allow liberty,
and discussed rights of man at length. But, empty as too many restrictions, it is so open to
interpretation and ambiguous that any action by any individual can be termed as others regarding.

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Such a situation will leave a huge scope for State’s intervention, and liberty will remain empty. Also
‘Abstract individualism’ because a man is always situated in a society, there cannot be such discrete
categorization of Harm. A self-regarding action could be an other-regarding action and can be
considered as harmful in general. Such prophecy of Liberty is true for an abstract individual man,
who in reality, doesn’t exist.
Conclusion
Therefore, though there are some inconsistencies in JS Mill’s writing concerning liberty, one can not
undermine his contribution and honesty to give every person of the society a broader, complete, and
more practical form of liberty. Hence, he truly justifies the sentence that “If anyone is liberal, it is
Mill.” Even Article 19 of the Indian constitution coincides with JS Mill’s concept of liberty.
Q.2) The basic cause of revolution, according to Karl Marx, is the disjunction that arises between
relations of production and the means of production. Critically Examine. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Introduce Marx’s as a thinker and his importance in western political thoughts
Body
• Explain Marx theory of revolution in context to disjunction between relation and mode of
production
• Write criticism if any
Conclusion
• Write the relevance of Marx theory on revolution in contemporary times
Introduction
In the entire history of western political thought, both in influence and in criticism, few political
theorists can match Karl Marx. He was the first philosopher to bring together the various elements of
socialist thought into both a coherent worldview and an emotional principle of struggle. Marx
dissected 19th century capitalism as scientific socialism or communism. Marxism is not only a critical
evaluator of capitalism but also a feasible or credible alternative to it.
Body
The basic cause of revolution, according to Marx, is the disjunction that arises between relations of
production and the means of production. As means of production grow with growth of technology ,
they go out of step with the existing relations of production. A stage is reached where the relations of
production are not in sync with the production process itself. This contradiction results in change in
the structure of society. For instance , historical age has went through slave society , feudal society ,
capitalist society .
The capitalist mode of production emerged from the womb of feudal order in the same way as feudal
mode of production emerged from the womb of the slave society. Likewise, Marx argues that socialism
will emerge from the womb of bourgeois society itself. This is so because society is divided into haves
and have nots. Capitalist society is divided into worker and bourgeois class. The Interests of workers
are different from that of capitalists.

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Thus in a class divided society , class struggle is inevitable. As exploitation of the worker will increase
, the class struggle will increase. Thus , the antagonism between relations of production will increase
. Thus , the When exploitation becomes unbearable , revolution will take place. Marks asserted that
“ capitalists are digging their own graveyards”.
Marx was influenced by Charles Darwin's struggle for existence. However , one cannot say that class
struggle has been the moving force of history. Marx’s explanation is teleological.
Peter Kropotkin in his work ‘mutual aid’ held that history has been the product of cooperation rather
than struggle. Though , there is individual competition over limited resources but through collective
cooperation history moves forwards. Thus he repudiated Marx historical materialism as a basis for
communism.
Conclusion
It is said that Marx is a god that has failed but marxism will continue to inspire the disadvantaged
section of the society especially in the times of crisis. Though Marxism is not a complete failure , it
brought the concept of welfarism ,labour rights and leisure to the world. And, Marx’s theory of
revolution will help us to remove the defects of society and political systems in order to achieve
equality in letter and spirit.

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Day 17 synopsis
Topic: - Western Political Thought: Gramsci, Hannah Arendt.
Q.1) Political freedom, Hannah Arendt argues, was the secret center of gravity in all modern
revolutions. Comment (10 Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Introduce Hannah Arendt’s as a thinker and talk briefly about freedom.
Body
• Explain why political freedom remains the main cause of revolution and relevant theories .
Conclusion
• Conclude by relating her concept of freedom with the present times and write its relevance if any.
Introduction:
Hannah arendt belongs to Aristotelian tradition whose main focus is on civic republicanism. She went
back to the Greek tradition of idealism when it comes to the idea of freedom and equality. She
advocated participatory democracy and active civic participation of the masses.
Body:
Unlike the conventional view of politics as the dark side , Hannah Arendt takes the sublime
view as major achievements of human civilization. She does not approach politics with the
goal of politics, rather a specific kind of activity and experiences.
In her book “promise of politics”, she shows that politics coincides with freedom. She develops
the philosophical basis to justify civic participation through her theory of Action.
Her view of political freedom was influenced by St. Augustines i.e the capacity to begin or start
something new which is different from the standard notion of freedom. Thus , Arendt's thoughts
revolve around the concepts of political freedom.
According to her , freedom is “an accessory of doing and acting, Men are free as long as they act,
neither before nor after; for to be free and to act are the same. She further claimed that men will get
freedom only when they take part in politics. As per her, the raison d'etre of politics is freedom and
the method to achieve it is through Action.
Arendt classifies ACTION as the only activity that goes on directly between people as free and equal
citizens. It is the most important to humans through which all political life exists.
In her work ‘on revolution’ she asserts that it is revolution which led human beings to start something
new whether it may be new political structure or new social system based on the idea of equality and
justice . Thus , by giving examples of the American and French Revolution she tries to convey the
message that political freedom is the root cause of all revolutions .
She also celebrates the American revolution as the founding father sticks to basic principles of
constitution . In her words , the American revolution created a “publics” which was conducive to

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Action (revolution) . While the French Revolution shifted their focus to subsistence and not ideas of
freedom thus it failed to achieve its motive .
Hannah Arendt presents an idea of freedom which is based on natality and it gets realized when
people come together in a state of plurality .
Conclusion
Hannah Arendt conception of freedom tends to be idealist and philosophical. Her ultimate aim is to
make the world a better place , empower all and help Everyman to realise freedom or natality through
enhanced political participation.
Q.2) Comment on Gramsci's concept of Historic bloc. (10 Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Introduce Gramsci and give the reason behind him proposing the concept called ‘Historic Bloc.’
Body
• Explain the ‘Historic Bloc.”
• Explain the relation between Historic Block and hegemony.
• Discuss how Gramsci saved Marxism from economic determinism using the Historic Bloc.
Conclusion
• Conclude the answer by acknowledging Gramsci's efforts.
Introduction
Antonio Gramsci is widely regarded as the father of ‘Neo-Marxism.’ His thoughts can be seen in a
compilation of his notes written in jail and later published as a book named ‘Prison notebook’. He
revived Marxism with his concept of ‘Cultural hegemony.’ While elaborating the concept of
hegemony Gramsci forwarded the theoretical concept called ‘Historic Bloc.’
Body
‘Historic Bloc’ represents the historic relationship between ‘Base’ and ‘Superstructure.’ According to
Gramsci, the capitalist class arranged ‘Superstructure’(cultural politics) and ‘Base’(Economic politics)
in such a manner that they formed the relationship of “Mutual exchange” to maintain the
hegemony of the capitalist class or state. It is an historical congruence between material forces,
institutions and ideologies, or broadly, an alliance of different class forces politically organized
around a set of hegemonic ideas that gave strategic direction and coherence to its constituent
elements.
Gramsci used the term historical bloc to refer to the alliances among various social groupings and
also, more abstractly, to the alignment of material, organizational, and discursive formations which
stabilize and reproduce relations of production and meaning.A historical bloc exercises hegemony
through the coercive and bureaucratic authority of the state, dominance in the economic realm, and
the consensual legitimacy of civil society.
In that process, the organic intellectuals of the dominant class and the social class like church
fathers, political leaders etc also play a fundamental role in producing the persuasive ideas and

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arguments needed in convincing other classes to be a part of their historical bloc, thus their
upcoming hegemony.
According to Gramsci, while understanding history, the superstructure is as important as the

base, as the superstructure has its independence. By giving the example of ‘Historic Bloc', Gramsci
explained how the interrelationship between both structures create a form of ‘Soft power’ which
influences society in such a way that capitalism feels normal and ideal. Organic intellectuals play a
vital role in creating the ‘Soft power.’
Gramsci aimed to end this ‘hegemony’ of the capitalist state. By citing the theory of
historic bloc. He urged the worker class that before combating ‘War of Manoeuvre’, first get
engaged in ‘War of Position’ by creating a counter historic bloc, This concept of ‘Historic bloc’ and
‘hegemony’ given by Gramsci in Marxism has saved Marxism from ‘Economic Determinism.’
Conclusion
Therefore, N. Bobbio rightly called Gramsci as “Theoretician of Superstructure.” Gramsci’s ‘Historic

Bloc’ concept gave new impetus to the Marxist struggle against capitalism. Hence, Chantel Mouffe
rightly says that “we have entered into the era of Gramscianism in the theory of Marxism.”

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Day 18 synopsis
Topic: - Indian Nationalism: Political Strategies of India's Freedom struggle : constitutionalism to mass
Satyagraha, Non-cooperation, Civil Disobedience ; millitant and revolutionary movements, Peasant and
workers' movements.
Q.1) “The Indian Freedom Struggle took inspiration from the principles of liberty and equality
against the forces that tended to divide the society.” Comment (10 Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Introduction to Indian Freedom Struggle.
Body
• Freedom struggle inspired by the values of liberty and equality.
• Freedom struggle as a tool to fight divisive forces.
Conclusion
• Summarise
Introduction:
Indian freedom struggle is defined as The largest , most peaceful and vibrant national movement in
the world whose warmth can be felt even today , by Bipan Chandra.
Body:
The Indian National Movement was not only a freedom struggle but it was one of the largest civil
rights movements as well. It was inspired by values such as liberty and equality.
The Early Nationalists defended civil rights whenever the British government tried to curtail them.
Their struggle for freedom became an integral part of the national movement from the very beginning.
In 1897, Tilak and many other leaders were arrested and tried for making provocative speeches.
The Early Nationalists demanded the Abolition of the Preventive Detention Act and restoration of
individual liberties and right to assemble and to form associations. They also wanted the Removal of
the restrictions imposed by the British Government on the freedom of speech, and the freedom of
the press
At the same time , the freedom struggle promoted the idea of equality as well. It can be seen from
the constructive programs of the Congress. Which included :
• Fight against untouchability aimed to establish equality between the different castes
• Promotion of Khadi was based on promoting economic equality.
• Leaders of the freedom struggle also made efforts to ensure equal access to education through
nations Universities and colleges.
Gandhi's idea of Sarvodaya was also inspired by these values of liberty and equality. The sarvodaya
society is based on equality and liberty. There is no room in it for unwholesome
competition , exploitation and class-hatred.
All people will be imbued with the spirit of love, fraternity, truth, non-violence and self-
sacrifices. Society will function on the basis of non-violence.

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These values stood against the evil forces of division that plagued Indian society. The evil of casteism
and communalism was to be defeated through a swaraj constitution.
The Indian Constitution so adopted provides Right to Equality and Liberty as fundamental rights to
all its citizens and calls for removal of casteism and communalism.
Conclusion
India's Freedom struggle is considered a glorious phase of Indian History that brought the whole
nation together, irrespective of caste , creed , language and religion , to ward off the foreign rule and
establish a sovereign nation based on the values of liberty and equality.
Q.2) Critically Analyse the significance of early moderates using constitutional means to demand
reforms from the Britishers. How did it helped in building the platform for launching of later
freedom struggle movement. (20 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Write a brief introduction of Indian freedom struggle.
Body
• Early Moderates , their demands , methods and goals and successes
• Contribution of Early Moderates in building a platform for wider freedom struggle.
Conclusion
• Significance of Moderates and how they shaped India of today
Introduction
Indian freedom struggle is defined as The largest , most peaceful and vibrant national movement in
the world whose warmth can be felt even today , by Bipan Chandra. The earliest contribution
towards the freedom struggle came from Indian social elite including lawyers, doctors, university
graduates, government officials and similar groups who were called the Moderates.
Body
The Early Nationalists also known as the Moderates were a group of political leaders in India active
between 1885 and 1907. They are known as "Early Nationalists" because they believed in
demanding reforms while adopting constitutional and peaceful means to achieve their aims. The
Early Nationalists had full faith in the British sense of justice, fair play, honesty, and integrity while
they believed that British rule was a boon for India. The Early Nationalists were staunch believers
in open-minded and moderate politics.
The Early Nationalists wanted certain political and economic reforms with the view to unify the
people of India. Believing that India should eventually move towards democratic self-government,
the Early Nationalists wanted a larger share in the governing of India. Thus, they demanded certain
Constitutional demands like:
• Abolition of the India Council Act.

• Expansion of the legislative council and Legislative Assemblies, both Central and Provincial.
• Increase in the membership of Indians by including some members elected by local bodies like
chambers of commerce, universities, etc.

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• By the beginning of the 20th century, they demanded for Swaraj (self-rule) within the British
Empire similar to the self-governing colonies in Canada and Australia.
• Adequate representation of Indians in the executive council of the Viceroy and those of the
governors.
• The members of the legislative councils to be directly elected by the people of India.
• A complete separation of the executive and judicial branches of administration.
• Complete self government modelled on self governing British colonies like Australia and Canada.
They also made certain demands for administrative reforms Wider employment of Indians in the
higher grades of administrative service , Demand for simultaneous Indian Civil Service examinations
in England and India etc.
Early nationalist employed constitutional methods like:
• Bringing resolutions in assembly o

• Sending memorials, prayers, petitions
• Appeals to justice
• Protests (by peaceful means)
However , Early Moderates didn't see any concrete gains in terms of significant concessions. The
British response was always too slow, too less with the objective to frustrate.The methods used by
the Early Nationalists of passing resolutions and sending petitions were seen as inadequate by critics
who argued that they depended on the generosity of the British instead of relying on their own
strength and challenging the imperialist might.
Early Nationalists failed to draw the masses into the mainstream of the national movement such
that their area of influence remained limited to urban educated Indians. In particular, their
leadership comprised only members of professional groups such as lawyers, doctors, journalists and
teachers.
However , According to Bipan Chandra, Early Moderates laid the foundation from where the most
spectacular mass movement emerged. They didn't carry mass struggle but carry ideological struggle.
Direct action is possible only when masses are organised, unified and have common consciousness
of common end. The objective (exploitative) conditions of colonial rule were bringing Indians
together. But the subjective consciousness of common ends was missing. Moderates generated that
consciousness through their action.
Gradually they started recognising evil effect and un-British rule in India.At the same time, British did
introduce some good practices. All the features of evil empire were not on surface. Moderates were
both leaders and learners. They did not have any readymade understanding of colonialism. They
focussed on understanding the nature of colonialism. They produced economic critique of
colonialism (Drain of wealth theory by Dadabhai Naraoji) Bipin Chandra mentions Ranade who held
that memorials are not addressed to British but to the people of India. In 1907, Gokhale held that we
are at the stage of country's progress when our achievements are bound to be small and
disappointments frequent. We must contend to serve our country by failure. Out of the failure, will
grow the strength
Conclusion

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Though moderates did not carry out mass struggle but they carried out struggle at ideological level.
They laid the foundation of the most spectacular mass movement. They brought the concept of
equality
before the law, of freedom of
speech and press and the principle
of representative government to the center of India's freedom struggle. These values of moderates
still guides India in the 21st century.

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Day 19 synopsis
Topic: - Indian Nationalism: Perspectives on Indian National Movement: Liberal, Socialist and Marxist;
Radical humanist and Dalit.
Q.1) Comment on Radical Humanist Perspective of Indian National Movement. (10 marks, 150
Words)
Introduction
• Mention that different perspectives emerged and one of them is Radical Humanist Perspective
and mention it is attributable to MN Roy.
Body
• Start by mentioning MN Roy in 2 lines.
• Then go on to link the philosophy of radical humanism in relation to Indian national movement.
Conclusion
• In conclusion, write how the contribution of radical humanism is remarkable.
Introduction:
The nature of political activities in the sub-continent between 1857 to 1947 have been viewed
differently by different schools of thought. The Radical Humanists Perspective of Indian National
Movement can be attributed to MN Roy, whose views are contained in “New Humanism - A
Manifesto”, “Future of Indian Politics” and “Radical Humanist”.
Body:
MN Roy was a political thinker who held extreme beliefs at different stages in his life. He began as a
revolutionary but later, went on to advocate the philosophy of radical humanism. While Radical
Humanists did not develop a clear perspective on Indian National Movement, their views can be
understood from their philosophy.
• MN Roy’s philosophy focused on individual and freedom. It rejects traditional political notions and
ideologies like nationalism, communism or parliamentary democracy. According to MN Roy,
nationalism gives up individual freedom for the sake of collective ego of a nation. As a Radical
Humanist, Roy believed freedom is not just political freedom but freedom in absolute sense.
• MN Roy criticised Indian National Congress (INC) and its leaders, particularly Gandhi as a bundle
of contradictions. For instance, they opposed INC in regard to its position in World War II. MN Roy
stated that India’s support to British is necessary for defeat for fascist regimes. They criticised INC
for launching the Quit India Movement. He also criticised political parties including INC for their
obsession over how the Constitution ought to be enacted rather than what the Constitution
should contain.
• Radical humanists with their scientific and humanistic outlook preferred freedom by peaceful
means.
• Unlike INC and other nationalists, to Radical Humanists, independence is not an end but means.
Their primary focus or concern was individual freedom. He thus proposed radical democracy of
free individuals, which requires not merely democratic institutions but democratic nature,
attitude and temperament.

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• According to MN Roy, an individual is a sovereign entity and should be the basis of political order.
This was reflected in MN Roy’s “Constitution of Free India: A Draft” (published in 1934) which
advocated direct democracy and radical decentralisation. MN Roy advocated party-less
democracy, called for establishments of “People’s Committee” among others.
• The Draft Constitution went beyond core political issues as it contained features relating to
collective ownership, separate electorates and the concept of ‘free-compulsory’ education for
children.
Conclusion
At a time when the liberal perspective, which was the dominant perspective on Indian National
Movement, focussed merely on political aspects and did not delve into socio-economic matters, the
Radical Humanist perspective is remarkable in bringing in new insights. Radical humanist perspective
covers political, economic and social areas. It deals with the ideas of ‘organised democracy’, ‘party-
less democracy’, ‘decentralisation of power’, ‘economic re-organisation’ and ‘social cohesiveness’. In
this way, the Radical Humanist perspective is a holistic alternative system of thought.
Q.2) Examine the Dalit perpsective on national movement (10Marks, 150 Wods)
Introduction
• Introduce what is dalit perspective
• Name few exponents
Body
• Describe the contribution
• Discuss how it differed from national narrative
• Why it opposed mainstream nationalism
Conclusion
• Summarize its importance in the national movement.
Introduction
Dalit perspective of national movement, also known as subaltern perspective is culmination of works
of leaders like Phule, Ramaswami Naicker, B R Ambedkar and Narayan Guru.
Body
Dalit perspective is critical of nationalism supported by congress. Though efforts of nationalist leaders
succeeded in bringing a section of Dalit leadership in the national movement and enabled the
participation of Dalit population in national struggle, majority of Dalit intelligentsia experienced
reluctance on the part of congress leadership to share power. Liberation from internal oppression
rather than liberation from the British rule was the desired goal of Dalit intelligentsia.
Jyotiba Phule expressed doubt about the commitment of upper-class leadership from the
national movement in bringing social reforms. He criticized Brahmanism and said unless so-called
lower castes become educated and are eligible to think for themselves, they cannot constitute a
nation.
Dr. Ambedkar criticized Gandhi and congress while demanding separate electorate for
scheduled castes. He stated that if society is segregated then politics should also be. He refuted the
possibility of forming a nation unless the caste system was abolished, as each caste was a nation in
itself.

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Nationalist and right wing historians have criticized the Dalit perspective for undermining the
struggle for independence from British. They are accused of keeping the interest of the community
above the interest of the nation.
However, Dalit perpective cannot be said to be against the nationalism as they emphasized on
larger goals of equality, human rights and dignity without which a nation cannot sustain. Opposition
to the national movement also paved from the efforts of national leaders to glorify India's traditions.
For Dalit scholars, India’s past cannot be complete without mention of atrocities against the
untouchables. Fear of re-establishment of Brahmanical hegemony ran along the Dalit perspective. E
V Ramaswami Naicker started a self-respect movement to counter Brahmanism and instill self
confidence among lower castes.
Conclusion
Gail Omvedt has observed that ‘the Dalit movement and the overall radical anti-caste movements
were a crucial expression of the democratic revolution in India’, as they showed concern for human
rights, self-respect and vision of better society in independent India.

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Day 20 synopsis
Topic: - Making of the Indian Constitution: Legacies of the British rule; different social and political
perspectives.
Q.1) “The constitution of India is the product of a historical process, rich with constitutional
antecedents.” Critically comment. (10 Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Introduction to Constitution of India.
Body
• History of Indian Constitution.
• Various influences on Indian constitution.
Conclusion
• Summarise the above.
Introduction:
The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India. It lays down the framework defining fundamental
political principles, establishes the structure, procedures, powers and duties of government
institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles and the duties of citizens.
Body:
Our constitution is the result of a historical process and deep deliberations of a representative body.
The Constitution as we know it today is a rich amalgamation of a long historical process , carefully
choosing suitable portions of various documents and transforming them to suit Indian situations :
• Government of India Act, 1935
• Other constitutions like that of France , US , Russia , South Africa etc.
• Objective Resolution adopted during the 1946 Assembly session.
It was M.N. Roy who conceived the idea of ‘Constitution’ first while Gandhi first conceived
the idea of ‘constituent assembly’ elected by the people. However, a definite advance in the
direction was made with the arrival of the cabinet mission in India on 24th March 1946.
Various influences on Indian constitutions were :

Government of India Act of 1935
• It provided for the establishment of an All-India Federation consisting of provinces and princely
states as units.
• The Act divided the powers between the Centre and units in terms of three lists: Federal List,
Provincial List and the Concurrent List.
• It abolished dyarchy in the provinces and introduced ‘provincial autonomy’ in its place.
• The Act introduced responsible Governments in provinces, that is, the Governor was required to
act with the advice of ministers responsible to the provincial legislature.
Indian constitution also borrowed various principles from other constitutions such as :
• United Kingdom : Parliamentary government ,concept of single citizenship , Rule of law , The
office of speaker and their role.

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• United States : Bill of Rights , Federal structure of government , Electoral College ,
Independent judiciary and separation of powers Judicial review.
• Ireland : Directive principles of state policy
Therefore the Indian constitution is also called a 'borrowed bag'. However all the provisions of the
constitution were thoroughly debated and amended umpteen number of times. Therefore the
resultant constitution expressed the desires of every Indian and was fitted to suit our realities.
Conclusion
Thus it can be said that ' The constitution of India is the product of a historical process, rich with
constitutional antecedents'.
Q.2) The main objective of framing constitution was to form a political democracy, lay down ideal
of economic democracy and to strive to bring social democracy. Justify. (15 Marks,
Introduction
• Write about Hobbes as a thinker , his methods and philosophy used by him.
Body
• Explain how Hobbes' political theory is influenced by his own psychology.
• Explain how he used his psychology to develop a mechanistic theory of state
• Try to critics his ideas
Conclusion
• Conclude by giving contemporary relevance of Hobbes in present times.
Introduction
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, very clearly outlined the core expectations underlining the various commitments.
He said: “Our object in framing the Constitution is two-fold: to lay down the form of political
democracy, and to lay down that our ideal is economic democracy and also to prescribe that every
Government whatever is in power shall strive to bring about economic democracy
Body
Synthesis of political, Economic and Social democracy

The Constitution of India lays down a structure for political, economic and social
democracy. It underlines the commitment of the people of India for asserting, ensuring and achieving
the various national goals through peaceful and democratic ways. It is not merely a legal manuscript;
rather, it is a vehicle that steers the nation to realize the dreams and aspirations of the people by
accommodating and adapting to the changing needs and realities of the times.
According to KT Shah, Preamble is horoscope of Indian constitution .The foundation of social,

Economic and political democracy has been provided in the preamble itself through provision of
Justice ,Liberty , Equality and Fraternity.
The very part of Enforceable Fundamental Rights under part III of constitution shows
devotion to Political democracy. The political democracy which will uphold the individual liberty
from excessive state power is included in part III. Universal adult suffrage, Rights life and Liberty

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(Article 21), Freedom of speech and expression(Article 19) indicates ideals of western liberty
notion in tradition with John Locke, J S Mill.
The part IV from article 36-51 covers tenets of socio-Economic Democracy. Although not
enforceable by law; it is non-justiciable. It covers crucial aspects of Social democracy like right to
work and Social assistance in case of unemployment, Old age and sickness. Uniform civil code
provision under article 44 also says about uniformity of crucial laws.
In addition to it the Reservation provisions for SC, ST and Other Backward Classes shows the
vision of constitutional makers to Introduce Equality of opportunity . These Affirmative actions from
state will ensure the greater representation of all sections of society in the Education ,Elections and
Higher education
Moreover Economic democracy, like Right to an adequate means of livelihood
to all the citizens, The ownership and control of material resources shall be organised in a manner to
serve the common good, The State shall avoid concentration of wealth in a few hands, Equal pay for
equal work for both men and women.
Conclusion
Although Socio-economic democracy is explicitly mentioned in the Constitution its

implementation remained a concerned area for policy makers rights from Land reforms to LPG
policies. Increasing Inequality, Caste based political mobilization , Regionalism putting question
mark on Substantive democracy in Indian context.
French scholar Alex de Tocquiles in his statement said that “Until Socio economic
democracy is there the legal political democracy is going to fulfil the interests of the small elite
class”.
Therefore its crucial to uphold Substantive Democracy of Social and Economic Equality to all rather
than Procedural democracy which had an onus on political rights like universal adult suffrage .

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Day 21 synopsis
Topic: - Salient Features of the Indian Constitution: The Preamble, Fundamental Rights and Duties,
Directive Principles;
Q.1) “The true source of rights is duty. If we all discharge our duties, right will not be far to seek. If
leaving duties unperformed we run after rights, they will escape us like a will-o'- the-wisp. The
more we pursue them, the farther they fly" (Mahatma Gandhi) Analyse this statement with
respect to the relation between Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties. (15 Marks, 250
Words)
Introduction
• Introduce with the importance of duties of citizens.
Body
• Relationship between Rights and Duties.
• Gandhi's interpretation of rights and duties.
Conclusion
• Duties should come only after ensuring basic rights
Introduction:
The terms 'obligations of citizens'(duties) and 'anti-national' (emanating from the transgression of
these duties) have recently become buzzwords in the political scene. In a constitutional democracy,
the state provides citizens with rights and responsibilities so that society can cohabit peacefully at the
same time, citizens have certain duties towards other citizens and the state.
Body:
It is frequently asserted that rights and responsibilities are inextricably linked. "Real rights are a result
of the discharge of duty," Mahatma Gandhi wrote in Hind Swaraj. Rights and responsibilities are
inextricably linked and cannot be separated. Every right comes with a responsibility.
The state is responsible for safeguarding and enforcing rights, and it is the responsibility of all citizens
to be loyal to the state. As a result, a citizen has both rights and responsibilities.
One man's right is also his duty, according to Harold Laski. When the state grants a citizen the right to
life, it also imposes on him the responsibility of not putting his life in danger and of respecting the lives
of others.
The Indian Constitution provides citizens with Fundamental Rights as well as a list of Fundamental
Duties that must be followed.
The Constitution protects the rights of the common man in a wide range of subjects by establishing
six Fundamental Rights (Part III of the constitution). In the same way, the Constitution emphasises the
Fundamental Duties (Part IVA of the constitution)
The twin concepts of anti-dehumanisation and anti-hierarchy are established through the formulation
of rights. This is mirrored in India's constitution, which includes a chapter on Fundamental Rights.
When debating Fundamental Rights, the Indian Constitution's framers believed that every human
being should have access to basic dignity and equality, which the state could not take away.

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However, along with rights, citizens have a vast range of responsibilities that bind us in daily life. These
responsibilities are owed to both the state and people. There is a legal obligation to pay taxes, refrain
from violence towards fellow citizens, and observe other laws approved by Parliament.
Breach of these legal obligations results in monetary penalties (fines) or punitive actions such as jail.
Duties are based on the basic premise that peaceful coexistence necessitates some level of self-
sacrifice, which must be enforced if required through a set of consequences.
As a result, Gandhiji believed that "if everyone executes his responsibility instead of insisting on rights,
the rule of law will be established among people instantly." He goes on to say that although the
businessman and the Zamindar talk about their rights, the labourer talks about his, the prince about
his divine right to reign, and the ryot about his right to resist. There will be complete uncertainty and
anarchy if everyone simply insists on rights and no responsibilities.
Conclusion
The interpretation of 'Duties' and the argument around it, according to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, should
encompass the duties of individuals in positions of authority. Others in positions of authority should
not use their position to exploit those over whom they have control. We can only ask people to
execute their duties when we have guaranteed to all the entire sum of humanity, dignity, equality,
and freedom provided by the Constitution.
Q.2) Analyse the importance of Doctrine of Eclipse in preserving the sanctity of Indian constitution.
Introduction
• Briefly explain the doctrine of eclipse
Body
• Mention article 13(1), which forms the constitutional basis of doctrine of eclipse
• Write the features of doctrine of eclipse
• Explain how Doctrine of eclipse helps in preserving the sanctity of Indian constitution
Conclusion
• Highlight the importance of the doctrine in harmonizing the pre constitutional and post
constitutional aspects of various laws
Introduction
According to the doctrine of eclipse, any law which is in conflict with the fundamental rights is not
totally dead. Rather, it is overshadowed by the fundamental right till the time an amendment to the
relevant fundamental right is not made. Once a constitutional amendment is made to the concerned
provision, with respect to the fundamental right, the entire law becomes valid.
Body
Doctrine of eclipse is derived from article 13(1) of the Indian constitution which says that "all laws in
force in the territory of India immediately before the commencement of this constitution, in so far
as they are inconsistent with the provisions of this part, shall, to the extent of such inconsistency, be
void."

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The doctrine of eclipse was formulated by the supreme court in the landmark case of Bhikaji vs.
State of Madhya Pradesh, 1955. The nationalisation of motor transport by the government of
Madhya Pradesh was held inoperative because of it being in conflict with article 19(1)(g) of the
constitution. However, the supreme court in the above case held that the statute of Madhya
Pradesh state of nationalising the motor transport was secured by the fourth amendment act 1955.
The doctrine of eclipse was hence applied and the act was validated/ brought back to life.
Based on the supreme court judgement(s), doctrine of eclipse has following features:
1. It is concerned only with the pre constitutional laws
2. The laws must be in conflict with fundamental right
3. The law does not become null and void but only gets into moribund condition.
4. Future amendment to the concerned fundamental right will make the moribund law
operative.
Hence the doctrine of eclipse helps in maintaining the sanctity of the Indian constitution as it
ensured smooth transition of India into a republic which had its own constitution. It provides for the
validation of pre constitutional laws which are in conflict with the fundamental rights of Indian
constitution on the ground that such laws are not null and void ab initio but remain inoperative till
such inconsistency with the fundamental rights is not being removed.
Besides this, the law in conflict remains inoperative only for the citizens of the state. It remains in
force against the non-citizens as they are not entitled to the fundamental rights provided by the
Indian constitution.
Thirdly, doctrine of eclipse allows the concerned law to come out of the shadow, via the
constitutional amendment, which helps to make the concerned law free from all blemish or
infirmity.
Conclusion
The supreme court has clarified in Deep Chand vs State of Uttar Pradesh that post constitutional
laws which are in conflict with the fundamental rights become null and void at their inception.
Hence the doctrine of eclipse is not applicable to them.
However this doctrine has effectively helped in harmonizing the constitutional and post
constitutional aspects with respect to various laws. Such harmony has led to the triumph of
constitutionalism within our republic.

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Day 22 synopsis
Topic: Salient Features of the Indian Constitution: Parliamentary System and Amendment
Procedures; Judicial Review and Basic Structure doctrine.
Q.1) "An amendment cannot destroy, what it seeks to modify". Analyse the statement in context of
Basic structure doctrine. (10 Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Briefly explain the statement by referring to Kesavananda Bharati case, 1973
Body
• Give the historical background of parliament's power to amend the constitution
• Explain the importance of basic structure & some instances of application of basic structure
doctrine.
• Issues with basic structure doctrine
Conclusion
• Can conclude by mentioning the importance of basic structure doctrine in strengthening Indian
democracy
Introduction:
Constitutional amendments have helped in organic development of the constitution. This has
enabled the constitution to respond to the changing needs of the society. From first constitutional
amendment act 1951 to 25th constitutional amendment act 1971 to 103rd constitutional
amendment act 2019, Article 368 has been used by the parliament to amend Indian constitution so
as to bring progressive legislations/policies like land reforms, reservation for SCs, STs & OBCs in
educational institutions, 10% reservation for economically weaker section etc.
Body:
The above statement, in the context of the Indian constitution, means that the power to amend the
Indian constitution is not absolute. In other words, use of article 368 cannot be made to change the
essence or basic principles on which the Indian constitution is based. This is what the 13 judge bench
of supreme court said in Kesavananda Bharati case, 1973.
In Shankari Prasad case, 1951 and Sajjan Singh case, 1965, supreme court held that parliament has
complete right to amend the fundamental rights using article 368. However, in the Golaknath case
1967, supreme court changed its stand and held that fundamental rights are immutable and
constitutional amendments would come under the definition of law in article 13 (2).
Eventually in Kesavananda Bharati case 1973, supreme court held that parliament has power to
amend the fundamental rights with the condition that it should not tinker with the basic structure of
the Indian constitution. It held that basic structure stood for the fundamental tenets on which the
Indian constitution is based. The parliament has power to change the provisions of the constitution
without violating these fundamental tenants.
In successive judgements like S R Bommai case 1994 etc, supreme court has highlighted various
components of basic structure like federalism, secularism, rule of law etc. Hence basic structure
doctrine keeps a check on the arbitrary use of power by the legislature and ensures that the
constitution is not amended as per the political ideology of the ruling government.

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However, basic structure doctrine is often criticized for restricting the amendment powers of the
parliament as it is considered a judicial innovation. It is also believed by some analysts that it is
ambiguous in nature and there have been instances where the judiciary has restricted parliamentary
power (like the 99th constitutional amendment/ NJAC Bill).
Conclusion
Despite the criticism, it can be said that basic structure doctrine has helped Indian democracy to
become more robust as it has prevented Indian democracy from degenerating into dictatorship and
has ensured supremacy of the constitution.
Q.2) Basic Structure Doctrine as the Magna Carta of Positive Liberty in India. (10 Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Define Basic Structure.
Body
• Basic Structure and protection of Rights
• Criticism of Basic Structure.
Conclusion
• Significance of Basic Structure.
Introduction
The doctrine of basic structure is a judicial invention that aims to ensure that the power of amendment
is not used arbitrarily by Parliament. The Indian Constitution holds certain principles as its basic
character, any amendment cannot alter these principles and this is what the doctrine of basic
structure seeks to ensure .
Body
The Kesavananda Bharati case of 1973 brought this doctrine into the focus. It held that the “basic
structure of the Constitution cannot be altered even by a constitutional amendment”
This basic structure doctrine has been used by the judiciary in safeguarding and expanding the
fundamental rights of the citizens.
Article 13 (2) provides for the protection of the fundamental rights of the citizen. It prohibits the
Parliament and the state legislatures from enacting laws that may take away or abridge the
fundamental rights of the citizens.
The constitution explicitly mentions that SC is the guarantor and defender of the Constitution.
Absence of this doctrine would have created a scope for authoritative governments altering the
constitution to suit their agenda.
Although The doctrine of basic structure is not clearly defined but through various interpretations
provided by Judicial pronouncements clarifies a scope defining the form or the structure of the
constitution. From time to time the contents of basic structure is enhanced with something new and
hence the Supreme Court is yet to define the exact basic structure of the constitution. It has provided
following under the ambit of the basic structure :
• Supremacy of the constitution
• Rule of law

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• Sovereignty, liberty and republic nature of Indian polity.
• Judicial review
• Harmony and Balance between fundamental rights and directive principles.
• Separation of power etc
One common criticism of basic structure doctrine is that the doctrine has no basis in the original
constitutional provisions. The doctrine lacks a textual basis. Constitution doesn't provide any ideas
about what is its basic structure and that this structure is beyond the amending powers of the
legislature. Its detractors also believe the doctrine provides the judiciary , an unelected body , a power
to impose its thinking over a democratically elected government.
Conclusion
Whatever may be the pros or cons of the doctrine, to a great extent, the limitation of basic structure
put upon the constituent power of the legislature has helped prevent such forces and stabilized the
democracy and protected the fundamental rights of the citizens.

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Day 23 synopsis
Topic: Principal Organs of the Union Government: Envisaged role and actual working of the
Executive, Legislature and Supreme Court.
Q.1) “Judicial review is a remedy to prevent abuse of special powers by the other organs of the
state.” Analyse this statement by assessing the role of Judiciary in maintaining the checks and
balances. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Define Judicial Review.
Body
• Constitutional provisions for judicial review.
• Types of Judicial Review.
• Importance of Judicial Review.
• Issues - Judicial Overreach.
Conclusion
• Significance of Judicial Review and way forward.
Introduction:
Judicial review is a procedure in which the judiciary examines executive, legislative, and administrative
activities. The power of the judiciary to supervise the legislative and executive branches when they
exceed their authority is one of the checks and balances in the separation of powers.
Body:
It is the power vested in a country's courts to scrutinise the activities of the legislators, executive, and
administrative branches of government in order to ensure that they are in accordance with the
nation's Constitution.
It is the procedure through which the Judiciary examines the constitutionality of laws passed by the
legislature, as set forth in Article 13. For Example , The striking down of the Section 66A of the IT Act
since it was against the Fundamental Rights provided by the constitution.
Another example is the striking down of 99th Constitutional Amendment Act or the NJAC. Through
the tool of judicial review , SC upheld the important element of the constitution , that is , Judicial
Independence. Judiciary prevented the legislature from enacting a law that would have compromised
the independence of judiciary , an important organ in Indian democracy.
Types of Judicial Review:
Reviews of Legislative Actions:

This examination entails the authority to guarantee that laws passed by the legislature are in
accordance with the Constitution's provisions.
Review of Administrative Actions:\sThis is a tool for enforcing constitutional discipline over

administrative agencies while exercising their powers.
Review of Judicial Decisions:

This review is used to correct or make any change in previous decisions by the judiciary itself.

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Importance of Judicial Review:
It is necessary for the Constitution's supremacy to be maintained. It is necessary to prevent the
legislature and the executive from abusing their powers. It also defends people's rights and preserves
the federal balance. It is necessary to protect the judiciary's independence and prevent executive
tyranny.
However, there are certain reservations about the judiciary's review power. When it overrides any
existing legislation, it restricts the government's ability to function and breaches the constitution's
authority restrictions. Judicial Review has also frequently resulted in judicial activism or even judicial
overreach.
The distinction between judicial activism and overreach is razor-thin. Judicial Overreach occurs when
judicial activism oversteps its bounds and becomes judicial adventurism. When the court exceeds the
powers granted to it, it has the potential to obstruct the efficient working of the two branches of
government. It is undesirable in any democracy. Individual perspectives determine whether an action
is activism or overreach.
Pratap Bhanu Mehta in his book “Public institutions in India” 'calls judiciary as the self-perpetuating,
paradoxical and highly politicized institution'. He argues that the Judiciary has strengthened its
position vis-a-vis the legislature and its executive. In the words of Pratap Bhanu Mehta, Judicial power
in India creates itself and destroys itself. Judiciary has gained popularity through manipulations.
Judiciary has used its power to protect erring judges in the name of judicial independence.
However , Upendra Bakshi praised the Indian Judiciary. According to him, the Judiciary is doing
chemotherapy of Carcinogenic Indian politics. Judiciary has ensured the rule of Law, strengthened
the rights of people. It is, for this reason, SC of India has become the SC of Indians, an institution
admired by Indians.
Conclusion
The courts operate as a protector of fundamental rights when they have the power of judicial review.
As the modern state's functions have grown, judicial intervention in the process of making and
carrying out administrative decisions has grown as well. Only a delicate balance between various
government bodies can keep constitutional ideals alive.
Q.2) "Coalition governance greatly enhances the importance of president because she / he is the
referee in the game of government formation. " Comment (10 Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Office of President in India scheme of governance.
Body
• Powers of the President and limitations on his power.
• Coalition governments and the enhanced role of the President.
Conclusion
• What should be the role of President in India.
Introduction

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Article 52 of the Indian Constitution states that there shall be a President of India. The President is
considered the Executive head of the country. All the Executive business of the country is carried out
in the name of the President. He is the head of Union Executive , an integral part of Parliament ,
represents states at union level and he is the chief of the Armed forces.
Body
As per the constitution of India , President enjoys many powers at the time of government formation
such as :
• Executive Powers: Appointment of the high authorities of the Constitution like the Prime Minister
and the Council of Ministers, right of being informed about all the national affairs. Appointment
of the judges of the constitutional courts
• Legislative powers: During the budget session, the President is the first to address the Parliament;
The President is empowered to summon a joint session in order to break the deadlock in the
legislation process between the two Houses of the Parliament
• Ordinance Making powers.
He enjoys many other financial, judicial and pardoning powers. However, these powers aren't
discretionary on President's will. Article 74 states that there shall be a council of ministers headed by
PM to aid and advise the President and President will act on its aid and advice. 42nd Amendment to
the constitution made this binding on the president.
However in case of a Coalition government (a form of government in which more than one political
parties cooperate to form a government) , the role of the President increases. Since 1989 till 2014
country has witnessed minority government and coalition govt. This phase shows weakening of the
position of Prime Minister. Coalition government is a fragmented government.
Coalition governance greatly enhances the importance of the president , as he decides whether to
grant PM's request for dissolution of the house or not. Further , President decides , in case of a hung
assembly , who to call to form the government. Thus , exercising discretion , which she doesn't have
in ordinary circumstances.
Since the beginning of Coalition governments in India , it saw greater dissolution of power from Central
government and PM to other organs , including the president. For example , in 1989 , President
Venkatraman summoned Janata Dal to form a government as Congress (with Maximum number of
seats) seemed unable to form a government.
During this phase of coalition governments , many incidences of Presdiential assertiveness was
witnessed. In 1996 , President Shankar Dayal Sharma returned two ordinances to the cabinet - one
extending SC reservation to other groups and the other reducing period of election campaigns. He
regarded them as inappropriate as they were promulgated just before the parliamentary elections.
Thus , showing that in coalition governments , President has a greater scope to act as per his wishes.
Conclusion
Despite its criticisms , in the contemporary world , the welfare state is the most widely accepted ideal.
Today , State is seen as an agent for moral improvement that is required to intervene in the
distribution of resources to secure the welfare of the citizens. Indian constitution establishes India as
a welfare state with an objective of securing social , economic and political justice for its citizens. The

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ideals of Directive Principles of State Policy in part IV of the constitution provide Positive role to the
state rather than reduce it to a Limited Nightwatchman role.

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Day 24 synopsis
Topic: - Principal Organs of the State Government: Envisaged role and actual working of the
Executive, Legislature and High Courts.
Q.1) Analyze the principle of separation of power envisaged in the Indian constitution for its ability
to negate confrontation and create a cooperative framework among different organs of the state.
Introduction
• Introduction to the principle of separation of power
Body
• Provisions regarding this in the constitution
• How it ensures cooperation among different organs of state
• Instances of checks and balances, the overlap of powers, and issues with it
Conclusion
• Relevance and importance of it in the context of India
Introduction:
Any democratic government rests on three pillars – the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary.
These three pillars constitute the three organs of the government machinery. The powers and
functions of these organs are defined in the constitution of India that constitutes the supreme law of
a democratic government. The Doctrine of Separation of Powers deals with the mutual relations
among these three organs. This mainly signifies the division of different powers.
Body:
The Constitution of India embraces the idea of separation of powers in an implied manner. Apart from
preventing concentration of powers, another pragmatic reason for this separation are division of
labour and specialization of tasks. Despite there being no express provision recognizing the doctrine
of separation of powers in its absolute form, the Constitution does make the provisions for a
reasonable separation of functions and powers between the three organs of Government such as
State shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive (article 50), judicial conduct of a
judge of the Supreme Court and the High Courts cannot be discussed in the Parliament and the State
Legislature (article 121 and 211), etc.
However, there is no watertight separation of powers among the three organs. There are instances
of confrontation among them. The origin of amendability of fundamental rights from the Golaknath
case judgement to the Kesavanand Bharati case judgement shows the confrontation among
legislature and the judiciary. The appointment of judges which is done by executive has been an issue
of contention between executive and judiciary as can be seen from the First Judges case, Second
judges case. Judicial activism also creates a space for conflict where the judiciary has overridden the
laws made by Parliament such as in the coal block allocation case. In present context as well, Shruti
Rajagopalan has argued that the court’s actions regarding the farm laws and protests have been
critiqued by legal and constitutional scholars on multiple grounds, one of them being the violation of
separation of power and lack of legal basis.
Despite this there is sufficient cooperation among all three pillars which complements the actions of
other pillars. Judiciary has used the powers under article 142 for upholding citizens’ rights and
implementing constitutional principles when the executive and legislature fails to do so. On the other

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hand article 143 is an bst example of cooperation between the executive and judiciary in matters
constitutional or otherwise. In the judicial restraint the courts are not to take over the function of
executive and legislature. For example- In S.R. Bommai v Union of India the judges said that there are
certain situations where the political element dominates and the Courts ought not to meddle. The
Minerva Mills case has limited the power of the Parliament to amend the constitution. Judiciary has
a power of judicial review to examine the constitutionality of legislative enactments and executive
orders. And this power of judiciary cannot be curtailed.
This indicates that the Indian Constitution does not provide for a strict separation of powers. Instead,
it creates a system consisting of the three organs of Government and confers upon them both
exclusive and overlapping powers and functions. On one hand this creates proneness to conflicts
while on the other hand this brings the system of checks and balances in action wherein one organ
imposes checks on other organs which ensures that no one organ becomes all-too powerful and brings
cooperation among the organs. This ensures that the discretionary power bestowed on any organ is
within the democratic principle.
Conclusion
Thus, the doctrine of separation of powers in the strict sense has not been fully accepted, but it still
holds relevance in today’s world. To some extent it is significant in a way that it minimizes the
possibility of arbitrary excesses by the government since the sanction of all three branches is
required for the making, executing, and administering of laws. Further, a system of checks and
balances prevents the arbitrary use of power. Also, every organ must respect the functional and
structural reasons why its role is distinct from that of the other organ.
Q.2) What change has coalition politics made on the institution of Governor? Examine (10 Marks,
150 Words)
Answer: -
Introduction:
According to Riker, the coalition is a power sharing agreement among two or more parties. Coalition
Politics is a common phenomenon in a multi-party democracy and becomes unavoidable in certain
situations like, When in a multi-party parliamentary democracy the election result is inconclusive and
does not mandate any single political party to form government.
Body:
According to Zoya Hasan coalition governments at states are more stable than at central level but in
recent times the cases like Karnataka Assembly, Madhya Pradesh Assembly the Situational discretion
use by Governors of state created concerns. Many regional parties alleged that the governor acted as
only the “Agent of Centre” and Not the “Constitutional Head” of state. In the hung assemblies office
of governor plates crucial role because of discretions and responsibility to uphold constitutional
provisions.
The primary function of the governor is to uphold and defend the constitution and the law as
enshrined in their oath of office under (Article 159) of the Indian constitution in the administration of
State affairs. Article 213 provided ordinance making power to the governor in case the assembly is
not in session.
Since the coalition form started Indian polity precisely from Morarji Desai government
from 1977 the office of a governor has gone through significant change because of the coalition form
government and Pressure groups of Regional political parties. Political coalition to form a

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government especially at the national level is only directed if the majority gains a political party it
leads to the deterioration of Central-State relations.
In addition, it put the Governor's office in danger of political repression. For
example, wholesale removal, transfer and resignation of the governors of Rajasthan, Bihar, Tamil
Nadu and Punjab, previously nominated by the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government
and more especially the way the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government has worked together
The ruler of Tamil Nadu by entering into an inevitable political conflict that proves more than anything
else doubting that Indian politics has come a long way in getting into the grip of cooperative
federalism.
In the coalition era due Influence of Regional parties and their pressure group resulted into weak
office of governor if Ruling party at state is an ally of Centre and Completely opposite has happened
when different parties at centre and state in the Coalition Government. Governor office has been used
to form governments at states since the return of Single party dominance from 2014.
Punchhi Commission(2007) prescribed how the Governor should follow “Constitutional provisions” in
case of hung assembly. This indication earlier in one party dominant era was not followed in many
states but with strong regional parties with coalition partners like DMK in Tamil nadu the
constitutional provision has been followed by respective state governors.
Conclusion:
Coalition governments affected the governor office in a positive way and to reduce central influence.
Also, there is reduction in a presidential rule recommendation and red tapism but when there is a
different party in state other than coalition the phenomenon of central domination has continued.

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Day 25 synopsis
Topic: - Grassroots Democracy: Panchayati Raj and Municipal Government; significance of 73rd
and 74th Amendments; Grassroot movements.
Q.1) Do you think that the Panchayati Raj System have been able to realize the dreams of
democratic decentralization in true terms? Give your views in support and against. (15 Marks, 250
Words)
Introduction
• Background of Panchayati Raj System in India.
Body
• Achievements of Panchayati Raj.
• Issues in realising true decentralisation.
• Way forward
Conclusion
• Why it’s vital to bring reforms.
Introduction:
Democratic decentralization is based on the ‘principle of subsidiarity’ which means that what can be
done at a particular level should be done at that level and not at the higher level. In the Indian context,
73rd and 74th constitution Amendment Act (1992) has been
hailed as a big step towards the principle of democratic decentralization as it provides the constitution
status to the local government institutions in India.
Body:
The 73rd and 74th Amendment Act has strengthened the process of democratic decentralization in
India in the following ways.
• It created the institutions of direct democracy and made it mandatory to create a 3 tier Panchayati
Raj system.
• It provided for regular elections and established a dedicated institution (state election
commission) for the purpose.
• In order to make democracy inclusive, it introduces reservation for the members of neglected
section of society such as SCs, STs and women
However, the performance of the Panchayati Raj System in India has been a mixed bag. It has had its
share of failures and achievements.
Achievements:
• There are about 250,000 PRIs and urban local bodies, and over 32 lakh elected local government
representatives.
• Most staggering of all is the representation of women: Comprising about 14 lakh members, with
some 86,000 chairing their local bodies.
• Research using PRIs (by Lakshmi Iyer, Anandi Mani, Prachi Mishra, and Petia Topalova) has
shown that having female political representation in local governments makes women more
likely to come forward and report crimes.

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• R. Chattopadhyay and E. Duflo show that in districts with female sarpanch / pradhans,
significantly greater investments are made in drinking water, a priority public goods issue for
women.
• R. Chattopadhyay and E. Duflo also show that SC sarpanch/pradhans are more likely to invest in
public goods in SC hamlets—an important change in the severely segregated villages of India. In a
country where access is determined by gender and caste, even more than economic status, these
changes are remarkable.
Thus , it has certainly increased representation of the week and marginalised and brought focus to
their issues. However , it has had its own share of issues too.
Failures:
• The first failure of the 73rd Amendment was that the transfer of various governance functions—
like the provision of education, health, sanitation, and water was not mandated. Instead the
amendment left it to the state legislature to actually devolve functions.
• There has been very little devolution of authority and functions in the last 25 years. PRIs cannot
govern unless they are given the authority to actually perform functions related to governance.
• Another failure of the 73rd Amendment is the lack of finances for PRIs. Local governments can
either raise their own revenue through local taxes or receive intergovernmental transfers.
• Though uniform institutions have been created yet activity mapping has not been done and, thus
, there's variation among states.
• Gram Sabha doesn’t have any significant powers and functions as it hasn’t been provided by the
Acts.
• The Act ensures regular elections but doesn’t suggest grounds for dissolution of Panchayats, which
has been left entirely on the state government.
Thus , the India's experiment with local governance is incomplete. Therefore, there is an urgent need
for second-generation reforms, which may include the following steps ;
• Effective Devolution to be achieved through the device of ‘Activity Mapping’, which would involve
clear identification of there competence, authority and accountabilities while involving them in
planning process
• Financial Incentivisation of the states to encourage effective devolution to the Panchayats of the
three Fs – Functions, Finance and Functionaries’.
• District planning based on grassroots inputs received from the village intermediate and district
levels through people’s participation in the Gram Sabha.
• Social Audit should be made mandatory feature to ensure transparency and make the process
more participatory.
• Empowerment of Panchayat members, especially the women, through adequate training.
Conclusion
Only these comprehensive steps can ensure realisation of true democratic decentralisation in India.
These reforms are needed now more than ever as in the era of globalization, ‘decentralization’ is the
principal countervailing trend which can ensure that the growth process is inclusive.

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Q.2) Comment on the extent of women empowerment due to the 73rd and 74th amendment (10
Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Introduction to provisions for women empowerment and 73rd and 74th amendments
Body
• How the 73rd and 74th amendment acts promote women empowerment
• To what extent it is successful in empowering women
Conclusion
• Relevance of empowering women at grassroots levels
Introduction
The 73rd & 74th Constitution Amendments promulgated in 1993 are a landmark for two reasons, local
empowerment, and women empowerment. These amendments not only gave constitutional status
and a fair amount of autonomy to them but also tried to empower women by providing them one-
third reservation in elections not only as counselors but also as chairpersons. It acts as a pull factor
for women to participate in meetings.
Body
These amendments proved to be catalytic, bringing more women into leadership positions in India’s
local governance which eased women’s entry into politics and their empowerment as they got
included in the governance and policy-making process and there are lakhs of women who got elected
to panchayats and municipalities due to the reservation. This empowers them and enables them to
make decisions in different spheres of life. They have used their authority to address critical issues
such as education, drinking water facilities, family planning facilities, hygiene & health, quality of
healthcare & village development.
Today, as many as 20 states have increased reservations for women in their PRIs to 50 percent. Many
states such as Karnataka have more than 50 percent of women representatives in PRIs, which
indicates that women are now winning in the wards that were not reserved for them. In the era of
Covid-19, women leaders in PRIs have come to their role as independent achievers, making their way
in a domain in which they have historically been excluded, Madhu Joshi and Devaki Singh observed.
Women are acting as an agent of change in the society and raising voice against injustice and
atrocities. Their role has led to the rise of voice by other women against domestic violence and other
atrocities.
Although they have given women access to decision-making positions and have broadened the local
democratic base, it doesn’t mean that it has improved their active participation in governance. There
have been many challenges in the effective participation of the elected women representatives
including lack of political awareness and experience; male dominance in decision-making at the party
level; lack of knowledge about the acts, rules, and regulations; husband performing all the functions
of the elected women representatives and political interference in the functioning. According to
Madhu Joshi and Devaki Singh, few feel that they have any actual power to affect change easily - 77
percent of them believe that they cannot change things easily in their constituencies.
Conclusion
Thus, undoubtedly, with the 73rd and 74th amendments women got an opportunity to prove their
worth as good administrator, decision-maker, and a leader which has widened the extent of women
empowerment. Obstacles need to be removed to further the process of women’s empowerment at a

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higher level. The construction of gender-friendly infrastructures, a team of computer literate,
accountants, and junior level engineers to help the elected women in the administration of their
duties, capacity building and awareness programs can be a way forward.

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Day 26 synopsis
Topic: - Statutory Institutions/Commissions: Election Commission, Comptroller and Auditor

General, Finance Commission, Union Public Service Commission,
Q.1) "While elections of course do not make a democracy, they are unquestionably the sine qua
non of each and every democracy." Analyse this with respect to the role of Election Commission in
India. (10 Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Start answering by introducing basic features of ECI
Body
• What is democracy and what are the basic features of democracy
• Among those features, why elections are the most important
• Importance of each vote
Conclusion
• Appreciate India’s strength of character in holding elections periodically despite of the problems
Introduction:
The Election Commission is a permanent and an independent body established by the Constitution
of India directly to ensure free and fair elections in the country. Article 324 of the Constitution
provides that the power of superintendence, direction and control of elections to parliament, state
legislatures, the office of president of India and the office of vice-president of India shall be vested
in the election commission.
Body:
According to Aristotle, “Democracy is when the Indigent, and not the men of property, are the
rulers.” Throughout the history of human civilization, we have lived through innumerable rulers,
various governments and hundreds of wars. The sole thing that remained common throughout the
history of politics is that the voice of the general public was never louder than when they held the
right to vote.
The features of democracy are basic empowering tools that every citizen in the country is equipped
with, irrespective of any form of social status or standing. Some of these are-
1. Free, Fair and Frequent Elections
2. Representation of Minorities
3. Rule within the Constitutional Law
4. Freedom of Speech, Expression and Choice
5. Federal Rights
6. Council Responsibility
Amongst the primary features of Democracy, every Democratic country in the world must hold
elections, in one way or another and that too periodically. These elections are the voice of the public,
the primary way by which they can control and change the Government as per their wishes. These
elections must also have complete Transparency and Impartiality in terms of imparting voting rights
to each and every adult citizen of the country. There must be no partiality or oppression on the basis
of race, sex, caste, creed, political views, demographic or any other structural difference or
discrimination.

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Every vote must be valued, and every vote must have one value, i.e. it must carry the same weight
in electing representatives. Fulfilling this criterion is paramount for every Democracy, as even today
some countries don’t give voting rights to women or people with alternate sexuality. This disqualifies
them from being a democracy on the fundamental level and makes the spirit of elections
meaningless.
The importance of elections in India-

1. Choice of leadership: Elections provide a way for the citizens of India to choose their leaders. They
do so by casting their vote in Favour of the candidate or party whose views appeal to them. This
ensures that the will of the people is reflected in the elected candidates.
2. Change of leadership: Elections in India are also a platform for the public to voice their
resentment against a ruling party. By voting for other parties and helping elect a different
government, citizens demonstrate that they possess ultimate authority.
3. Political participation: Elections open the door for new issues to be raised in public. If a citizen of
India wishes to introduce reforms that are not the agenda of any of the parties, he or she is free
to contest the elections either independently or by forming a new political party.
4. Self-corrective system: Because elections are a regular exercise, occurring every five years in India,
the ruling parties are kept in check and made to consider the demands of the public. This works
as a self-corrective system whereby political parties review their performance and try to appease
the voters.
And in India, the Election commission has been the most important body which has helped in
conducting the elections since 1950. The independence of the Election commission ensures the free
and fair elections along with proper following of the Model code of conduct. These provisions have
been kept to ensure the proper functioning of the democracy. ECI takes decisions regarding every
aspect of conduct and control of elections from the announcement of elections to the declaration of
results. During the election period, they can order the government to follow some guidelines, to
prevent the use and misuse of governmental power to enhance its chances to win elections, or to
transfer some government officials- which can help in proper conduct of election systems in India.
Conclusion
With a population of over 1.3 billion spread across 28 states and 7 union territories, India has a system
of elections that is both daunting and praiseworthy. It is often said that a country cannot be truly
democratic until its citizens have the opportunity to choose their representatives through elections
that are free and fair. Thus, India’s success in holding election periodically despite all the hiccups in
our path of democracy hold great potential because it shows the true character of the strength of
India.
Q.2) "Finance Commission has taken a judicious approach in weighing competing needs of Centre
and states." Comment (10 Marks, 150Words)
Introduction
• Introduce finance commission and its main powers
Body
• start with the formation and aim of 15th finance commission
• How the commission ensured proper distribution of funds among states and the center
• What were the main concerns that the commission kept in mind while distributing the taxes
Conclusion
• Resonance between the plan and the distribution of tax
• How has Finance commission played an important part in the development of the country

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Introduction
The Finance Commissions are commissions periodically constituted by the President of India under
Article 280 of the Indian Constitution to define the financial relations between the central
government of India and the individual state governments.
The commission has been constituted to give recommendations to the president about the
distribution of the net proceeds of taxes between the Union and States and also the allocation of
the same among the States themselves. It is also under the role of the finance commission to define
the financial relations between the Union and the States. They also deal with the devolution of those
revenue resources that are unplanned.
Body
The origin of idea of finance commission goes back to 1920s when the basic draft of the provisions of
the finance commission of India was made, to consolidate the business dominance of the British Rule
in India. Several measures in the Indian Constitution were previously incorporated to bridge the fiscal
divide between the Center and the States, including Article 268, which allows the Central government
to impose duties but also empowers the States to collect and retain them.
Two distinctive features of the Commission’s work have been-

1. To Redress the vertical imbalances between the taxation powers and expenditure responsibilities
between the center and the states
2. Equalization of all public services across all the States.
Thus the main aim of the commission have been to redress the inequality between center and the
states; and states and states. And for that the commission has taken a judicious approach in
distributing the tax proceeds and additional income of the government as per the needs of different
governments.
Similarly, for that matter, the Fifteenth Finance Commission was constituted by the Government of
India, after the approval from the President of India, through a notification in the Gazette of India in
November 2017. Initially, the terms of reference of the 15th Finance Commission were controversial
and contentious. Several state governments had raised concerns over the fear that the Centre is trying
to claw back the fiscal space and autonomy extended to them by the 14th Finance Commission.
The concerns centered not only on the vertical (between Centre and states) and horizontal (between
states) devolution of resources, but also other areas such as the creation of a separate fund for
defence modernization, the provision of performance-based incentives and grants in line with the
Centre’s priorities, and imposition of conditionalities on state borrowings.
While there was much apprehension over the course its recommendations would take, in its report,
the Finance Commission appears to have taken a considered approach in balancing the competing
needs of the Central and state governments.
In line with the devolution suggested in its report for 2020-21, the Commission has decided to keep
the states’ share in the divisible tax pool at 41 per cent. The rest difference of 1 per cent with the
previous commission’s award is because of the change in the status of Jammu and Kashmir from a
state to a Union territory.
The Demographic Performance criterion has also been introduced to reward efforts made by those
states which worked to control their population. It has been decided to be computed by using the
reciprocal of the total fertility ratio of each state, scaled by 1971 population data. Further, Tax effort
has been used to reward states with higher tax collection efficiency. It is being computed as the ratio
of the average per capita own tax revenue and the average per capita state GDP during the three-
year period between 2014-15 and 2016-17).

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The Finance Commission has observed that the financing capital expenditure through off-budget
borrowings somewhat detracts from compliance with the FRBM Act. It recommended that both the
central and state governments should make full disclosure of extra-budgetary borrowings to keep
things impartial. And thus the outstanding extra-budgetary liabilities should be clearly identified and
eliminated in a time-bound manner.
Over the years, one of the main issues was the possibility of setting up a separate fund for the
modernization of defence and internal security. There were apprehensions that allotting a large
amount from the gross tax revenues would further reduce the divisible tax pool that is shared with
states. Here, the commission tried to strike a fine balance. While it has recommended setting up
such a fund, only part of the proceeds is expected to come from the Consolidated Fund of India. The
balance is to be managed from other sources.
Conclusion
Thus, the finance commission has worked judiciously as an independent body to ensure the
devolution of taxes between the center and states. It has kept in mind the needs of the central and
each state government, while making the recommendations. Although there are several areas where
the commission further needs to scrutinize the use of funds, it has done a fine job in ensuring the
division of money for the development of the nation.

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Day 27 synopsis
Topic: - Statutory Institutions/Commissions: National Commission for Scheduled Castes, National

Commission for scheduled Tribes, National Commission for Women;
Q.1) How effectively does the National Commission for Scheduled Castes justify its social justice
mandate in protection the rights of the Scheduled Castes? Don’t you think delay in filling the
vacancy of post of Chairman and Vice-Chairman for months spreads mistrust of it’s constitutional
nature? Discuss.
Answer: -
Introduction:
NCSC is a constitutional body that works to safeguard the interests of the scheduled castes (SC) in
India. It drives it's powers from the Constitution that envisages NCSC as a body to address grievances
of the SCs as well as to ensure and expand the development opportunities for the community.
Body:
Article 338 provides for a National Commission for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and
its responsibilities include investigating and monitoring any issues relating to the safeguards provided
for them, looking into specific complaints, and participating in and providing advice on the process of
planning for their socioeconomic development, among other things.
NCSC consists of a Chairperson, Vice Chairperson and three other members. Members are appointed
by the President of India by the warrant under his hand and seal.
The functions of NCSC include

• Monitoring and looking into any matter involving the protections the constitution offers to the
Scheduled Castes.
• Investigating allegations about the SCs' being deprived of their protections and rights.
• Participating in and providing advice to the central or state governments for the planning for their
socioeconomic development.
• Submit regular reports to the President on the working of the safeguards.
• advising actions that should be made to further the socioeconomic development and other
welfare initiatives of the SCs.
However, the performance of NCSC has been mixed. Of all crimes committed against SCs and STs
combined, atrocities committed against Scheduled Caste people account for 89% of those crimes.
Despite the Commission's broad investigative and inquiry powers, its recommendations are not legally
enforceable. It can also assign blame and suggest remedies.
The Commission's current priorities are clearly skewed in favour of the privileged in these areas. It is
said that the Commission has not been particularly attentive to the poor Dalits, who are caused by a
lack of knowledge or information, because the Commission, for the most part, responds to complaints.
The Commission has not actively exercised its suo motu cognisance powers.
There are delays in the investigation's execution and the decision making. In addition, there is a
notion that the Commission generally supports the government's position.
The Commission is required to submit annual reports to the President who is then supposed to present
it before the Parliament. However, Reports are frequently put on the table two or more years after

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the President receives them. Reports are frequently not considered in Parliament, even when they
are presented.
Delay in appointment of Chairperson and members

The seat of Chairperson remained vacant from May 2020 to Feb 2021 showing a serious lapse in
functioning of the Commission. Given the large number of pendency before the Commission, delay in
appointments leaves the body ineffective.
The delay in appointments compromises the ability of the body to address the grievances brought
before it by the members of the Scheduled Castes. This in turn creates distrust towards the ability of
the body in being a harbinger of the rights of the SCs.
Therefore, there is a need that in future the appointments to the body are made swiftly to ensure that
they're able to truly fulfill their function as envisaged by the Constitution of India under Article 338.
Conclusion:
NCSC is required to use its varied authorities to stop violence against Dalits. In order to fulfil its
mandate in the spirit in which it was intended, the Commission should regularly conduct an internal
examination of its goals and redefine them in a substantively more equal fashion.

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Day 28 synopsis
Topic: - Statutory Institutions/Commissions: National Human Rights Commission, National

Commission for Minorities, National Backward Classes Commission.
Q.1) “The National Human Rights Commission is India’s statutory human rights body, intended to
act as an independent watchdog to monitor the actions of the state and its agencies. “Do you think
it has lived up to the expectations of protection of Human Rights in India? Critically Examine.(15
Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Brief introduction of NHRC.
Body
• Functions of NHRC.
• Analysis of achievement and limitations.
Conclusion
• Significance of NHRC and way forward.
Introduction:
The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India is a Statutory public body constituted under
the the Protection of Human Rights Ordinance and made into a statutory body by the Protection of
Human Rights Act, 1993
Body:
Functions of NHRC : following functions of NHRC have been provided in the act :
• Inquire into violations of human rights by the government of India or negligence of such violation
by any government authorities.
• Protect human rights and make recommendations for their effective implementation
• Review of laws and legislations that affect the enjoyment of human rights and make
recommendations for their correction.
• To study international agreements on human rights and make suggestions for their effective
implementation ,
• Undertake research and promote studies in the field of human rights.
• Engage in human rights education among various sections of society and promote awareness.
As of 2020 , the Commission boasts of having registered around 2 million cases while disposing of
more than 90% of these cases. It has also paid Compensations to victims of human rights violations
across various state agencies.
However, there have been various issues with the performance of NHRC ;
• The number of suo motu cases taken up by the Commission has almost halved between 2012-16
and 2016-20 , thus showing fall in proactiveness of the commission.
• Commission also suffers from high pendency of cases with pendency being close to 20,000.
• There have also been complaints about disposal of cases without due consideration. In 2020 , a
total of 68,130 cases were disposed of within a year , showing due diligence was compromised.
NHRC suffers from structural flaws such as :

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• NHRC does not have any independent wing of investigation. In majority cases, it is dependent on
Central or State Governments for investigation of the cases.
• Soli Sorabjee (former Attorney-General of India) called it ‘India’s teasing illusion’ due to its
incapacity to provide any actual solution to the aggrieved persons.
• NHRC can only make recommendations, and has no role in implementing those decisions.
• It os often viewed as post-retirement destinations for judges and bureaucrats with political
affiliation
• Inadequacy of funds is another issue in its working.
Conclusion
Though there are various lacunas in the functioning of NHRC yet , it can not be called as toothley. The
cognizance of matters by NHRC has in itself a great significance in addressing the human rights
violations by bringing them in the mainstream through media and courts. Thus , there is a need to
strengthen the body.
Q.2) Considering the increasing majority–minority conflict in India, what role does the National
Minority Commission can play in ensuring full protection of minority rights as well as harmony in
India’s multicultural society. Also, discuss the recent steps taken by it. (20 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
Indian constitution is the first constitution representing the ” multicultural approach to the question
of minorities. The idea of India as a nation is based on a non hegemonic , non. coercive approach of
civic nationalism , aiming to give a life of dignity to all persons living in India. The constitution provides
for the special rights to the minorities and recognize the idea of differentiated citizenship(Kymlicka)
Body
It is in the context of the above commitment of the protection of rights of minorities , government of
India set up the National Commission for Minorities (NCM) in 1992 . It consists of chairperson , vice
chairperson all from minorities. The members are nominated by the union government and hold office
for a period of three years.
In the recent past, India has witnessed rising tensions in the form of majority-minority conflict. The
Delhi riots post CAA-NRC protests is one such example. Further, violence perpetrated by Cow
Vigilantes has been one source of communal tension in India. In order to prevent such events and to
secure the rights of minorities in such conflicts, NCM gains importance.
The functions include :

• The commission keeps an eye on how the protections outlined in the Constitution and in laws
passed by the State and Central legislatures function.
• Additionally, it offers suggestions for how minorities' interests can be effectively protected by the
central government or state governments through the deployment of safeguards.
• Evaluation of the Union's and the States' progress in the development of minorities.
• Investigating particular complaints regarding minorities' rights being violated and raising such
issues with the relevant authorities.
• Doing research and analysis into the issues caused by any form of prejudice against minorities and
offering solutions.
• Submitting specific reports to the federal government on any issue involving minorities, especially
the challenges they face.
Recent steps taken by NCM

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1. Communal disturbances in Bharatpur in 2011 were looked at by the Commission. A delegation
was dispatched to Assam in 2012 to look into the confrontations between Bodos and Muslims,
and their findings were given to the government.
2. The commission further undertakes various activities such as organising Hunar Haat, offering
scholarships, training, and inexpensive credit facilities.
3. The Commission has been at the forefront in visiting communally disturbed areas and taking stock
of the situation as well as working with the administration in securing peace and rights of the
minorities.
However, the steps taken by the Commission have been too few and less effective. Therefore , there
have been demands for strengthening the commission through :
o Providing Constitutional status to the Commission to provide its teeth.

o Provide it with the power to summon the officials like the NHRC has.
o It should be able to act against errant officials who do not attend hearings, or follow its order or
are found guilty of dereliction of duty.
Conclusion
The National Commission for Minorities(NCM) has the capacity to act as a guardian and a lighthouse
for minority rights in India as Majority-Minority conflicts rise and have a tendency to neglect and
oppress minority rights. Therefore, concrete steps are needed to strengthen it.

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Day 29 synopsis
Topic: Federalism: Constitutional provisions; changing nature of centre-state relations; integrationist

tendencies and regional aspirations; inter-state disputes.
1) “A federal state is more effective than a unitary one when diverse groups of its population live
in a discrete territorial concentration as in India. “Analyse the situation of federalism in India in
regard to the prevalent regionalist opposition regarding fiscal federalism. 20M
Introduction
• Define Federalism .
Body
• Federalism in India
• Reason behind adopting Federalism.
• Fiscal federalism and issues.
• Way forward.
Conclusion
• Resolving the issues of fiscal federalism.
Introduction
Federalism is a special form of government in which the sovereign political power is distributed
between the various units. The powers are distributed between different units such as centre , state
and local bodies.
Body
The Article 1 of the Indian Constitution declares India as a 'Union of states" , the use of the word
"Union" indicates that "federation in India was not a result of an agreement between different states
to join a Federation". This shows that states have no right to secede from India. However it's the
pattern of distribution of power under the Constitution which gives it a federal character.
India adopted a federal structure because of two primary reasons ;

1. Federal state is deemed more effective given the vast size of Indian territory.
2. A federal state is more effective than a unitary one when diverse groups of its population live
in a discrete territorial concentration as in India.
Just like the Legislative and Executive powers , the Constitution of India has also divided fiscal/financial
powers between the centre and the states.
However the division of fiscal/financial powers between the different units has become a major issue
in centre state relations. The demand of the States for greater fiscal autonomy has now become one
of the most debated issues.
States argues that Centre's Sources of revenue are more elastic and buoyant as compared to that of
the States. The Centre also has the channel to gather vast resources through deficit financing , loans
from domestic and foreign money markets at the same time it has access to huge funds of foreign aid.
At the same time , even the residuary powers of taxation are with the central government.

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Therefore , Indian federation (like any other federation) faces the issue of vertical and horizontal
imbalances. A vertical imbalance arises as the taxation powers are designed in a manner that provides
much greater tax revenues to the Central government as against the state government.
The horizontal imbalances arise because these states are at different levels of development as a result
of differential growth rates and they also differ in terms of developmental status of social or
infrastructure capital.
These issues have led to a backlash from the state. An example being the GST Compensation issue and
states like Kerala threatening to move the Supreme court over the matter.
India’s Fiscal Federalism needs to be re-engineered. By restructuring the NITI Aayog , Finance
Commission, GST and ensuring greater decentralisation , it can reduce or even remove the issues of
vertical and horizontal imbalances.
• Finance Commission should be confined to focusing on removal of basic public goods

imbalance. It should be relieved from the double role of dealing with the provision of basic
public goods and services and also managing capital deficits.
• NITI Aayog should be given the role of allocation of capital in a way different than that of the
Finance Commission with variable parameters for allocation. NITI Aayog should be provided
with significant resources (1% to 2% of the GDP) to help it in removing the disparities at
regional and sub-regional level among different states by reducing development differences
in the areas of infrastructure deficit.
• Decentralization can act as the new fiscal federalism by empowering local bodies through
greater devolution of finances and giving more powers to the state finance commission.
Conclusion
Creating the new architecture of fiscal federalism , one which is based on the effective
decentralization, transparent and equitable GST regime, independent Finance commission both at the
centre and at state levels and a vibrant NITI Aayog can further strengthen India’s unique model of
cooperative federalism.
2) Interstate disputes are nothing but remnants of the federal structure of India. Comment. 10M
Introduction
The effectiveness of the Indian state system depends not only on the harmonious relations
and close cooperation between the Institute and the states but also between the countries within.
Consistent Conflicts over Border Disputes, Water sharing ,Migration affecting Unity in diversity .
Body
As said by Political scientist, Philip Mahwood, “in a culturally diverse
and developing country like India, Federalism is not only elected for administrative purposes but for
the very survival of the nation.” However, Considering the fact that the multi-dimensional nature of
India’s vast diversity, the founders of the Indian Constitution avoided building a fully integrated
political system in India during the country’s independence, for fear of further divisions and divisions.
the tendency to divide the world that had already been divided.
As a federal structure there is a constitutional sharing of power between centre and the
states but a large number of disputes has emerged due to ambiguities of what K.C.Wheare called as
“Quasi-Federalism” . It includes administrative disputes like All India services and their deputations,
Financial disputes like Sharing of Taxes and financial resources, Interstate disputes like water

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sharing and border between states , Legal disputes which includes presidential rule under article
356 and so on. The main reason behind these wide range of disputes lies in what H.K.Maheshwari
called as Coercive and accommodative federalism which includes rivalry among parties in states and
centre (West Bengal, Maharstra) as well as Regionalism, Ethnicity (North East) ,lingualistic dominance
(Tamil nadu), Scarcity of resources like water.
Conflicts between provinces such as the recent border dispute between Assam and
Manipur have led to violent clashes between police in both states. These conflicts have arisen from
the red flags of the central government and have failed to resolve such issues.
The water disputes involving the long-awaited Cauvery water dispute
between Karnataka and Tamilnadu is an unresolved dispute due to the corresponding differences in
the need for water distribution. Government solutions such as the Interstate Council and the Water
Sharing Tribunal are unable to resolve important issues ahead of conflict between Different states.
The Constitution therefore makes the following provisions regarding
Interstate cooperation:
· Adjudication of water disputes between two or more states.
· Inter-state councils should be used as primary platfrom
· Equal recognition of public actions, records, and judicial procedures.
· Freedom of trade between states
· In addition, regional councils have been established by Parliament to promote interprovincial
co-operation and communication
Conclusion
As recommended by the Sarkaria Commission, the Federal government should actively resolve
disputes between States through inter-state councils. And regular council meetings will address
pending issues in a timely manner.

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Day 30 synopsis
Topic: Planning and Economic Development : Nehruvian and Gandhian perspectives; role of planning and public
sector; Green Revolution, land reforms and agrarian relations; liberalilzation and economic reforms.
1) In the wake of economic reforms, do you think that the Government has abandoned the objective
of social justice? Also analyse the ongoing Privatization in Indian Economy and the status of Socialist
State. 20M
Introduction
• Introduce 1991 Economic Reforms.
Body
• Features of economic reforms.

• Impact of the reforms.
• Ongoing reforms and socialist state.
Conclusion
• Way forward.
Introduction
1991 was a watershed moment in the Indian economy. To bring the economy back from the brink of
a fiscal and balance-of-payments catastrophe, drastic steps were adopted. To free the economy from
the shackles that had been holding it for decades, sweeping market-oriented reforms in industry,
foreign trade, and investment were implemented. This came to be known as the New Economic
Policy.
Body
However , there have been debates about the impact of the reforms on the objective of social justice.
The concept of social justice states that everyone, regardless of their political, economic, religious, or
caste status, should have equal access to justice, education, health, well-being, privileges, and
opportunity. Individual, economic, social, and political liberty were all values that India brought with
it when it gained freedom.
An important consideration while evaluating the impact of reforms is not whether the economic
reforms measures ware anti-poor or not, but whether they are in fact “pro-poor".
Basic features of 1991 Economic Reforms

• To deconstruct the complicated system of licences, permissions, and restrictions that
governed nearly every aspect of manufacturing and distribution. Entry and growth barriers
were removed.
• To reverse the substantial tilt toward state ownership of production assets and the expansion
of public sector businesses in nearly every economic area. Private enterprise was allowed
access to areas that had previously been reserved exclusively for the government.

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• To forsake the policy of inward-looking trade. India signalled its courageous abandonment of
export pessimism by accepting the challenge and opportunity of integrating into the global
economy by embracing foreign commerce.
Some argue that the deep rooted inequalities that existed during the 1991 reforms have only been
aggravated by the reforms. That , reforms led to increase in income of only those who were already
rich. Quality of consumption of only high income groups increased and there has not been a trickle
down of the benefits of the reforms to the poorer sections of the society.
The growth has been concentrated in some limited areas , specially the service sector such as
telecommunications , information technology , finance , entertainment , travel , hospitality and real
estate etc.
And vital sectors of economy such as agriculture and industry which provide livelihood to millions of
Indians have not gained much from the reforms thereby increasing income disparities.
Besides , large scale industries have been promoted by the reforms at the cost of small scale industries
leading to the concentration of power. While wages of highly skilled employees have shown a secular
upward trend, a large majority of workers, particularly in the unorganized sector, haven’t seen wages
rise commensurately in real terms.
Along with a trend towards casualization and contractualization, there has been a worsening of
employment quality and lack of social security even for those employed in the organized sector. A far
more serious issue is the rise of crony capitalism. If the purpose of economic reforms was to get rid
of the licence-permit raj, the reforms have failed to create a level playing field with crony capitalism,
not just obvious in the case of natural resources such as petroleum, coal, iron and spectrum, but also
among industries which have seen the opening up of markets and deregulation.
Present Economic Reforms and Socialist State
The present government's push towards unabashed and unqualified pitch for the privatisation seen
in the step towards privatisation of banks , PSUs and Labour codes which create conditions that make
it difficult for workers to form unions or launch strikes have raised questions on the socialist nature of
the state. The three farm laws were seen as pro-corporate and anti-farmers leading to large scale
farmers protests.
However various steps of the government seen in the form of PM KISAN , raising the Minimum Support
Price (MSP) for a large number of crops by one and a half times ,Ayushman Bharat program show that
the government may have not abandoned the socialist perspectives and goals.
Conclusion
The 1991 reforms helped the economy stave off a crisis and then bloom. It is time to outline a credible
new reform agenda that will not just bring GDP back to pre-crisis levels, but also ensure growth rates
higher than it had when it entered the pandemic and ensure the ideals of social justice.

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2) Land reforms in India is a master piece of implementation of policy of Redistributive Justice.
Critically Examine. 20M
Introduction
· Status of land under British rule.
Body
· Land Reforms as a redistributive justice.
· Types of land reforms.
· Status of land reforms in India.
· Expert views
Conclusion
· Balanced View
Introduction
Under the British rule , Farmers did not own the land they cultivated; instead, the property was owned
by Zamindars, Jagirdars, and other landlords.Land was concentrated in the hands of a few people, and
there were a lot of middlemen who didn't have a vested interest in self-cultivation.
Body
Thus , land reform was an important agenda for ensuring Redistributive Justice in the Independent
India. It was aimed at ensuring distributive justice & establishing egalitarian society.
Redistributive justice is a process of fair allocation of resources in such a manner that it prevents
excessive concentration of resources in a few hands, and at the same time, it provides for those who
lack the resources. Land reforms aimed to do this through redistribution of land resources.
Following were the types of Land Reforms proposed :

· Abolition of Intermediaries: abolition of Zamindari, Mahalwari and Ryotwari systems. These
systems burdened tenants with high rent. They could not invest in agriculture and were
subjected to various types of exploitation.
· Tenancy Reforms: Objective was to settle fair rent & Security of tenure. Maximum ceiling on
rent was 1/4th of the produce. it promised Security of tenure and Ownership to tenants.
· Land Ceiling: Limit on land holding was fixed. Government was to acquire the surplus land and
a part of surplus land was distributed.
· Consolidation of Land & Cooperative farming: to ensure productivity and better returns to
small farmers.
Thus, in this way, land reforms aimed to achieve redistributive justice through State's intervention in
the distribution of land to the least advantaged and at the same time, reducing concentration in the
hands of few intermediaries and preventing exploitation of the poor.
However , the performance of Land Reforms in India has been disappointing. ML Dantwala held that
Land reforms were in the right direction but due to lack of implementation, results have not been
satisfactory.

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Atul Kohli has analysed land reforms under CPI (M) in West Bengal, under congress in Karnataka and
Janata Party in Uttar Pradesh. His view is that chances of success increase if ruling party is ideologically
committed. CPI (M) was committed for land reforms. In Karnataka, under Devaraj Urs, land reforms
took place because he wanted to build an alternative coalition against traditional elites.
In UP, there was no commitment. Overall , Kohli argues that Land Reforms have lost the popular
imagination and thus this masterpiece of implementation of policy of Redistributive Justice remains
a pipe dream.
There is a need for wider debate and discussion and bringing the issue to the forefront given that the
contribution of agriculture to the GDP has dipped to 17%.
Conclusion
However , PC Joshi held that It is true that land reforms could not assume revolutionary dimensions
like China or dramatic changes like in Japan but it was not a total jigsaw. There are changes in
agriculture structure which often remains unnoticed because of our biased view.

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Day 31 synopsis
Topic: - Caste, Religion and Ethnicity in Indian Politics.
Q.1) Role of caste, religion and ethnicity in Indian politics is somewhat due to the presence of
social cleavages in Indian society. Examine with relevant examples. (20 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
Indian democracy has been marred by the impact of identity politics since even before the
indepence of India. The major cause for this is the presence of various social cleavages.
Body
Caste System is a classification of people into four hierarchically ranked castes called varnas. They
are classified according to occupation and determine access to wealth, power, and privilege.
Therefore, caste associations function as an important linkage between the society and the polity.
Some of the Indian as well as foreign scholars view that the linkage roles of caste contribute to the
modernization of the political system and to the strengthening of the democratic base of that
system.
As Paul Brass has observed, “The role of caste in elections is easily the most discussed aspect of
contemporary Indian political behaviour”. However caste is not the only political determinant in
Indian politics.
Another important social Cleavage is Religion. Since , 1990s Religion has become another important
factor in determining voter behaviour in Indian Democracy. Thomas Blom Hanson described it as
the 'Saffron Wave'.
The rise of BJP from 2 seats in 1984 to more than 300 in 2019 shows the rise of religion in Indian
politics. This increase in the role of religion has reduced the role of caste in politics an example being
different castes voting as a single religion.
Christophe Jaffrelot through his research has shown that in 2019 elections BJP (an upper caste
party) secured 15% of the OBC votes. Showing shifting significance of caste in politics.
Another important factor has been ethnicity. James Manor in his book "Ethnicity and politics in
India" talks about the problem of defining ethnicity in the Indian context. It is difficult to determine
the Ethnic identity.
However, Indians can be divided into at least 4 ethnic identities; Race, Religion, Caste and
Language. Thus , ethnicity impacts Indian society in myriad of ways.
We've analysed the impact of caste and religion above. Language has been an important factor in
determining social as well as electoral behaviour in India , specially the southern part of the country.
Many political parties like TDP , DMK , AIADMK rely on mobilisation on linguistic lines. Language has
helped in bringing the demands of these states to the centre as different linguistic groups vote en-
masse.
There are 4 different views on the reason behind the ascriptive nature of Indian politics:
• Essentialists: According to Louis Dumont (French sociologist), Hindus and Muslims are the two
antagonistic communities, co-existence is not possible. The theory supports arguments like two
nations theory.
• Instrumentalists: According to Bipin Chandra, people are not communal but the political leaders
prefer mobilisation along the lines of religion.

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• Institutionalist: According to Ashgar Ali Engineer, it's the result of the state policies when
community rather than individual is chosen as the basis of political patronage.
• Social constructivists: According to Mahmood Mamdani, communities nurture certain
assumptions about each other. They develop certain perceptions, mental maps and continue to
live with them without verifying them.
Conclusion
Sarkaria Commission and Punchhi Commission called for greater democratic decentralisation to deal
with these social cleavages in politics. On the other hand Atul Kohli called for Greater democracy and
devolution of powers.
Q.2) Comment on Caste in current form as an interplay of tradition and modernity. (10Marks, 150
Words)
Approach
• Since the question has roots in Sociology discipline, and if such questions comes in PSIR, one should
not try to deviate and rather bring in key terms and understandings of PSIR (like caste and its impact
on voting behaviour, democracy and state) to tackle and analyse the question.
Introduction
• Give a general idea about what you understand by caste in India.
Body
• Link caste with traditions and modernisation
• Give views of scholars who analysed the interplay of caste in indian society like Prof Rajni Kothari,
Yogendra Yadav, Rodrigues and Rodrigues
• Analyse in between how caste is transforming in the society in the context of Indian democracy
Conclusion
• Conclude by summing up the benefits / disadvantages of social and political change in Indian society
due to Caste politics in the context of interplay of tradition and modernity.
Introduction
Caste is a form of stratification of Indian society based on the concept of birth and / or occupation.
According to Louis Dumont, purity and pollution forms the social stratification of caste in India.
Though Caste has been inherited as a part of traditional Indian society, with the evolution of time and
space, caste got multiple layers under modern times and so did its role in political mobilization.
Body
Caste reflects social cleavage on the basis of occupation and birth. There are two understandings of
Caste, One which sees caste as a sign of traditional society and an impediment to Democracy, while
others see Caste as a way to institutionalize democracy and help achieve modernity in post-colonial
states which lack secular ideologies to mobilize people.
The first school of thought is mostly represented by JS Mill, Samuel Lipset and Political Modernization
theorists. It believes that Industrialization and urbanization ends communal linkages and hence makes
man more individualistic, atomistic and hence suitable to Democracy e.g. during the time of Industrial
revolution.

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Postcolonial scholars argue that with democracy, caste will disintegrate itself into jatis and help
modernise both politics and caste itself. Political competition will make social alliances a reality which
will ultimately break caste barriers eg. Dalit-Brahmin, Bahujan alliance etc.
In short, many credit caste as an important factor in institutionalising democracy in india. As seen from
the works of Prof Yogendra Yadav, he proposed that Post Mandal Politics in the 1980s, there has been
a wave of political mobilisation in the form of democratic upsurges in India with the rise of lower
castes like OBCs. All this has led to increased caste consciousness in a modern society.
Another interplay of tradition and modernity of caste is seen from the works of Prof Rajni Kothari,
who has analysed the impact of politicisation of caste. He argues that democracy has changed the
nature of caste itself. Modern phenomenons like secularisation of caste (desire to come together in a
larger association), integration in the form of alliances like AJGAR, MAJGAR, KHAMS in Gujarat, etc,
Rise of consciousness due to increased bargaining power, etc. Overall, the modernising effect of
traditional democracy is seen in the form of deepening of democracy.
According to him, a study of the interactions between the caste system and political democracy in
India rejects the familiar theory that there is a dichotomy between a traditional society and a modern
polity. On the contrary, it underlines the functional relevance of indigenous patterns of
communication and differentiation to the process of moderniz- ing. But the rising caste antagonism
based on electoral calculations and its interplay with reservation policy has pitted castes against each
other in recent times as seen in Haryana, Maharashtra and other states.
On the other hand, Rudolph and Rudolph argue that caste has led to modernisation of traditions due
to social reform and ideological changes. Castes were to be dissolved by the effects of
industrialization, but have not yet been so. Instead, they seem, in good Hindu fashion, to have been
reincarnated in a modern form as the caste association.
Conclusion
Though caste has led to institutionalisation of elections and democracy, yet modern democracies need
substantive values of equity, liberty, justice which is mostly restricted to political elites which causes
an impediment to further democratization (valerian rodrigues). Thus, the interplay of traditions and
modernity in caste has its own advantages and disadvantages, depending on how society treats it.

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Day 32 synopsis
Topic: - Party System: National and regional political parties, ideological and social bases of parties;
patterns of coalition politics; Pressure groups, trends in electoral behaviour; changing socio- economic
profile of Legislators.
Q.1) “The electoral system of India is such that the national politics gets mixed with the regional
issues and people’s real demands remain unheard.” Critically Examine under the context of the
nature of the Party System in India. (20 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Define Party System.
Body
• Party system in India.
• Electoral system and regional issues.
• Rise of regional parties and increasing importance of regional issues.
Conclusion
• Summarise the above.
Introduction
Political parties are the inevitable foundations of modern democracy. It reflects the different
aspirations and demands of the citizens. Party system is defined as the number of systemically
relevant parties in the country. Party system acts as a facilitator of democratic process by introducing
channels of participation and venues of debates.
Body
Party system in India , for the first two decades of independence was defined as Congress system by
Rajni Kothari. It signified the dominance of Congress at national as well as regional level. However ,
it's often said that the congress system led to sidelining of regional issues as the central leadership of
congress wielded all the control over the party as well as the nation.
However after 1967 , a new phase emerged in the party system of India. This phase was characterized
by a breakdown of the dominant Congress system and the rise of the Regional parties. This
phenomenon was described by Yogendra Yadav as 'democratic upsurge ' or deepening of democracy
in India
With the emergence of different political parties at the centre and the state levels , federalism got
transformed into ' bargaining federalism'. Thus , with the rise of multiple parties , regional issues
became an important factor for political mobilisation thus bringing them to the forefront.
The vote share of the National parties had declined considerably. Most of this was due to the decline
of the Congress vote. In the 1996 elections, the National parties lost 11 per cent vote and 75 seats,
whereas the State parties gained 9 per cent vote and 78 seats. Their vote and seat share had increased
since 1996. The vote share of the State parties had gone up by more than 20 percent between 1952
and 2004.
They grew in strength at the expense of the

National parties. State parties today not only play a crucial role in the victory and defeat of the
National parties, they control power or function as the opposition, and in some cases as main

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opposition parties, in almost all the major States. Thus , regional issues have become important even
in general elections at the national level with the rise of regional parties.
Some prominent regional parties include Dravida Munnetta Kazhakam (DMK) in Tamil Nadu, Telugu
Desham Party (TDP) in Andhra Pradesh, Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD) in Punjab, Shiv Sena in
Maharashtra, Kerala Congress in Kerala, These regional parties have considerable influence over
national as well state politics.
Conclusion
With the coming of coalition politics most of the regional parties acquired national significance. This
can be explained in connection with the weakening of the Indian National Congress and emergence
of new political demands, priorities and polarities in the Indian polity. This has also led to greater
influence of regional issues at national level
Q.2) Coalition Politics in India is nothing but an outcome of identity-based politics that took roots
after the breakdown of Congress System. Do you agree? Critically Analyze. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• What is a coalition govt
• What is the status of India in field of forming coalition govts
Body
• What was india’s party politics system till 1977
• How it evolved
• What is identity based politics
• How it changes the social sphere in a country like India
• How it changes the political perspective
• Give instances of coalition govt formed in India
Conclusion
• Has the coalition government been largely successful in India?
Introduction
A coalition government is a type of government in which different political parties cooperate to form
the government. The main reason for such an arrangement is that no single party is able to achieve
an absolute majority after any election. Also, a coalition government might also be formed in a time
of national difficulty or crisis to give any government, the high degree of perceived political legitimacy
and collective identity. Example- during wartime or national crisis. Apart from that, it can also play a
role in diminishing various internal political strife.
Body
Coalitions usually occur in modern parliaments when no single political party can gain a majority of
votes. Two or more parties, who have enough elected members between them tend to form a
majority, may then agree on a common programme that does not require too many drastic
compromises with their individual policies and ideologies and thus can proceed to form a
government.
The coalition politics lead to emergence of different societies in power, which lead to their demand
being lifted on the central level. It has been seen in the Indian domain that the coalitions have proved
to be better governments as compared to a single party in majority, because the coalitions have
representatives from different ideological groups, which lead to fulfillment of demands of
downtrodden sections of the society.

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Parallely, Identity politics is a type of political approach wherein people of a particular gender,
religion, race, class, caste, social background, environmental, or any other identifying factors,
develop political agendas that are based upon these identities.
Till 1977, India was governed largely by Congress dominated governments. All the parties in power
had the Congress party as the mainstay. But with gradual rise and evolution of social hierarchies in
India, the party politics also started evolving. The identity political factors started playing a larger role
in Indian politics at that time.
The rise of identity politics after the congress era, led to emergence of various new political parties
that began gaining recognition at the national level. Due to increase in factors like caste and religion
during elections, the voters also had a wider base to choose from. It led to a time when no single party
got absolute majority in the elections and different parties were forced to come together to form
coalitions to run the government. This gave large representations to the lower sections of the society
whose demands were unheard till then. Their representatives in the government led to their demand
also being heard and being fulfilled.
Some factors of the identity politics that affected the Indian society are-
1. It led to mobilization of the lower castes, who form a major chunk in the vote bank politics of the
country.
2. It has led to a rise in incidents of communal violence in the country.
3. Discriminatory treatment of law and order based on groups may led to rise in cases of nepotism
and protection of the majority group.
4. It helps prevent exploitation of the lower caste from the upper caste.
Some factors that affected Indian polity are:

1. Transition from a single party system to multi regional parties.
2. Quota politics prevails over the issues of development and growth.
3. Increase in dominance of lower caste in the elections has compelled the parties to favor them,
thus hampering governance.
4. Rise of vote bank politics in India
5. Selection of candidates done by political parties on the basis of caste,religion etc.rather than on
merit.
India has had several coalition governments between 1977 and April 2014.
1. The govt of Morarji Desai (between March 1977 and June 1979)- These were the first elections
held after the ending of National Emergency. The Janata Party won these elections and Morarji
Desai took charge as the first non-congress prime minister and formed the first non-Congress
government. The anti-congress feeling among the people led to the rise of janta party as the
prominent choice.
2. Charan Singh government- After the collapse of Morarji Desai’s government, Bharatiya Lok Dal
(BLD) leader Charan Singh took charge as the prime minister. However, the government fell after
Singh couldn’t prove majority in the Parliament and fresh elections were declared. The rising
growth of identity factors in social level played an important part in his upliftment.
3. AB Vajpayee government in May 1996: The religion based factors led to BJP’s strength growing
in the elections held in 1996 as the Congress came into elections facing allegations of corruption.
The BJP won 161 seats, Congress' tally stood at 140, and the Janata Dal won 46 seats. As per the
norm, the BJP was invited to form the government.
Conclusion
Due to the above mentioned factors, the ambiguity around the efficacy of coalition governments
and the partners tends to be on the edge about its government’s stability. Time and again, the lack
of clear power and control of the majority makes the smaller parties more confident in their rebellion,

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therefore leading to multiple No Confidence motions and an easier dissolution of the government.
Thus the coalitions in India have largely been non-successful to hold power for larger periods.

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Day 33 synopsis
Topic: - Social Movements: Civil liberties and human rights movements; women's movements;
environmentalist movements
Q.1) Environmental Movement in India has been criticized of being regionally led. Do you agree?
Examine in context of the evolution of Environmental Movements in India. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Origin of environmental movements in India.
Body
• Regional character of environmental movements.
• Evolution of environmental movements in India.
Conclusion
• Need for new environmental movements.
Introduction
The rising conflict with nature in the form of industrial growth, degradation of natural resources, and
natural disasters has resulted in bio-spheric system instabilities. The publication of 'The Limit of
Growth’, as well as other reports such as the World Commission on 'Environment and Development'
(1987), has led to the monitoring of the contradiction between growth and environmental erosion.
Body
Environmental movements in India, centred on dams, displacement, and resettlement, have
successfully articulated their agenda on the human implications of meddling with natural resource
streams, and have taken action against the forces and organisations responsible for environmental
degradation
Some of the important environmental movements in India are - Chipko Andolan (Barthelemy, 1982),
Save the Narmada movement (Narmada Bachhao Andolan) in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat; Save the
Bhagirathi and Stop Tehri Project ,Youth organisations and tribal people in the Gandhamardan Mines
against Balco, opposition to the Baliapal Test Range, Bauxite mining in Kashipur and Niyamgiri; the
Appiko movement in the Western Ghats
All of these movements have reflected the nation's natural resource base being depleted as a result
of ill-conceived natural resource consumption by so-called development projects.
However , one important criticism of Environmental Movements in India is that they have regionally
concentrated and lack a national characteristic. For example, The Silent Valley Movement which is
associated with the Palghat district of Kerala , Chipko Movement which is associated with Chamoli
district of Uttar Pradesh (now Uttarakhand) , Narmada Bachao Andolan that is largely concentrated in
Gujarat.
Nevertheless , although regionally concentrated , the environmental movements in India have taken
inspiration from each other and inspired each other as well. An example being the Silent Valley
movement drew inspiration from the Chipko Movement.
Evolution of Environmental Movements in India

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The environmental movements in India arose in the form of natural resource disputes in the 1970s
and 1980s, including disagreements over forests, fish, and pasture; disagreements over the location
of big dams; and disagreements about the social and environmental consequences of unregulated
mining. The pressures of urban and industrial expansion have deprived local people of access to the
resources required for their own survival in all of these examples.
The Indian economy began to liberalise in 1991. The removal of state regulations was welcomed in
part because the Raj of licences, permits, and quotas had hampered innovation and entrepreneurship.
Unfortunately, supporters of liberalisation attacked environmentalists even more vehemently than
supporters of state socialism.
Under their influence, the media, which had previously been attentive to environmental issues, began
to demonise persons like Medha Patkar, the Narmada movement's leader. Influential columnists
accused her and her colleagues of being relics of a bygone period, old-fashioned lefties who wanted
India to remain underdeveloped. Environmentalists had gone from being perceived as capitalist
stooges to being condemned as socialist stooges in a single generation.
Conclusion
In the words of Ramchandra Guha ' India today represents Polluted skies, lifeless rivers, decreasing
water tables, ever-increasing amounts of untreated trash, and shrinking forests. Meanwhile, harmful
and ill-conceived projects continue to push tribal and peasant groups off their lands. A new Chipko
movement is on the verge of emergence.'
Q.2) Human Rights Movement in India is nothing but an imported mobilisation of ideas and
institutions. Do you agree? Critically Examine. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Define Human Rights.
Body
• Claim that the Human Rights Movement in India is an imported idea.
• Rich history of the human rights movement in India.
Conclusion
• Uniqueness of the Human Rights Movement in India.
Introduction
Human rights, in the broadest sense, are rights that persons have as a result of their status as human
beings. Human Rights are sometimes known as moral rights,' as opposed to legal rights,' because they
are rights that should be made equally available to all, regardless of race, caste, community, region,
or country to which an individual belongs. As a result, they are considered to be universal, as well as
inalienable and absolute.
Body
It's often said that the concept of Human Rights is inherently 'western' in nature and the Human Rights
movement is nothing but an imported mobilisation of ideas and institutions.
Indian human rights architecture is highly influenced by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
and the creation of bodies like National Human Rights Commission in 1992 was seen as a compulsion

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given the liberalisation and privatisation reforms and greater interest of foreign nations in Indian
markets and labour Force.
However , it is not so. India has had a rich tradition of Human Rights. In fact , Indian Freedom Struggle
is often regarded as one large civil rights movement against atrocities of British rule.
Civil and democratic rights were demanded in a broad context provided by nationalism. Demands for
civil rights in India, according to Nilanjan Dutta ('From Subject to Citizen:Towards a History of The
Indian Civil Rights Movement'), date back to the nineteenth century, when the educated section of
the subject population demanded equality opportunity in employment, freedom of press,and
abolition of racial discrimination in legal proceedings
There was a greater impetus in the early twentieth century in demanding civil rights. A declaration of
rights was adopted and presented to the British government at the special session of the Congress
held in l Bombay in 1918 with the intention that these rights would be incorporated into the new
Indian Constitution as promised under the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms.
Further Indian Civil Liberties Union (ICLU) was founded in 1936 by leaders like J.L. Nehru , Sarojini
Naidu etc. The ICLU's operations included exposing and researching different cases of police brutality
and detention violence, as well as the suspension of citizens' rights and the incarceration of political
prisoners
However in first two decades post independence , the human rights movement lost steam in India.
The naxalite movement grew in popularity in various sections of the country during the 1960s. The
Association for the Protection of Democratic Rights (APDR) was founded in Calcutta in 1972 also
the Association for Democratic Rights (AFDR) was set up in Punjab. These human-rights
organisations aimed not only at exposing state-sponsored crimes and gathering information on
human-rights breaches, but also at organising demonstrations and hosting rallies.
The Emergency imposed in June 1975 along with the State's subsequent repression of civil liberties
led to the human rights movement gaining a truly national character. Excesses included limits on
freedom of speech and expression, press censorship, arrests of political opponents and dissenters,
and general disquiet. This gave rise to a comprehensive human Rights movement in India which was
further enriched by the LPG reforms of 1991 and increasing globalisation and Liberalisation of the
Indian polity.
Conclusion
Thus , Indian Human Rights movement is not a replica of imported ideas and institutions rather it has
been enriched by the myriad of tribal movements, peasant struggles, environmental movement,
women's liberation movement, child rights movement, dalit movement, and struggles for differently
abled people have contributed to the uniqueness of human rights movement in India.

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Day 34 synopsis
Topic: - Comparative Politics: Nature and major approaches; political economy and political
sociology perspectives; limitations of the comparative method.
Q.1) What do you understand by "Development as Underdevelopment and Dependency."?

Analyze the Modern theories of Political Economy approach in Comparative Politics in this regard.
Introduction
• Define comparative politics.
Body
• Political Economy Approach to Comparative politics.
• Modernisation theory.
• Development of Underdevelopment.
• Neo-liberal approach.
Conclusion
• Significance of the political economy approach.
Introduction
Comparative politics is a field in political science characterized either by the use of the comparative
method or other empirical methods to explore politics within (as opposed to between) countries.
Substantively, this can include questions relating to political institutions, political behavior, conflict,
and the causes and consequences of economic development
Body
Political economy approach within comparative politics is an interdisciplinary branch of the social
sciences that focuses on the interrelationships among individuals, governments, and public policy.
Political economists study how economic theories such as capitalism, socialism, and communism work
in the real world.
In a wider sense, political economy was once the common term used for the field we now call
economics. Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau all used the term to describe
their theories. Political economy is a social science which deals with the interconnections of economic
and political processes.
As per the Political Economy Approach Countries and cultures are categorised on a hierarchical scale
of development, and understood as going along a development and change trajectory that can be
studied and analysed. Several hypotheses have been proposed as frameworks for understanding this
transition. Some of them being The Modernisation theory , Dependency theory and Neo-liberal
approach.
Modernisation theory
Under this approach Third-world societies were considered traditional, and as a result, they needed
to progress for which they must satisfy some preconditions. These preconditions, according to W W
Rostow, include the development of trade, the creation of an elite that invests rather than squanders
its income, and the beginnings of logical, scientific concepts. This process, according to the notion,
may be accelerated by encouraging and disseminating Western investment and ideas.
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Industrialisation, according to scholars in this tradition, would foster western concepts of
individualism, equality of opportunity, and shared values, reducing social instability and class warfare.
Dependency Theory
Dependency theory is the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped
states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. It is a central
contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the
way poor states are integrated into the "world system".
As an expanded critique of the modernisation approach, dependency theory evolved in the late 1950s
and early 1960s. It claimed that the economic links between Western Europe (and later Japan and the
United States) and the rest of the world were built on exploitation and war. 'The former engaged in
'outright pillage or plunder thinly disguised as trade, capturing and removing great wealth from the
location of their penetration'. As a result, wealth was transferred from the latter to the former.
According to this perspective, underdevelopment in third-world countries is the historical product of

relations (imperialism and colonialism) that have developed between underdeveloped satellites and
developed metropoles, rather than being caused by the peculiar socio-economic structures of third-
world countries. In a nutshell, development and underdevelopment are two sides of the same coin,
two poles of the same process: world-scale metropolitan capitalist development produces
'development of underdevelopment' in the Third World.
Neo-liberal approach
The 'neoliberal' approach has developed as a dominating paradigm in the context of globalisation,
providing explanations for and prescribing cures for underdevelopment in peripheral states. According
to the neoliberal paradigm, the underdevelopment of Third World periphery governments is mostly
due to the failure of state-led development methods, particularly import-substitution
industrialization.
It claims that by reversing state control, these countries may flourish and gain a competitive advantage
in an open world economy. The notion of separation' or duality between the state and the market is
thus at the heart of the neoliberal viewpoint. The paradigm limits the government's role to creating
'enabling' circumstances of 'good governance,' allowing market forces to operate freely.
Conclusion
Following decolonization, the political economy approach was developed to better comprehend and
explain the relationship between nations and socio-political events. The concept of a link between the
spheres of politics and economics was at the heart of this strategy.
Q.2) Discuss the extent of effectiveness of comparative politics in political analysis. (15)
Introduction
• Introduce the answer generally with what Comparative Politics (CP) means and
introduce traditional and modern approaches to CP.
Body
• Give the various modes of analysis in CP
• Tell how effective they are in understanding traditional and modern societies (developed and
developing) by giving relevant examples
• Mention important works of scholars, anthropologists, political scientist , etc

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Conclusion
• Conclude with benefits of the discipline of CP in Political science
Introduction
The discipline of Comparative Politics (CP) is as old as Ancient Western Political Thought and emerged
in the traditional sense from the work of Aristotle who deployed traditional CP institutional approach
by comparing 158 constitutions and set a footmark in the effectiveness of comparative politics in
political analysis. Post World War II, under the influence of behavioralism and the intent of scholars
to study the emerging developing societies, the rise of modern CP approach took place which
increased the credibility of CP as a tool to understand and analyse complex political processes.
Body
The scope of CP approach has evolved from the study of political systems ( as seen in the traditional
approaches like Historical, philosophical and institutional as well as Systems approach of David Easton)
to study of regional systems and cross-regional analysis of political systems as well as political
processes. In this regard various models of CP has been developed like the Structural Functional
Approach (Gabriel Almond and Powell), Political Sociology approach, Political Economy approach, etc
which laid the foundation of comparative analysis of political processes and politics in emerging
developing societies that kind of helped in the revival of political science disciplines as well.
Effectiveness of comparative politics in political analysis

• Deepening of our understanding of political systems -
o CP has broadened the horizon of political science by devising new methodologies to
understand state, institutions and other political entities by way of comparisons. Eg.
Aristotle argued for polity as the best practicable form of government after analysing 158
political setups or constitutions through legal constitutional approach.
o Post WWII, even developing societies came to be analysed through the Modern CP
approaches. The Political sociology approach included various methods like Political
culture, political development, Elite Structure, Social Movements, etc. Works of
prominent scholars include C Wright Mills’ Power Elite, Robert Dahl’s Polyarchy, etc that
helped in giving a cross regional view of analysing politics through CP.
• Systemic view of analysing politics
o As David Easton, upon understanding of the effectiveness of Traditional CP, pointed out
the limitations of CP, there emerged Modern CP to make it more effective in
understanding politics through a Input-Output systemic view.
o Structural Functional approach gives a more detailed view of political systems with focus
on seven Input-Output functions as devised by Gabriel Almond and Powell.
• Perspective Tool to understand developmental needs - The emergence of Political Economy
approach led to the study of economic policies of the state, with different schools like Classical
Liberalism (Adam Smith), Marxist and Neo-Marxist, Keynesian School, Public Choice, etc tried to
bring in quantitative methods by producing testable theories. Post 1990s, this school gained even
more relevance in order to understand the politics behind economic policies of various states.
• Generalisation and Theory Building- CP tried to bring in more clear and apt generalizations of
various political systems and thereby help the political scientists to understand it in making more
relevant political theory. For eg, Various developing societies are considered to be Prismatic in
nature (Hamza Alavi), as political modernisation is in a transitory phase.
Drawbacks of CP

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• The excessive nature of scientific and value neutral nature of Modern CP and the excessive
normative and value laden nature of Traditional CP made the field lose its relevance in
understanding the real idea behind politics, state formation and related political analysis.
• This led to failure of CP as a discipline in understanding the causative effects which were
excessively understood from non-parochial and westernised lenses.
However, the Post-Behavioural approach tried to make CP even more balanced and effective in
understanding politics like Social Movements, Fall of Democratic Principles, Rise of Rightist parties,
Rising authoritarianism, Failure of neoliberalism, etc by inculcating scientific analysis with value led
research and theory building eg. Study of the role of transnational actors like Terrorist organisations
in state politics like emergence of terrorism in Middle East, etc.
Conclusion
The study of politics of developing areas, analysis of political modernisation, post-behaviouralism, etc
has made the study of political systems more cross-national / regional and raised the effectiveness of
CP to study past and well as future and help the policy makers / leaders / public etc to utilize the
importance of this field of study in a more multi-dimensional way.

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Day 35 synopsis
Topic: - State in comparative perspective: Characteristics and changing nature of the State in capitalist and
socialist economies, and, advanced industrial and developing societies.
Q.1) Why it is so that State in advanced industrial societies differ from that of developing societies?
Enlist in brief the parameters of their differences and paint a picture of the changing trends in
developing societies. (20 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Define developing and advanced industrial societies.
Body
• Nature of state in Advanced industrial societies.

• Nature of state in developing societies.
• Changing nature of state in developing societies.
Conclusion
• Significance of studying these differences.
Introduction
Developing countries are ' post colonial societies' or 'Third world countries ' are known as 'Global
South' in comparison with advanced industrial countries, which are collectively called as 'Global
North. Countries of (North) the Western world are known as the advanced industrial societies or the
First world.
Body
The state in advanced industrial societies of the North differ from that of the South due to a myriad
of sociological and historical factors. These countries were the first to introduce democratic form of
government , the concept of rights of the individuals etc. Following are the features of the states of
such countries as per different perspectives.
NATURE OF STATE IN ADVANCE SOCIETIES
Western states have been studied by Marxist Scholars and Elitist scholars and Pluralists scholars.
• Marxist Perspective: Ralph Miliband has concluded that the nature of the state in post-capitalist
societies remains the instrument of the rich class. Whereas structural Marxist like Nicos
Poulantzas talks about relative autonomy.
• Elitist Scholars: Like C Wright Mills called the USA as a state controlled by power elites. Elitist
scholars believe that the oligarchy is the Iron Law.
• Pluralists Scholars: Robert Dahl called western liberal democracies as Polyarchy or deformed
Polyarchy.
Nature of state in Post-Colonial or Developing Countries

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Variety of state: under the 3rd wave of democracy majority has become democratic but in the majority
of the countries, democracy remains to be fragile. South East Asian countries are guided democracies.
Countries in the Middle East have been authoritarian republics as well as monarchies.
Similarly, in Africa, authoritarianism, authoritarian states, and fragile democracies are existing. These
states are facing a crisis of legitimacy, ethnic movements, governability
crisis, a majority of states are almost failed states and parallel governments exists. Western
scholars talk about the process of political development, modernisation and political decay.
Riggs called the states as prismatic societies. Dependency school scholars like A.G Frank,
Sameer Amin used the term Peripheral state. Hamza Alavi has coined the term "Overdeveloped" state
for states in South Asia.
Changing nature of state in developing societies
The function of the state is possibly the most prominent topic of political debate among thinkers,
expressing differing perspectives on the correct relationship between the State, society, and the
individual. While all political thinkers, with the exception of anarchists, see the State as an useful or
necessary association, they are deeply divided on the precise function the State should play in society.
Further , the nature of state in developing societies has been changing. Most of these countries gained
independence post world war II and set on the path of nation building. Most of these nations adopted
a democratic form of government. However , except for a few exceptions like India , the democratic
regimes couldn't sustain themselves in most of these countries.
Most of the countries of Africa and Asia fell into dictatorships or semi-authoritarian forms of
Government. Post cold war , there has been a resurgence of democracy in these countries. Further ,
most of these countries have opened up to foreign trade and investment , showing a shift towards
Neo-liberal state.
However the nature of state remains fragile and they're persistently threatened by issues such as
poverty , famines , insurgency etc.
Conclusion
The study of similarities and differences between these states is the chief concern of the discipline of
Comparative politics. It helps in developing comparative models to understand the positives and
negatives in these states and help suggest changes in their nature.
Q.2) Discuss the factors responsible for the changing nature of the state in underdeveloped and
developing societies. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction:
• Explain the importance of ‘state’ in political science. Then end the introduction by highlighting
the concept of changing the nature of the state.
Body:
• Explain different factors responsible for the changing nature of the state.
Conclusion:
• Conclude the answer by citing a positive way forward towards the better nature of the state.

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Introduction:
Concept of state has figured as the central theme of political theory and societies. In fact J.W. Garner
in his work ‘Political Science and Government’ claimed that “political science begins and ends with the
state.” With the evolving nature of public policies and societies it becomes utmost important to study
the nature of the state because the scope of public policy is determined by the nature of the State has
been adopted by the government in society.
Body:
Development is a continuous process. All states strive for development, with different rates of success.
At what stage of development a State is has a huge impact on its nature. That is why there is a
difference in the nature of the state of developed, developing, and underdeveloped countries. Dror
(1983) in his book ‘Public Policy Making Reexamined’ elaborately discussed policy-making in
developing countries and has suggested different shades of nature, scope and influence of policies in
shaping the nature of state in the developing and underdeveloped world.
According to him,
• ‘Globalisation’ has remained the ‘first amongst the equal’ factor for changing nature of state
because with the advent of globalisation (1990’s) doors of ‘world perspective’ got opened,
developing countries started recognising and started inculcating fully matured, developed,
professional, and capable form of state. Example, after LPG reforms, India witnessed the wave of
‘neo-liberal’ form of state, leaving out her old ‘protectionist’ attitude (Ashutosh Varshney)
• Capitalism: Developing and underdeveloped countries are getting a taste of ‘capitalism’ which has
changed their nature of state from being socialists or mercantilist, to being a ‘laissez-faire’ state.
In recent times countries paved the way for a ‘welfare State’ which has completely transformed
the nature of the state. The policy is so extensive that states now cover all the broad themes of
development like environment security, protection of weaker sections, prevention of crime, and
promotion of science and technology development.
• In developing countries, the nature of the state is characterised by an ‘Elite legacy.’ Vested
interests of elite sections shape the policy. Political reasons rather than rationality dominate the
policy process.
• Urbanisation is another factor that has affected the nature of the state. Urban population has
grown at a faster rate in developing countries in the last few decades. During the nineteenth
century, the number of inhabitants of towns grew ten-fold over a hundred years. This has led to
‘urbanisation of state policies.’ Nature of the state started leaning more towards development of
urban amenities and that has reflected into the policies leaving behind old primary sector-based
policies.
• Limited role of voters: According to Schumpeter, an increasingly limited role for the voters in
underdeveloped countries since they do not know how to be rational to realise costs and benefits
in politics has led to the built-up of states on the basis of muscle and money power. Neither voters
nor academicians play any significant role in policy matters. The professional standards for policy,
its execution and feedback remain weak and compromised. That is why there is growing
discontent and trust between government and society.
• Other factors that do play a role in influencing the nature of the state are political understanding,
education, cultural identities, and demographics which differ from country to country. The state
in the developing countries like India have multiple roles to play: political administration,
economic development, social transformation etc. hence the nature of state transforms in the
process from socialist state till 1990s to neo-liberal plus welfarist state with special focus on social
transformation. This puts the state in a role of cultural mediator which has changed degrees from
commanding major transformation to current facilitator of social interaction.
Conclusion:

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Hence, to understand the changing role of the State, we want to understand the nature of public
policy. Since policies are the result of the actions of State, it differs according to the nature of State.
Ultimately developing countries need to focus on changing the ill realities (factors) of the nature of
state into an administrative State by which it will have a ‘positive multivariate’ impact on each and
scope of public policy.

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Day 36 synopsis
Topic: Politics of Representation and Participation: Political parties, pressure groups and social
movements in advanced industrial and developing societies.
Q.1) "The nature and process of political socialization in a society shapes the political
Culture and determines the nature of political participation." Examine with valid
examples. (20 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Define comparative politics.
Body
• Political Socialization.
• Political culture approach.
• Different types of political Cultures.
Conclusion
• Civil political culture as the most suitable
Introduction
Comparative politics is a branch of political science that examines politics within (rather
than between) countries using the comparative method or other empirical methodologies.
Body
There are many schools within comparative politics and it has become a discipline in itself.
One such approach is the Political Culture approach developed by Almond and Verba.
Political culture approach studies the degree , kind and nature of political socialization to
classify nations into different types of political cultures. Political socialization is the learning
process by which people develop an understanding of their political identities, opinions, and
behavior.
Culture can be a determinant for comparisons, according to these experts, because culture
is a long-term process. People's conventions, values, and inclinations are referred to as
culture. The term "political culture" refers to a subgroup of culture. It refers to people's
expectations, ideals, and attitudes toward the political system.
Political culture is made up of beliefs, symbols, and values that help to establish the
circumstances in which political action takes place. Parochial, Subject, and Participant
political cultures are the three types of political cultures that describe systems.
Almond and Verba present a classification of Political culture into three ideal types. They
are:
• Parochial political culture is defined as a sort of political culture in which people have
little comprehension of the national political system, have no desire to participate in the
input process, and have no awareness of the output process. African Tribes Eskimos, for
example.

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• Subject Political culture - This form of political culture can be found in monarchies and
subject countries. Whether they like it or not, the people are aware of the governmental
systems. People are not taught to participate in the input functions in this society. They
are not always permitted to do so. The general public has a difficult time influencing the
functioning political system. Take, for example, India under British dominion.
• Participant political culture - People in this sort of political culture believe themselves to
be active members of the polity and play an active role in the political arena. They are
well aware of their rights and responsibilities. E.g. Modern democracies of the west.
• Almond and Verba have also given the concept of Civic culture. Civic culture is neither
traditional nor modern, but partaking of both pluralistic culture based on
communication and persuasion, a culture of consensus and diversity, a culture
permitted to change but moderated it. India in the initial years post-Independence can
be considered as an example of Civic culture.
• Civic culture is a combination of Participant culture, Subject political culture and
Parochial political culture.
Conclusion
Excessive participation culture, according to the political culture perspective, is not a good
thing. Excessive engagement has the potential to turn democracy into mobocracy. The
optimum scenario for democracy is when the majority of people have a participant culture,
but some people also have a subject and parochial culture.
Q.2) Critically examine the theories of development and modernization in study of third
world countries. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction:
• Introduce the answer with definition of development and modernization theories.
Body:
• Explain the basic tenets of theories and their salient features.
• Critically examine the theories by explaining how it is difficult to apply in third world
countries
Conclusion:
• End the answer on a positive note by explaining how these theories helped in studying
states even after its flaws.
Introduction:
Development theory is a set of theories aimed at bringing desirable change in society.
Theory puts diverse developmental assistance tools targeted at those particular aspects that
can lead to modernization of 'traditional' or 'backward' societies. Modernization theory is a
type of development theory, used to analyze the processes which form modernization in
society.
Body:
Modernization theory originated from the ideas of scholar Max Weber. The theory observes
internal factors of a country and assumes that with assistance, "traditional" countries can
make development in the same manner comparatively developed countries have been.

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Theory was dominant in the field of social sciences in the 1950s, then went into a deep
eclipse and made a comeback after 1991.
• Development and modernization theories suggest that traditional societies will develop
as they adopt more modern practices. Promoters of these theories claim that modern
states are comparatively wealthier and powerful. Also their citizens enjoy a higher
standard of living, developments in emerging technologies. Also underdeveloped
countries need to update traditional methods in communication and production to
make modernization necessary. According to modernization theory religious beliefs and
cultural traits usually become less important as they take hold. But theory has remained
controversial in the realm of political scholars especially among third world countries.
• From the 1970s, developmental and modernization theory has been criticized by
numerous scholars, including Immunal Wellerstein who says the model is ‘anti-third
world’. Modernization of a society required the destruction of the traditional and
indigenous culture and its replacement by a more Westernized one. Proponents of
modernization typically view only Western society as being truly modern and argue that
third world countries are primitive or unevolved by comparison. The liberal
modernization ultimately leads to development of underdevelopment in the world
capitalist system (AG Frank).
• Critics who oppose this view on the notion that proponents of modernisation theory
claim that unmodernized societies are inferior even if they have the same standard of
living as western societies. Critics argue that modernity is independent of culture and
can be achieved in any society. Japan is cited as a proof that a thoroughly modern way
of life can exist in a non western society by inculcating all the indigenous values. As Tipps
has argued, conflating modernization with other processes makes indegenious values
and culture of third world countries inferior to the west.
• Modernization theory has also been accused of being Eurocentric, as modernization
began in Europe,and has long been regarded as reaching its most advanced stage in
Europe. Scholars make their criticism one step further and even say that the view is
ethnocentric and is specific to western culture.
Conclusion:
Having said that, modernization and developmental theories provide a useful standard of
comparing countries of the global north and the south. Though liberal and eurocentric
teleology exists, it exposes any lacunae of the third world societies and paves the way for
improvements.

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Day 37 synopsis
Topic: - Globalisation: Responses from developed and developing societies.
Q.1) "Globalization exhibits a distinctive geography of inclusion and exclusion, resulting in clear
winners and losers not just between countries but within and across them." Critically Examine (15
Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Define globalisation.
Body
• Losers of globalisation - developing world.
• Benefit of globalisation in the form of reducing poverty.
Conclusion
• Need for better policies to reap the benefits of globalisation.
Introduction
Globalisation is the process of Integration of the global economy into a close knit sphere where the
movement of people , goods , ideas and capital becomes cheap , quick and easy. It is also called a
'borderless world' or a 'global village'.
Body
However , the benefits and costs of this linking and delinking are unequally distributed. Industrialised
countries are mutually interdependent; developing countries are largely independent in economic
relations with one another; and developing countries are highly dependent on industrialised
countries.
There is a growing divergence in income levels between countries and peoples, with widening
inequality among and within nations. Assets and incomes are more concentrated. Wage shares have
fallen. Profit shares have risen. Capital mobility alongside labour immobility has reduced the
bargaining power of organised labour.
States have been reduced to little more than tools for reorganising national economies in the service
of global capitalism.
It is characterised by an uneven hierarchical process marked by growing polarisation between rich and
poor, as explained by "world systems" theorists in terms of structural imbalance between core and
periphery, weakened democratic accountability and popular responsiveness due to burgeoning
corporate power. According to Hirst and Thompson globalisation is nothing but a buzz word for the
most recent age of capitalism
The rapid growth of global markets has not seen the parallel development of social and economic
institutions to ensure balanced, inclusive and sustainable growth. Labour rights have been less
sedulously protected than capital and property rights, and global rules on trade and finance are
inequitable.
This has asymmetric effects on rich and poor countries. Even before the global financial crisis (GFC),
many developing countries were worried that globalisation would impinge adversely on economic
sovereignty, cultural integrity and social stability.

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The most common complaint about globalization is that it has made the rich richer and the poor
poorer. As per the UN Development Program report the richest 20% of the world's population
consume 86% of the world's resources while the rest 80% are left with just 14 percent.
However, Jagdish Bhagwati in his book, "In

the analysis of globalisation" has presented a quantitative analysis of globalisation and has come in
the defence of globalisation. Globalisation has brought the unprecedented rate of growth in poor
countries and for poor
people. Growth has started trickling down, inequality has started diminishing.
Conclusion
However, the proponents of globalisation believe that we are reversing the century-old trend in
developing countries in poverty and stagnation. In the words of Bhagwati, "Globalisation is a more
powerful force for the social good". However, it's not good in itself. Variety of steps are needed to
ensure globalisation delivers what is expected and every state has to evolve a set of policies to reap
the benefits of globalisation for its people.
Q.2) Explicate the changing nature of response to globalization by the advanced industrial societies.
INTRODUCTION
• Define globalization and advanced industrial societies.

BODY
• Highlight how leaders of developed countries promoted the neoliberal model of globalization and
its evolution since then
• Bring out the evolution of globalization process and the present process of deglobalization
• Point out the impact of COVID-19 on globalization process
CONCLUSION
• Point out the uncertainties in the future of globalization due to contradicting trends and COVID-19
pandemic
Introduction
Globalization is defined as a process that, based on international strategies, aims to expand business
operations on a worldwide level, and was precipitated by the facilitation of global communications
due to technological advancements, and socioeconomic, political and environmental developments.
Its main proponents include Industrialized or developed nations which are countries with a high level
of economic development and meet certain socioeconomic criteria based on economic theory, such
as GDP, industrialization and human development index as defined by the IMF, the UN and WTO.
Body
The present form of globalization began in 1970’s and 1980’s and was advocated by leaders like British
PM Margaret Thatcher, US President Ronald Regan etc. It is based on neoliberal ideology. Margaret
Thatcher proposed the TINA factor i.e. ‘There is no alternative’. After the end of cold war, the speed
and scope globalization increased with the establishment of WTO. Changes in technology also fueled
integration and led to the creation of global supply chains. The process was supported by developed
countries and G-7.

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However, the Great Recession of 2008–10 marked a historic turning point in the degree of global
economic integration. Since then, the growth of global value chains—the spread of supply networks
across countries—has flattened. Further, the reform agenda has stalled around the world including in
Doha Development Agenda of WTO and Climate Negotiations in UN due to differences among
developed and developing countries.
The wide-ranging effects of globalization are complex and politically charged. As with major
technological advances, globalization benefits society as a whole, while harming certain groups. While
benefiting the super-rich class from developing and developed countries, globalization has adverse
impact on middle class in the developed countries.The ‘Hollowing Out’ of the middle class has created
the resentment against the globalization.
Further there is simultaneous rise of Neo-Right as well as Lefts in developed countries. The anti-
immigration sentiment, growing threat of terrorism and rising inequality has strengthened these
forces. The Occupy Wallstreet movement, Donald Trump’s America First Policy and Brexit are the
major examples of deglobalization process. Further,due to influx of third word ethnicity, there are
mass movements to recognize their rights as well as to deny them rights. This neo rightism has created
strain in liberal value system. The United States also initiated a trade war with China over its unfair
trade practices, significantly reducing bilateral trade. The tensions between the United States and
China have weakened their relationship in what some call a “decoupling” between the world’s two
largest economies.
The COVID-19 pandemic simply adds further momentum to the deglobalization trend. In words of
French President Emmanuel Macron, “The coronavirus will change the nature of globalization, with
which we have lived for the past 40 years and it was clear that this kind of globalization was reaching
the end of its cycle.” This conservation stems from the depleting comparative advantage among
developed and developing countries.
Further, past experience suggests that when some countries start restricting trade in critical goods,
others are likely to follow suit. As Adam Smith pointed out in his Wealth of Nations, “The very bad
policy of one country may thus render it in some measure dangerous and imprudent to establish what
would otherwise be the best policy in another.”
Many countries are now rethinking trade dependence. Phil Hogan, the European Union’s
commissioner for trade, has stated, “we need to think about how to ensure the EU’s strategic
autonomy.” Scott Morrison, Australia’s prime minister, told parliament, “Open trading has been a
core part of our prosperity over centuries. But equally, we need to look carefully at our domestic
economic sovereignty as well.” Japan has also begun investigating how to break its supply-chain
dependence on China.
The risk of overreaction and a slide to protectionism is compounded by the failure of leadership in the
United States, leaving a vacuum in the world trading system. The absence of a coordinated and
cooperative response could accelerate destructive beggar-thy-neighborpolicies not seen since the
1930s. As world order is facing uncertainties and geopolitical flux and as geopolitics has assumed
primacy over geopolitics, the future of globalization remains uncertain. This, the present trend of
deglobalization in advanced industralised societies may get strengthend in context of triumph of
geopolitics over geoeconomics in recent years.

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Day 38 synopsis
Topic: - Approaches to the Study of International Relations: Idealist, Realist, Marxist, Functionalist
and Systems theory.
Q.1) Analyze the effectiveness of democratic peace theory in creating a stable and peaceful world
order. (20 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Describe first the nature of world order, prominent approaches to analyse it and then bring
them in the democratic peace theory.
Body
• Discuss about democratic peace theory in detail
• Bring in context of the present state of affairs like rising terrorism, border issues, etc and then
analyse the effectiveness of democratic peace theory
• Can add views of prominent scholars of the liberal school of IR
Conclusion
• Conclude with the relevance of democratic peace theory by giving relevant examples
Introduction
The prevalent dominant discourse in IR Theories of world order nature is based on the realist
assumption of international politics which gives the power view of international politics and assumes
that states are continuously in search of security and power maximisation leading to preparation for
war. However, this dominant view was challenged by the liberal school of international politics. One
of the main sub-schools was of Democratic Peace Theory.
Body
The Democratic Peace theory was influenced by the Kantian Notion of Perpetual Peace, and that the
global spread of democracy will result in greater international peace. In this regard, Micheal Doyle
talks about
• Zones of Peace
• Treating people as an end in itself and not as means.
• Role of Public opinion where institutions of representative government, which hold elected
officials and decision-makers accountable to a wide electorate make war a largely unattractive
option for both the government and its citizens.
Democratic peace theory in creating a stable and peaceful world order

• By keeping representative democratic governments accountable to citizens by not going for
power calculations like wars and conflicts as that might be economically unfeasible and politically
difficult. For eg, India and Pakistan have avoided war post 1999 Kargil war.
• Rise of the notion of shared values of liberalism and democracy in the world order. We can see
that right from the Westphalian Treaty, the number of democracies in the world has increased
tremendously. Broadly speaking, the share of democracies among the world’s governments has
been on an upward trend since the mid-1970s, and now sits just shy of its post-World War II record
(58% in 2016) (Pew Research)
• The neo-Kantian defenders of the democratic-peace hypothesis argue that the mere presence of
democratic regimes in the politics itself is a sufficient check to inhibit states from resorting to
conflictual means while dealing with contentious international issues.

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• Pacification of foreign relations among liberal states is said to be the direct product of their
shared legitimate political orders based on democratic principles and institutions. The mutual
recognition of these common principles, including a commitment to the rule of law, individual
rights and equality before the law, representative government based on popular consent, means
that liberal democracies evince little interest in conflict with each other. For eg, Success of
European Union model, Post Cold War situation, etc.
Critics of the theory

• Failure of Democracies - In the post–Cold War setting, Francis Fukuyama re-casted the hypothesis
and portrayed the triumph of liberal international order as ‘the end of history’. However, the 2008
Global Financial Crisis, the crackdown of US in Afghanistan post 2003, rising political turmoil in
Afghanistan due to rise of Taliban, emergence of New Cold War between US and China, etc all
shows that Democratic Peace Theory is impractical and non-effective due to lack of sustenance of
perpetual peace.
• failure of nuclear deterrence theory in the Indian subcontinent- Understanding of the failure of
the nuclear deterrence theory in the Indian subcontinent emerges as a supportive analysis in the
process of critiquing the democratic peace theory (Kanti Bajpai). In the context of South Asia, the
examples of two democratic regimes indulging in open conflict or getting locked in a situation of
conflict have occurred repeatedly in the region. The Kargil conflict of 1999 between the two
nuclear-powered adversaries in the subcontinent—India and Pakistan—having democratic
political formations underscores this phenomenon
• Also, democracy alone is not sufficient to hold peace. In most of the cases, it is different factors
such as economic interdependence, limited gains through war as against olden times are also
responsible for absence of war.
• Emergence of Proxy warfare and cyber wars - shows how subtle events also shows a state of wars
between nations and the state of democratic government at domestic level cannot just
universalise pacifist attitudes in the anarchic world order.
• The democratic peace theory is criticized by Countries like Russia and China as a western project
to propagate its ideology, sometimes with force as in case of Iraq.
Conclude
Though, democratic peace theory provides a broader liberal expansion of democratic world order, we
cannot fully assume the universalist approach of Mcdonalisation of world order. The present crisis in
Afghanistan, clashes between India and Pakistan / China, conflicts in South China Sea, African struggle,
etc shows that the Realist model of looking at IR still remains a dominant view of International Politics
of presence of anarchy. However, this theory holds great potential if complimented with the
democratisation of world order.
Q.2) Explicate the differences between neo-realism and decision-making theory of international
politics. (10 Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Tell the basic idea of international politics and then describe what neorealism and decision-
making theory of international politics is all about
Body
• Discuss their differences on common grounds of international politics like role of actors,
agencies, etc

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• Bring out the relevance of both the concepts in international politics.
Conclusion
• Conclude with the importance of both approaches to international politics and tell whether
commonalities can be drawn upon or not.
Introduction
The dominant view of international politics has been to study it as a system of states situated in a
struggle for power in a situation of anarchy. However, one can also see the behavioural urge to
systematize the study of international politics by bringing in an element of scientific analysis. This was
done by the neorealist school as well as the decision making school of intentional politics. Though,
they had their own differences.
Body
Differences between neo-realism and decision making theory of international politics
• Focus of theory - For Neo-realists like Kenneth Waltz and Mearsheimer, the focus of theory is on
how to increase the power of the state in order to protect national interest and ensure security
of the people. For this, they aim to create a scientific basis to the realist principles. They believe
that most of the resources of that state should be invested in maximization of power as
International relations under neo-realists is nothing but the power view of politics . Whereas for
the Decision making theorists like H.W. Bruck, Richard Snyder, etc, focus of the theory is on the
analysis of foreign policy as they believe that much of the International relation is shaped by
foreign policies which is a decision making process. Thus, they limit their study to process of
decision-making deployed within nations and seeks to understand how states formulate and enact
foreign policy
• Power v/s Information - Power is main currency for neo-realists but information is main currency
of Decision making theorists in IR
• Nature of International politics - For the Neo-realists, international politics is a system of
sovereign states and the international structure is anarchical and thus there are no alternatives
for the rational states to self-help. Hence, states suffer from security dilemmas and will go for
acquiring power. Whereas, Decision making theorists firmly believe that a field such as
international politics is not just a hodge-podge of ideas. Rather a set of empirical problems,
meaningfully related and having very specific, researchable referents. These problems, regardless
of their origin, must be analyzed with tools appropriate to the enterprise.
• Policy perception - The neo-realists practices adaptation to dictates of rationality recognizing the
limits of collective action. While the DM theorists find efforts to compensate for individual
mistakes and organizational attempts to arrive at decisions
• Influences - The neo-realist school is influence from the intellectual precursors of realism like
Kautilya, Sun Tzu, Thucydides, Hobbes, Machiavelli, etc and emerged in the detente phase
especially as an attempt to reconstruct Morgenthau’s classical realism while DM theorists applies
theories and methods from an array of disciplines—political science, public administration,
economics, psychology, sociology— emerged in the 1950s and 60s to understand how states make
foreign policy, and how these policies translate into geopolitical outcomes.
Conclusion
Though both the approaches wanted to create a single scientific framework to understand the state
of affairs in international politics, their differences make them look apart from each other. One gives
a structuralist view of International politics while the other gives a general view of International
politics to help in making decisions.

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Day 39 synopsis
Topic: - Key concepts in International Relations: National interest, Security and power; Balance of power
and deterrence;
Q.1) How has the emergence of the concept of soft power in the foreign policy arena changed the
"power ideology"? What is its relevance in contemporary world politics? 15M
Introduction
• Define soft power
Body
• Description of soft power
• Culture as an element of soft power.
• Impact on 'Power Ideology'
• Contemporary relevance.
Conclusion
• Significance of soft power.
Introduction
The ‘soft power’ has become a catch-all phrase that represents forms of influences that are not ‘hard’
in the sense of military or economic force. Many countries invested billions of dollars in Soft Power
programmes after the Cold War, and the US was a master of this idea. The United States has exported
its culture to other countries through film. There is a sizable global audience for American films. A
phenomena known as "cultural imperialism" refers to the USA's covert attempt to rule the world by
promoting its culture through the medium of film.
Body
According to Joseph Nye, a country’s ‘Hard power’ is based on threat perception, largely a function of
its military or economic night. On the contrary, soft power is the capacity to persuade others to do
what we want.
According to Nye, persuasive power is based on the attraction & emulation and associated with the
intangible power resources such as culture, ideology and institutions.
In other words, it is the ability to co-opt other states by the nation's appeal based on its culture and
values. Therefore cultural diplomacy (foreign policy based on a country’s cultural & civilizational links)
is an important dimension of a country’s soft power.
For Example : In the Indian context, its vibrant cultural and civilizational heritages such as the idea of
global citizenship (Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam), Buddhism , Yoga etc serves as a powerful reminder of
India’s soft power across the world.
The introduction of the concept of Soft Power has raised questions on the utility of raising the Military
power and started a debate on the relevance of large expenditures on building military infrastructure
and nuclear arsenal.
According to Nye, powerful nations require both hard and soft power—the capacity to compel people
as well as the capacity to influence their opinions and preferences over the long term. With the aid of
its businesses, foundations, universities, churches, and other institutions of civil society, the United
States is capable of dominating others, but it has also excelled at projecting soft power.

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Washington has benefited greatly from the allure of American culture, ideals, and values. Nye admits
the limitations of soft power, such as the tendency for its impacts to be diffuse on the outer world and
the difficulty of using it to achieve precise goals. Indeed, civilizations frequently adopt American
culture and values while rejecting American foreign policy.
Contemporary Relevance
Cultural diplomacy and soft power are important instruments in regional &
International cooperation. They’ve emerged as a force to connect to build bilateral relations and to
heal the faults created by history and politics, as evident in materialization of ‘Kartarpur Corridor’
between India & Pakistan (a form of religious tourism).
The importance of soft power has multiplied in contemporary times. The COIVD-19 has occasionally
captured the attention of the entire human species, and this idea has gained more attention.
For example, Beijing is making every effort to dominate this field. China has a diverse range of soft
power resources thanks to its rich culture and traditional beliefs. In light of its ascent in world politics,
China is considering and researching a novel strategy. The Chinese diplomatic style has been noted for
its use of gentler language, promotion of its culture overseas, economic diplomacy, and image-
building.
However, cultural diplomacy is still considered to be at a lower level in most foreign offices than
traditional diplomacy based on a country's hard power. It is now regarded in many countries as a
subset of practice of public diplomacy, a government’s communication with external audiences in
order to positively
influence them.
Conclusion
Yet, cultural diplomacy has the potential to contribute much more effectively in achieving soft power
objectives of a country. Therefore there is a need to focus on building soft power along with hard
power.
Q.2) After Ukraine crisis, do you still believe that Deterrence as a tool of International Politics
remains relevant in safeguarding one country's national interest? Discuss. (20 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Define Deterrence
Body
• Theory of deterrence
• Methods of deterrence
• Deterrence in post Ukraine war world
• Critical analysis of deterrence theory.
Conclusion
• Has deterrence failed?
Introduction
Deterrence is a strategy intended to dissuade an adversary from taking an action not yet started. It is
the ability of a nation to convince a potential aggressor that the benefits of aggression will be
outweighed by the loss.

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Body
According to Bernard Brodie, ’a credible nuclear deterrent must be always ready, yet never
used’. Thomas Schelling held that the capacity to harm another state is used as a motivating factor
for other states to avoid it or influence another state’s behaviour.
It can, therefore be said that the use of the power to hurt as bargaining power is the foundation of
deterrence theory and is most successful when it is held in reserve.
In International security, a policy of deterrence generally refers to threats of retaliation directed by

one state against another state in an attempt to prevent the other state from resorting to the threat
of use of military actions. In the words of Sun Tzu , 'To subdue the enemy without fighting is supreme
excellence'.
A policy of deterrence can fit into two broad categories: -
• Direct Deterrence: Preventing an armed attack against a state’s own territory.Situations of direct
deterrence often occur when there’s a territorial dispute between neighbouring states in which
major powers do not directly intervene.
• Extended Deterrence: Preventing an armed attack against another state. Situations of extended
deterrence often occur when a great power gets involved.
Russian war on Ukraine and Deterrence theory

Nuclear deterrent issues have come to light again as a result of Russia's crisis in Ukraine, reminding
world leaders that risk reduction must remain a top priority on the international agenda.
However, many argue that since the Biden administration had made it clear that it will not intervene
in Ukraine directly , there was no deterrence to fail in the first place.
Russia was unaffected by the Western message because 8t understood it completely rather than
because he misread it. It came to the conclusion that the "historic" purpose of returning Ukraine to
Russia was more important than the anticipated expenses of an invasion.
Even Biden's warning that Putin intended to undermine NATO and Western democracies backfired
because it encouraged Putin's notion that Russia should be the United States' primary geopolitical
adversary.
It must be noted that deterrence theory assumes that both sides or adversaries are rational enough
to understand that the benefits of aggression will be outweighed by the loss.
But some of the potential aggressors like ISIS and other terror groups don’t fit the ‘rational actor’
model. Diplomatic understandings or opposing political ideologies may lead to escalating mutual
perceptions of threat and a subsequent ‘arms race’ that elevates the risk of war.
Conclusion
We see such a scenario playing out in Ukraine as well. Despite being aware of the economic costs that
it would entail for Russia, Putin went ahead with the military action in Ukraine as the end goal was far
bigger than the sanctions. Therefore, it's not a failure of deterrence theory, rather it shows the
absence of significant deterrence.

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Day 40 synopsis
Topic: - Key concepts in International Relations: Transnational actors and collective security; World
capitalist economy and globalisation.
Q.1) Critically evaluate the role of transnational actors in propagating the capitalist value system in
the developing societies. (20 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Start with the context of international political economy and widening divide caused due to
capitalist values
Body
• Discuss the Marxist perspective based on Dependency Theory to understand effect on
developing countries
• Highlight the core issues due to transnational actors like MNCs, NGOs, etc
• Try to relate the perspectives with present reality.
• Give a critique on this by liberal understanding on transnational actors
Conclusion
• Conclude with the way forward to understand terrorism better.
Introduction
In the field of International Political Economy, there are competing theoretical perspectives regarding
the question of global inequalities and the North-South divide that is visible especially in developing
countries. One of these competing theoretical perspectives is dependency theory, which analysed
how various capitalist forces tried to perpetuate development of underdevelopment (Immanuel
Wallerstein). In this regard, there has come an emerging trend to analyze the role of transnational
actors like MNCs, NGOs, etc in spreading capitalist forces of destruction/construction.
Body
Given the complexities of the contemporary world order conditioned by the emergence of neoliberal
globalization, there is an emerging trend that transnational actors, especially MNCs are trying to
penetrate and monopolise the developing economies by their mercantilist approach.
We find that due to economic globalisation since the 1990s, there is a drastic emergence of
transnational actors like MNCs which diligently follow the capitalist economic model. There has been
a rise of neoliberalism which found that the state has no boundaries and the world is itself a global
free market where one can practise trade and build capital.
This latest phase in the globalisation of world politics pushed forward a vision of global political
economy as resting on deregulated and globalised financial markets, free trade and globalised
production structures which MNCs or TNCs (Transnational corporations) were free to roam the world
and organise their production activities wherever they found the most conducive conditions. So, these
TNCs targeted the most unregulated third world countries like Africa, India, Bangladesh etc and
exploited them by utilizing their cheap labour, vast natural resources, etc and converting them as their
semi-periphery and periphery.
The structural hegemony of values of global capital like free trade was depicted in this way to demand
policy change from governments across the world. The emergence of the Washington Consensus in
the late 80s was a testimony to this fact. Taking the case study of India, we see that there was a forced
opening of Indian markets by the IMF to neoliberal forces of globalisation.

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Thus, the value system based on capitalist world economy based on free market, free trade, etc helped
cultivate a neoliberal capitalist structure that was propagated by the transnational actors.
But it has led to negative impact which resulted in capitalist value system itself apart from having bad
socio-economic impacts:
• MNCs hampering human rights regime in the third world - instances of human rights abuse has
been found out by the growing MNCs, international NGOs and terrorist organsations. NGO like
Amnesty International have been found to promote this in developing countries like India.
• Monopolising nature of MNCs hamper local free entrepreneurial spirit- this goes against Adam
Smith's idea of free trade and free corporations.
• Rising terrorism - Surprisingly some actors like terrorist organisations have been found to work
for accumulation of wealth throught spreading of violence. And they have been successful doing
this just because the present capitalist value system has been negatively utilized through
conducting hawala transactions, organised crimes etc. Recently, various reports have highlighted
the misuse of cryptocurrencies in favouring terrorist activities. This shows the state of
development of underdevelopment in developing countries due to propagation of such neoliberal
capitalist values.
• Rising inequality, drain of wealth from peripheries and semi peripheries- Thomas Piketty’s
Capitalism in the 21st century has visibly argued the relevance of Marxsist perspective on the
global capitalist system. He argues that there is a growing trend in rising inequality in developed
as well as developing countries (semi-peripheries). Thus it can be said that a new phase of drain
of wealth started.
• Support to authoritarian regimes - MNCs have supported authoritarian regimes for their own
profit. Robert Dahl’s Defromed polyarchy not only fits for developed countries but to developing
nations as well.
As a result of this, we are seeing emerging reactions from third world countries. Social reaction to the
capitalist individualist values like attack on human rights institutions and growth of reactionary
elements to protect local value systems (calls of Asian values from the South East Asian developing
nations).
Critics
However, the globalisation of trade, finance and production forwarded by transnational actors in the
present state of world capital economy has brought significant positive changes. For example,
Multinational corporations (MNCs) played significant roles in shaping the global economy by making
borders less porous, economies more interconnected, people readily available at the click of a button.
Some proponents emphasize the positive results of foreign direct investment (FDI) in developing
countries. For eg, India has been one of the most prosperous beneficiaries of such a form of neoliberal
capital.
MNCs have forced the developing markets to adapt to neoliberal market forces which are innovation
friendly and growth-philic. As a result, developing countries like China, India, etc have been the biggest
beneficiaries of high economic growth. Even localisation of technology change has been a key to
development in the developing countries.
Conclusion
To conclude, in light of the negative effects of the financial crisis (as gift of neoliberal globalisation
packed by Transnational actors) on the Global South and on the global division of wealth (especially
seen in the works of Thomas Piketty like the Capital and Ideology (2021) and Capitalism in the 21st
century), we also do have benefits from the capitalist values on the basis of technological revolution,
greater interconnectedness. India and the countries of the former soviet bloc have become
increasingly integrated into the global political economy. MNCs of India like TCS, Infosys, etc are now

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even forwarding the capitalist value to developed countries itself. Though, the debate on inequality
and development of underdevelopment will continue to persist until we find a relatively better mode
of global production.
Q.2) Comment on "Slow progress in achieving global socio-economic goals as a reason for the failure
of the existing global economic system. (10 Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Explain the debate of the model of economy in global politics and show the triumph of
capitalism.
Body
• Discuss the facts related to socio-economic indicators of the world and resultant dissatisfaction
with the current global economic system.
• How the model is not sustainable and when it has been questioned.
Conclusion
• Can write suggestions towards the inclusive and equitable global economic system.
Introduction
The slow progress on achieving sustainable economic goals, especially by the developing and
underdeveloped countries has been a cause of concern for the global community. The global
economic system lead by the Brettonwoods institutions and the WTO have been spearheading the
global war against poverty, inequality, etc but some think that the system itself is a cause of non-
achievement of these goals,
Body
Present Global economic system has been characterised by the neo-liberal model of capitalism. The
new model of the economic system was not able to achieve the socio economic goals rather it gave
rise to problems like global inequality and unequal economic development, global poverty, the
exhaustion of non-renewable resources, depletion of the environment and global warming, and
systemic problems associated with inadequate regulation of financial markets.
The global achievement on SDG reported by the SDG index and dashboard suggests that the western
developed countries have topped the list while the African countries still lag behind. Also, the progress
has been very slow paced. The ongoing pandemic has severely hit the capacity of the developing world
to achieve the goals further.
The frustration of countries about the global economic systems to meet their aims can be seen in the
recent current og de-globalization. Globalization was hailed by liberal fraternity as a panacea for
global poverty and underdevelopment but it is felt that globalization is skewed towards the developed
countries.
The present economic system led to the division of the world between north and south represented
by dependency school scholars like Immanuel Wallenstein core and periphery. Concentration of
political, economic , military , technological and ideological power at the core. They are in a state of
unequal exchange resulting in uneven development. Like underdevelopment , prosperity in the north
and poverty in south.
Joseph Stiglitz on the present economic system held that . An economic system that fails to deliver
gains for most of its citizens, and in which a rising share of the population faces increasing insecurity,
is, in a fundamental sense, a failed economic system.

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The division culminated to raise the question mark on the neoliberal model of the present economic
system. The very first and early question mark came from the Developing countries' dissatisfaction
with the global economic system that came to a head in 1970’s when they demanded for the
establishment of the NIEO for an equitable and just economic order.
And later on the failure of the present economic system was represented by the crisis of 1989, 2001
and 2008. The recent protests among the countries like Chile and France were the demonstrations
against inequality and the demand for more economic justice.
WTO, which is an integral part of the present global economic system, ended up in crisis or remains
to be ineffective because of its inability to fulfill and understand the socio-economic demands and
goals of the developing countries which is attributed to the failure of the Doha talks. The Doha
outcome may favourably impact on the socio-economic goals of the developing world but the west
does not want to lose comparative advantage.
The present economic system has also been put on question mark because of its excessive focus on
quantitative growth undermining environmental degradation.There comes the demand of
rethinking our notion of economic progress and we have to change the economic indicators that we
use to measure this notion of progress and economic growth otherwise the present model of
economic system will no longer be sustainable.
Having Said that, the Brettonwoods system and the UN have been working to end global poverty and
achieve sustainable development and end inequality. But the issue of non-democratic nature and lack
of voice in policy making is what plagues the system. Globalization, if it is the problem, can alone solve
the present issues. What is needed is globalization with a human face.
Way forward
Indeed, every bit of change in the global economic order entails the redistribution of international
responsibility as well as international power. developed countries Must undertake their
responsibilities, fulfill their commitments, and pay more attention to the reasonable demands of less-
developed countries.
Conclusion
Thomas Piketty in his book “ Capital in the 21st Century” suggests that we can move towards a system
where there exists private property but not the concentration of wealth rather the circulation of
wealth. There should be a broader participation among the large groups of people to avoid the hyper-
concentration of power that we sometimes see today. This will certainly have a global impact and will
translate into a more inclusive global economic order in the near future.

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Day 41 synopsis
Topic: - Changing International Political Order: Rise of super powers; strategic and ideological Bipolarity,
arms race and Cold War; nuclear threat;
Q.1) "Rise of China at the international sphere is signalling the renewal of so-called lost bipolarity".
Parallelly, globalization is also playing a major role in this phenomenon. Examine. (20 Marks, 150
Words)
Introduction
• Explain bipolarity
Body
• Arguments supporting the view.
• Arguments opposing the view
• Role of globalisation in rise of China
Conclusion
• Lessons from China
Introduction
International Theorists use the term "bipolarity" to refer to the condition of international affairs when
two superpowers dominate all others. Superpowers or "poles" are terms used to describe these two
nations. The two superpowers are said to be at the opposite ends of the world politically, just as the
north and south poles are geographically at opposing ends.
Body
With China’s rise, many affirm the arrival, and importance, of a bipolar world. Some foresee, even
urge, a Cold War–style U.S.-Chinese relationship.
Many scholars argue that the data demonstrates a bipolar geopolitical structure, although one that is
significantly asymmetric due to US military superiority. Data adequate to substantiate the assertion
that present world order depicts a case of bipolarity :
1. broadly peer competitors with regard to the distribution of skills; and
2. separated from the other major powers by a sizable distance.
3. Even if there is a significant disparity in the powers on a crucial criterion like the economic or
military power, bipolarity may still persist. For instance, the Soviet Union's nominal GDP was
around 40% of the US GDP in 1970, a time known as being bipolar.
4. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Chinese nominal
defence spending in 2020 was equal to that of the US in terms of percentage (32%), matching that
of the previous year. 4 China's distance from the number
Therefore these factors indicate that present world order may represent a case of bipolarity between
the two poles - US and China. However, some scholars disagree.
As per them, unlike the cold war period, which was characterized as a ‘bipolar’ world order,
today's world order is characterized by existence of multiple powers like USA,
European Union, China, Russia, India and Japan. This leads to a very different kind
of international order than during the cold war.

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Therefore, rather than a replay of "Cold war", the US-China current crisis showcases that a new kind
of competition is emerging. It is a classic example of "Thucydides trap", where a rising power ( China)
challenges an incumbent power (USA).
Also, the present world order ushered since the end of cold war , is often described as the age of
complex interdependence which makes the polarity of power thesis irrelevant . However, in the
present age of complex interdependence , we are witnessing the rise of the multipolar world
symbolized by BRICS nations along with the possibility of a new form of bipolarity between the US and
Russia.
Globalisation and Rise of China and the Bipolarity

In context of the present Bipolar world order and the rise of China, Globalisation has had a key role to
play. It has ensured that China has risen to heights that was unfathomable 2 decades back.
There are various ways to gauge China's development, but the 700 million individuals who state-led
reform has helped escape poverty over the past 40 years is the most stunning figure. China's per capita
GDP was $282 in 1986.
It increased to about $8,100 in 2016. Between 2002 and 2013, the middle class made up 31% of the
population of the nation. The Communist Party leadership claims that by 2020, 50 million more
individuals from the lowest income categories will have access to health care thanks to education, job
creation, growth, and other factors.
China remains the largest emerging market in the world, and despite years of forecasts that the
country's economy is about to implode, the country's hopes are still high.
China has consistently maintained yearly growth rates of over 9.3 percent. China's economy is
currently the sixth largest in the world, and it is the fifth largest trading nation. It has helped more
than 200 million people escape poverty. In 2002, the average life expectancy was 71.8 years, which is
comparable to that of a country with a medium level of development.
The aforementioned successes were made possible by the unstable international environment. China
has discovered its own path of development that is appropriate to its national circumstances, namely
constructing socialism with Chinese characteristics. This is the reason why China has been able to
accomplish so much in such a short period of time and in a constantly changing international
environment.
China's story is of a thorough opening to the outside world. It is open to both developed and emerging
nations, not just in the economic sphere but also in all spheres of social development. It is not a blind
opening, but rather one that is self-aware and structured rather than disordered.
China's opening developed and deepened gradually and piecemeal. Starting with the four special
economic zones, moving on to coastal cities, capital cities of inland provinces, and finally, to China's
entrance to the World Trade Organization, it has attained an unprecedented level of all-around
opening.
Conclusion
China made a special effort to fully utilise its comparative advantages throughout its opening-up in
order to pursue active international collaboration. It holds a lesson for countries like India and other
South Asian nations on how a well managed opening of the economy can create a win win situation
for everyone.

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Q.2) Nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation is a Eurocentric hypocrisy. Comment (10 Marks,
150 Words)
Introduction
• This Answer can be introduced by describing major nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation
strategies.
Body
• To discuss how the provision of the mainstream disarmament policies is eurocentric hypocrisy.
Conclusion
• A way forward to end the greatest threat of nuclear weapons and can mention India's stand on
this.
Introduction
It has been 50 years since the most important treaty on the Nuclear disarmament and non -
proliferation (NPT-non proliferation treaty )has been entered into force. After that both the issues
remained at the core of global political issues. The treaty aims to limit the quantity of certain
categories of weapons in existence in the world (particularly weapons of mass destruction including
nuclear, radiological, chemical and biological weapons) and to prevent new States or entities from
acquiring them.
Body
Nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation has been been criticised to be the eurocentric hypocrisy
by the scholars of eastern and global south countries who has been marginalised, they held that
mainstream treaties of the nuclear disarmament are dominated by the western countries and
reduction in the nuclear weapons stock by the western countries have nothing more than the
symbolic in nature.
The major mainstream non-proliferation politics is dominated by the NPT which carries with it the
Notion of Nuclear ‘Haves’ and ‘Have-Nots’:The treaty recognises five nuclear weapons states and no
other states can have the nuclear weapons thus proponents of disarmaments themselves only can
have the nuclear weapons creating the nuclear monopoly of the european or western countries.
Some theorists, such as Singh and Biswas, have alleged the NPT has created a state of “nuclear
apartheid”;beause of the flawed method or inequalities in the distribution of the nuclear resources
and power.
Through these policies western countries claim a monopoly on rational decision making and hold that
other powers are not responsible and rational enough to keep the nuclear weapons. Rationality and
objectivity are only attributed to the ‘great powers’. But the obvious fact is that the US is the only
country in the world who have used nuclear weapons and created such large scale violence. On the
other hand, so -called rogue states have no history of use of nuclear weapons.
Infact Western countries have used the strategies of showing alleged possession of nuclear weapons
to justify the intervention in many countries.
By the strategy of non-proliferation the western countries want to create the base for the neo-
imperialism and neo-colonialism by removing the nuclear deterrence from other countries and
making it easier to establish control over them.
The treaty has been criticised to be the western hypocrisy but the proponents of the treaty suggest
that the criticism is absurd because the treaty does not create the problem of “have and have nots

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”but accepts the reality and helps stop the deadly trend in its tracks. Moreover the treaty makes it
obligatory for the nuclear weapons states to use it only in good faith measures.
In many instances the treaties on nuclear disarmament have been proved to be successful for global
security and the nuclear stability. For example, the US and USSR both made thousands of unilateral
decisions to dismantle various nuclear warheads and tactical arms.
The treaty also helped in the responsible trade of nuclear related commodities and technologies.

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Day 42 synopsis
Topic: - Changing International Political Order: Non-aligned movement: Aims and achievements;
Q.1) Examine the extent to which the Non-aligned movement was successful in challenging the
contemporary world view of global order. How can the NAM reinvent itself in the current age? (15
Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Introduce the answer with overall objectives of the NAM.
Body
• To show the achievements of the NAM to challenge the contemporary world order.
• Question on relevance of NAM and methods to re-invent itself.
Conclusion
• Can use the way forward by the EAM S. jaishankar at NAM meeting.
Introduction
The Nonalignment movement, originated in the context of the cold war, was an attempt by newly
independent states to preserve their strategic autonomy. The philosophy and ideology of ''Non
alignment'' lays emphasis on strategic independence and autonomy, and the ''Non-Aligned
Movement'' seeks to take a collective position on challenges faced by the developing world.
Body
NAM was successful in challenging the contemporary view of the global world order in the various
ways like :
Fight against colonialism, imperialism and racialism
NAM was successful in the early phase in its fight against racialism, imperialism, colonialism
and opposition to military alliance in the large pars of Asia , Africa and Latin America.
Support for the new liberation Zone - It supported the newly independent states and prevented the
outside intervention of powers.
NIEO - New international economic order - It was realized that without economic independence,
political freedom is false. Hence, since NAM’s Algiers summit in 1973 economic agenda acquired the
center stage.
Efforts towards disarmament

In the early 1960s it was instrumental in approval of the Moscow Test ban treaty through the
conference on disarmament in the UN. NAM was also able to get the decade of 1970 declared as the
decade of disarmament by the UN.
Keeping organisation intact -When both the block of superpower were critical of the NAM it did not
get swayed away.
Though NAM allowed member countries to take international decisions and stances that served their
interests directly and made arrangements to the effect that they were not ignored or bullied,NAM
was not particularly successful in attaining economic & social development & independence in the
cold war era.
NAM has not been successful in ensuring security to its members; it played a negligible role In the
freedom struggle of countries like Algeria, Angola and Mozambique.

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NAM was also not able in any way to reduce or mitigate the superpower rivalry which ended only with
the end of cold war.
Many countries were subtly sided with one or the other cold war competitors, e.g. India’s pact with
USSR, etc. The main issues were capacity and institutional structure. NAM was intended to be a
movement. Despite good intentions, the lack of proper structure meant that it only remained an
ideological opposition to existing world order and could not provide a concerted and directed
alternatives.
Question on relevance and How can the NAM reinvent itself

With the end of the cold war, the relevance of the NAM was questioned. Scholars like G.
Parthasarathy and Brajesh Mishra called for its obituary and held that Should've declared the mission
accomplished and ended. But new orientation can be that the cold war has ended but not the
problem of the developing countries
With change in global political order, NAM needs to realign itself with current realities and a
reinvention to make the organization relevant again is in the offing.
• There is a need to focus on the main objective of NAM and to ensure Multipolar world order and
rising powers like China and India’s strengths need to be leveraged to make voices of the 3rd world
get heard.
• In the age of Complex interdependence: the global threats like terrorism, pandemics, and climate
change etc has cpme at the centre stage of global politics. These need to be formulated in the
NAM agenda.
• NAM can be leveraged to Fight against rising protectionism, anti-immigration, nuclear
disarmament etc
• Scholars like Vijay Prasad suggest that NAM needs to develop a new charter like NIEO to get
revived in the current international world order.
• From the Post-colonial view NAM can be leveraged to Safeguard autonomy of post-colonial
societies.
• As T.P Sreenivasan says that the quintessence of NAM lies in ‘strategic autonomy in the current
flux of global order, dialogues and co-operation will help to maintain that and NAM can be a better
platform.
• NAM can be the platform in the post pandemic era to cooperate among the developing nations
as suggested at the NAM health ministers meeting that there should be a new pandemic treaty
to address the health needs of the member nations.
Conclusion
External Affairs Minister S Jaishankar, at the NAM ministerial meeting, said,The scales of global geo-
political balance have shifted, and continue to do so, propelled by forces of globalisation and
transformational technological progress and the old problems are taking the new configuration and
nature the NAM can take the centre stage again We must reform and revitalise the current
arrangements and working methods of NAM, to allow us to pursue a positive and forward looking
agenda.
Q.2). "New Delhi neither advocates non-alignment nor displays anxiety about Russian disquiets
over India-US strategic partnerships and US concerns over persistent arms purchases by India from
its emerging adversary. In this regard, highlight the relevance of non-alignment strategy for India in
the contemporary world. (20 Marks, 250 Words)

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Introduction
• Brief introduction on non-alignment as ‘policy’.
Body
• Relevance of non-alignment in contemporary times. Here, discuss both non-relevance and
relevance. Give current examples.
• Non-relevance: (a) Change in world order (b) Change in power dynamics (c) Change in how India
views its role (d) India’s challenging relations with its immediate neighbors Pakistan and China
• Relevance: (a) Conflict ridden world - non-alignment to avoid this (b) Complex relations (c) Arm
twisting by major powers.
• [Answer given in point format for easy understanding, but write in paragraph form in exam]
Conclusion
• Mention about CPR’s NonAlignment 2.0.
• Need is ‘multi-alignment’ or ‘web of alliances’ with strategic autonomy.
Introduction
The strategy of non-alignment is considered as India’s contribution to the theory of international
politics. It was devised to sail India through the choppy waters of Cold War politics and it served India
well. Post the collapse of the Soviet Union, the relevance of ‘non-alignment’ is being debated.
Body
Issues in NAM-
1. World order: Foreign Minister Jainshankar notes that non-alignment was a concept of relevance
in a specific era and particular context. With the end of bipolar order, the concept becomes
irrelevant.
2. Power dynamics: The concept of non-alignment becomes irrelevant when the Cold-War era
enmity and power play dynamics among nations have ended. Given the current global scenario,
there is no black or white approach. There is visible cooperation even amongst adversarial
nations. For instance, US-Russia space cooperation despite a mini-Cold War situation between
them or US-China trade relations despite their trade war.
3. India’s self perceived image: How India perceives its role or image in global politics has shifted
from being ‘non-involved’ to ‘shape the world’ actively. At the Raisins Dialogue, India’s Foreign
Secretary remarked that India has moved from its non-aligned past and today India is an aligned
state. Today, India handles its diplomacy on the basis of merits of issues and its engagement or
cooperation is not ideological in nature. This is evident from India’s defense engagements with
both USA and Russia, partnerships with countries having adversarial relations like Saudi Arabia
and Iran amongst other examples.
4. Immediate neighbors: Rajesh Rajagopalan notes that alignments can enhance strategic
autonomy, which is crucial given India’s unique position vis-a-vis China and Pakistan.
Relevance
While the Cold-War has ended, the current global order has presented its very own challenges and
the idea of non-alignment continues to be relevant for India.
1. To avoid conflicts: Non-alignment as a strategy was adopted to prevent India from being drawn
or forced into conflicts in and between other nations. However, the last decade has witnessed
multiple crisis or conflicts be it Syrian crisis, Afghanistan issue, Ukraine invasion among others.

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2. Complex relations: Relationships among different nations are becoming increasingly complex.
For instance, NATO member France feeling double-crossed with AUKUS or growing proximity of
Russia-China.
3. Arm twisting: The threat of ‘arm twisting’ by nations is increasingly visible such as controlling
peaceful use of nuclear energy, ‘debt-trap diplomacy’ among others.
In such uncertain global times, the idea of ‘independence of action’ enshrined in non-alignment
becomes more relevant. Non-alignment which symbolizes autonomy needs to be reinvented.
Conclusion
Given the current global sentiments, India cannot allow major powers to dictate its engagements
with others. The Centre for Policy Research has released a report Nonalignment 2.0, which is a new
version of ‘non-alignment’. The term ‘non-alignment’ must not be read in context of ‘Cold War’,
rather it is to be viewed as ‘multi-alignment’ or ‘web of alliances’ while maintaining ‘strategic
autonomy’ in an uncertain world.

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Day 43 synopsis
Topic: - Changing International Political Order: Collapse of the Soviet Union; Unipolarity and American hegemony;
relevance of non-alignment in the contemporary world.
Q.1) The present status of world order shows that currently we are in a flux of contest between
global powers on the grounds of rising bipolarity in a multilateral world. Justify this with the help of
relevant examples. (10 MARKS, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Describe the present world order
Body
• The changing contours of world order.
• Rise of a bipolar world order
Conclusion
• Your view of the future world order
Introduction
The end of the Cold War in the early 1990s changed the foreign policy equation radically. It has been
replaced by a multi-polar world, in which the United States is the dominant military power, but finds
itself among competing power centers in Europe, China, India and Russia, with radical change
occurring in the Middle East and North Africa, potential conflicts with Iran, and the threat of global
terrorism a reality since the tragedies of 9-11 (terrorist attack in US).
Body
The changing contours of modern geopolitics are still in flux, and it's wise to recognise the fact that
the eventual result may be indeterminable at the moment. Following can be Highlighted as the
characteristics of the changing International political order.
o The United States' hegemony has all but ended, and the advent of a multipolar world has resulted
in a power redistribution on a global scale.
o American leadership, which would have been critical in catalysing global action against the
pandemic, flirted with wanting to isolate itself from the rest of the world in the spirit of "America
First".
o The intellectual and institutional foundations of the European Union were shattered by Brexit and
the rise of Europhobic voices in Europe.
o China, the other big power, is working on its 'Pax Sinica' initiative, which aims to make
globalisation beneficial to the Communist Party of China.
o Global institutions have deteriorated, and the benefits of putting political will behind their
processes has diminished significantly.
Rise of a new bipolar world with US and China as the two poles
Robert D Kaplan in one of his articles mentioned that , “The American military contest with China will
define the twenty-first century. And China will be a more formidable adversary than Russia ever was.”
This is a hint towards the rise of a new cold war between the US and China.

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This is due to the obvious and fundamental disparities between the United States and China.
Negotiations can barely handle them, and they can never truly be appeased.
The Chinese are keen to push US naval and air forces out of the Western Pacific (South and East China
seas), whereas the US military is steadfast in its position.
Another reason is China's business practices, which include stealing intellectual property, acquiring
sensitive technology through business buyouts, combining the public and private sectors to give their
companies an unfair advantage (at least according to the norms of a global capitalistic trading system),
currency manipulation, and so on. Trade talks, no matter how successful they are, will never change
the foundations. China's business model can only be tweaked on the margins.
It is also a war of Ideologies. Chinese authoritarianism and order versus American democracy and
freedom. Thus the differences exist at very fundamental levels.
However , many believe that we must not see the present world order as the Bipolar world order as
China is still no match to military power of the United States and at the same time many middle powers
like India , Australia , Japan and Brazil are gaining prominence in the world order.
Conclusion
Only the coming times can tell the shape world order takes. But it's certain that the role played by the
middle powers will decide the trajectory of world politics in the coming future.
Q.2) What were the main characteristics of the Cold War? What led to its decline? In the present
world order, do you see that a New Cold War is emerging between the USA and Russia again?
Critically Examine and highlight the present characteristics of world order vis a vis the New Cold
War. (20 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Define cold war
Body
• Background of cold war
• Characteristics of Cold War
• Present world order
• Rise of Cold War 2.0
Conclusion
• Way forward for the global world order
Introduction
Cold War refers to the heightened state of tensions and distrust that existed between US and USSR in
the decades after World War II and till the Collapse of Soviet Union. It was an important time of the
post war era, that led to declining of relations between the two and eventually emerged in arms race.
Body
The metaphor of ‘cold war’ was first used in 1945 in an essay titled ‘You and the atom bomb’ by
George Orwell. The notion of a ‘cold war’ suggests a condition of ‘neither peace nor war’.

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The metaphor was used to describe the post- World War II phase relationship between the two power
blocs of US-dominated WEST & USSR -dominated East, which was characterized by high level of
distrust and antagonism (mainly ideological and political).
Characteristics of Cold War

o A war of Ideologies : At its core it was dominated by the West and USSR, an ideological contest
between ‘capitalism’ and ‘communism’.
o Nuclear Arms Race : One aspect of the Cold War was the US's placement of nuclear weapons in
European allies in an effort to restrain the USSR. The objective was to use this armaments
competition to dissuade his adversary. Both states were aware that they could use an atomic
bomb to destroy entire cities with the click of a button, as had been the case with Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, causing a mental trauma similar to the one the Second World War had left behind.
o Psychological Warfare : Juan Pereira, claimed that the Cold War was an aggressive endeavour to
impose a political system as well as an economic and psychological one. Particularly the USSR,
which influenced Western nations to adopt communism in their organisational structures by using
all of its media and military might.
Decline of Cold War:

The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the unification of Germany in 1990, and the collapse of the Soviet
Union in 1991 all served as signposts for the end of the Cold War. Each was influenced or brought
about by the demands and deeds of common Europeans who were eager to bring about change.
These shifts occurred at the conclusion of a decade in which the general public opposed socialist
regimes. In the countries of the former Soviet Union, these factors weakened and degraded political
authority.
Moscow stopped enforcing adherence to socialist principles, and governments throughout the former
Soviet bloc started to ease their limitations and enable political reforms.
Popular dissatisfaction in East Germany, the centre of Cold War divide, led to a change in leadership
and the fall of the Berlin Wall (November 1989). After 45 years of separation, the two Germanys were
united within a few months.
The Soviet Union was likewise nearing the end at the time. The USSR was domestically deteriorating
following two decades of economic stagnation.
Present World Order : A New cold war

The term ‘new cold war’ or ‘cold war 2.0’ is used to compare the present day conflicts and tensions
between USA and China to the bitter ideological rivalry of the cold war phase.
The rising tensions between the two countries have prompted many experts to warn of a new cold
war. The two major powers of the contemporary world order are engaged in conflict across multiple
geographic theatres (South Asia, South East Asia, Australia, Europe, Africa and Latin America) and
multiple vectors (trade, investment, technology, international institutions, health policy, defence and
security).
According to Stanly Johny, covid19 have aggravated the crisis, pushing both countries, already reeling
under trade, technology and maritime disputes, to take a more hostile position towards each other.
According to Stanly Johny, there are similarities between the current crisis and the
cold war. The political elites of both China and the US (like the Soviet Union and the US during the cold
war) see each other as their main rivals.

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This is also evident from USA’s National Security Strategy (2017), which called China a ‘revisionist
power’ seeking to erode American security and prosperity and shape a world antithetical to US values
and interests.
Thus, similar to the cold war phase,

the current crisis also carries a subtle element of ‘existential threat’.
However, some analysts and strategic studies still hesitate to employ the cold war concept, wary of
the analogy with US-USSR conflict and its implications for international relations in the medium and
long term.
This is so because the differences between the US- China current crisis to that of US-USSR cold war
era relations. The cold war period was characterized by certain features such as coherent blocs formed
by the Soviet Union (Warsaw Pact) and the West (NATO), few numbers of non aligned countries,
contested spaces saw ‘proxy wars’ and battle for alignment and little economic activity took place
between blocs.
However, none of these characteristics are present in today's world. Unlike the cold war period, which
was characterized as a ‘bipolar’ world order, today's world order is characterized by existence of
multiple powers like USA, European Union, China, Russia, India and Japan. This leads to a very different
kind of international order than during the cold war.
Conclusion
Therefore, we must not flirt with the idea of cold war as it can have devastating consequences. The
future of multipolar world order holds great hope for cooperation and coordination along with conflict
and competition. We must capitalize on these opportunities to create a prosperous and peaceful
world.

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Day 44 synopsis
Topic: - Evolution of the International Economic System: From Brettonwoods to WTO; Socialist economies and the
CMEA (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance); Third World demand for new international economic order;
Globalisation of the world economy.
Q.1) Why does the Third World demand a new International Economic Order? What are the
characteristics of it? Do you think that global political order still shapes the global economic order
or is it vice versa? Discuss (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Define NIEO
Body
• Demand for NIEO
• Basic characteristics of NIEO
• Global political order and Global economic order
Conclusion
• Way ahead.
Introduction
The New International Economic Order (NIEO) is a set of concepts put up by developing countries to
abolish economic colonialism and reliance by establishing a new interdependent economy.
Body
The primary argument for NIEO acknowledged that the current international economic order "was
founded when most developing countries did not even exist as separate states and perpetuates
inequality." The NIEO urged for changes in commerce, industrialization, agricultural output, financing,
and technology transfer in the spirit of " trade not aid."
They argued that a NIEO was need for an overhaul of international trade regulations, particularly those
relating to raw materials, food, the preferential trade system, reciprocity, commodity agreements,
transportation, and insurance. They also called for reform of the international monetary system and
other finance systems to align them with development requirements.
NIEO called for Incentives for financial and technological transfer as well as help for industrialisation
projects in underdeveloped nations.
The Declaration for the Establishment of a New International Economic Order, together with its
associated programme of action, was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1974,
formalising this feeling among nation states. The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States was
later ratified by the United Nations General Assembly.
Basic Characteristics of NIEO

• All states have sovereign equality, with non-interference in their internal affairs, effective
participation in the solution of global problems, and the liberty to create their own economic and
social systems
• Each state has complete sovereignty over its natural resources and other economic activities
required for development, as well as regulation of international enterprises.

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• Relationship between the prices of raw materials and other commodities exported by developing
nations and the prices of raw materials and other goods exported by developed countries that is
just and equitable.
• Strengthening bilateral and multilateral international support to encourage industrialization in
poor countries, including adequate financial resources and possibilities for the transfer of
appropriate techniques and technologies.
Also, it's true that global political order shapes the global economic order. As can be seen in the case
of US-China rivalry. Despite huge economic interdependence, both the countries indulged in a long
drawn trade war that hurt not only their economies but the economy of the whole world.
It can also be seen in the case of dominance of the west in the international economic order
established by their dominance of political order of the world. The countries of the west dominate
global institutions like WTO,World Bank and IMF due to their political power.
Conclusion
The NIEO provided a fresh idea for bringing together third world countries for collective action.
Irrespective of its success, it provided a substantive critique of the liberal international economic order
and showed the path to a more equitable future of international economic order.
Q.2) Does the proliferation of economic-political blocs in the developing world indicate the rise of
the rest? Critically evaluate. (20 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Start with the context of the post-cold war scenario where there is a rise of emerging
developing world and then highlight what economic-political blocs mean in this changing world
order
Body
• Discuss about the proliferation of economic-political blocs
• Tell how it shows rise of the rest
• Give the possibilities, challenges and probabilities of these economic-political blocs to shift the
global order by critically evaluating it
Conclusion
• Conclude with the relevance of the economic-political blocs in the present world order.
Introduction
After a period of US dominance of the international political and economic systems, the world order
began to undergo what many came to see as a fundamental structural change from the mid-2000s.
This was initially associated with the rise of the BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South
Africa). Fareed Zakaria has even termed this rise as Rise of the Rest. so, it becomes even more
important to analyse the proliferation of economic-political blocs in the developing or emerging areas
when the world order is at the cross-roads.
Body
Post 2000, especially after 9/11 and the 2007-08 Global financial crisis, there emerged a school of
thought that the liberal world order is in a crisis and this has led to the failure of the dominant world
view about the hegemony of the US in international politics. And as a counter to this decline of US

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power, we are continuously seeing that the global balance of power is shifting from the Atlantic to the
Pacific.
In this regard, the rise of the developing nations or the Third World countries can be seen in the form
of expansion of various political and economic blocs, building of new Southen Coalitions and
institutions affecting trade, etc (Andrew Hurrel):
• Rise of Non-western global groupings like BRICS, IBSA - Jim O’ Neil predicted the BRICS over
taking G-7 by 2050. The establishment of the IBSA (India, Brazil and South Africa) as one of the
principal platforms of South-South cooperation. Oliver Stuenkel in his book India-Brazil-South
Africa Dialogue Forum (IBSA) The Rise of the Global South situates the IBSA grouping in the wider
context of increasing South-South cooperation in the context of the global shift of power away
from the United States and Europe towards developing powers such as Brazil, India and South
Africa.
• Rise of Economic organisations like AIIB, New Development Bank, etc - The emergence of new
financial institutions formed by the non-western world like NDB and AIIB have created a greater
need for governance and policy reforms in western dominated financial institutions and showing
that emerging nations can have their own institutions of global value, thereby countering the
hegemonic economic institutions of the west. Also, Contingency reserves at NDB challenge IMF's
clout. Some scholars argue AIIB as China's Marshall Plan to create a sphere of influence.
• Demand of Reformation of Western Multilateral institutions on the basis of support for
multilateralism - Non-western regional blocs continuously demand reforms at UN, IMF, WB
through coordinated action based on rules based principles of multilateralism. Eg India and China
at WTO.
• RCEP and CPTTP - The emergence of economic rise of such regional groupings shows that there is
an emergence of non-western intra-East Asian integration around China and Japan. RCEP will
connect about 30% of the world’s people and output and, in the right political context, will
generate significant gains. RCEP and the CPTPP are powerful counterexamples to the global
decline in western dominated liberal rules-based trade. If RCEP spurs mutually beneficial growth,
its members, including China, will gain influence across the world.
• Debated over Western liberal democratic ideologies as a universal model - China has been
continuously questioning the western hegemonic liberal democratic ideology in the political,
social and economic spheres. China with Socialistic Characteristic is an example. Even Francis
Fukuyama’s end of history thesis has been questioned as an end in itself due to the rise of
prominent non-western ideologies like those in China, ASEAN, etc.
Analysis of Rise of the Rest

• What we see is that BRICS/MINT economies are themselves slowing down, which shows that
emerging economies have a conversion problem where they are unable to convert their economic
power into technological and military power.
• Rising Rest itself doesnt represent a powerful homogeneous bloc and there is inherent
factionalism as seen in the recent conclusion of RCEP and India’s apprehensions. Also, Failure in
conclusive summits of IBSA, SAARC, etc shows lack of regional approach to global West.
• Apprehensions from US and the EU to regionalize supply chains to move away from Chinese
dependence. They are forming new FTA with each other while negotiating in small groups in the
WTO to keep the rest of the world outside.
• Global trade has realigned the relative gains in favour of rest hence the west wants to make it
dysfunctional.
• The present world order can be best described as diffused or as described by the 3D chess model
(Joseph nye), where the US remains the indispensable nation (Madeleine Albright) with poor
ability to realize outcomes, China being the economic super power however the cultural power
remains evenly split.

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• The west still retains its soft power, financial power(Dollar), technological edge and firmly
controls the global capital. There is a relative decline not an absolute decline of the west.
Conclusion
Upon the critical assessment, we can say that the rest of the world may have benefited from
globalization and other forms of liberal world order, yet there are many actors who have risen in the
new plural society centric order. The Hongkong movement, Thailand movement , farmers movement
in India shows that the rise of rest is being challenged not only by the west but also by societal forces.
Extra edge
BRICS - A regional grouping of five nations, in less than a decade, BRICS has emerged a very powerful
organization of like minded nations to counter the developed countries. Initially thought to be an
economic powerhouse of five emerging markets (combined GDP of more than 25% of world
economy), with the subsequent summits of the nations, it can be seen that BRICS have ambitions to
organise itself as a political club, allowing them to convert their economic power into greater geo-
political influence.

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Day 45 synopsis
Topic: - United Nations: Envisaged role and actual record; specialized UN agencies-aims and functioning; need for
UN reforms.
Q.1) Comment on the role of the United Nations in climate action. (10 Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• Start with the context of the question based in the contemporary global concern of climate
change
Body
• Discuss about the effectiveness of the UN as an institution to help address the menace.
• Tell the challenges and opportunities
• Try using the liberal institutional approach to tackle the menace and give adequate solutions
Conclusion
• Conclude with the relevance of the UN and use the social constructivist theory to make
climate change look a relevant issue for the present generation.
Introduction
As environmental problems transcend national boundaries they become a feature of international
politics. Such is the case with Climate Change menace by taking a concerted global climate action to
address the emerging contemporary global concern. In this regard, a global liberal institutional
approach by bringing the UN in the picture comes handy.
Body
From the decades of 70s till date, the UN as an institution of global environmental governance had
played an important role in climate action. As a liberal approach to global reform, in 1972, the UN
conference on Human and Environment took place in Stockholm. This led to the creation of UNEP.
Then in 1992 Rio Earth and then in 2012 Rio + 20 conferences highlighted that global climate action
had entered the international political arena with the UN playing a major role.
1992 UNFCCC (UN framework convention on climate change) was the most prominent achievement
of the UN in bridging an institutional global climate action to save the global commons. It envisaged
the reduction of GHG emissions and their removal by sinks, locked up parties into holding a continuing
series of annual conferences - the COPs - to consider possible actions and review the adequacy of
commitments, brought binding commitments for parties to draw up national inventories of sources
and sinks. Also, the idea of CBDRs (Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and respective
capabilities) came into limelight saying that the UN has taken the task to tell the global audience that
climate change is a common concern of all. COP 2 brought the significant Kyoto Protocol in 1997.
Together with the Convention, the Paris Agreement of 2015 on climate change establishes the
institutional agreements for the climate change intergovernmental process led by the UN.
Apart from this, by performing a comparative analysis, the UN experts have studied the climate plans
of more than 100 countries and concluded that we're heading in the wrong direction, thereby creating
a public opinion and arguing the nations to avoid the totalitarian trap of development which is
unsustainable in nature.
However, there has been various critics to the role of UN in global climate change like

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• poor status of funds to implement global climate change programmes (eg India highlighted lack
of funding in Paris Agreement from the West),
• Institutional apathy - as the working of the UN remains at the mercy of developed powerful
nations like the US which don't find climate change a foreign policy threat.
• Lack of consensus on major issues such as sharing of responsibilities (CBDRs). For eg, inabilities of
the Paris Climate deal to bring tangible changes.
Conclusion
However, the UN holds much potential to steer global climate action as the single largest institution
to hold global membership. Also, the menace of climate change can be tackled by the UN by creating
a social constructivist view that climate actions have to become the norm of the 21st century and
need to discuss and take action towards this shared environmental problem. COP 26 Glasgow summit
proved to be a significant step in that direction.
Extra edge
The Secretary-General, in a statement on the conclusion of COP26, said the conference outcome
reflected the state of political will in the world today and provided building blocks for progress. “We
are in the fight of our lives, and this fight must be won,” he said. “Never give up. Never retreat. Keep
pushing forward.”
Q.2) Discuss the significance of India's peacekeeping operations with the UN. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Describe first the importance of UN peacekeeping in a realist dominant IR world.
Body
• Discuss about India’s role in UNPK operations on the following factors - troop
contribution, training, budget cooperation, etc.
• Tell about its significance
• Highlight some drawbacks and then present a way forward
Conclusion
• Conclude with the relevance of India in UNPK even till date and link it with India’s
world view + importance of UN in ensuring a liberal world order based on peace and
prosperity.
Introduction
UN Peacekeeping (UNPK) means to promote & maintain peace in conflict-ridden areas in different
parts of the world. As defined by the UN, it is a way to help countries torn by conflict in creating
conditions for sustainable peace. As an "original” founder-member of the United Nations, India has
not hesitated to respond to the calls of the UN to contribute troops for maintaining international
peace and security.
Body
India’s contributions to UN peacekeeping operations (UNPKOs) have been underscored by the
experience and professionalism of India’s armed forces. Speaking at the September 2015 Leaders’
Summit in New York on UN Peacekeeping, PM Narendra Modi had said: "The foundations of the
United Nations were laid by the brave soldiers on the battlefields of the Second World War. By 1945,
they included 2.5 million men of the Indian Army, the largest volunteer force in history.” India today is
the largest contributor of troops to UNPKOs. More than 200,000 Indian troops have served in 49 of
the 71 UNPKOs deployed so far.

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In no other field of activity has this been manifested more than in UN operations commencing with
our participation in the operations in Korea in 1950 (Amb. Asoke Kumar Mukerji).
Significance of India's peacekeeping operations with the UN

• India’s contribution to the UN peacekeeping is unique in terms of its professionalism,
humanitarian concern & promotion of gender equality.
• India's humanitarian activities, which form the part of the civil Military cooperation (CIMIC)
programme of the peacekeeping force, is highly appreciated by the UN itself.. 1000s of Congolese
populations have been treated for illness & injuries at the Indian hospitals of UN mission to Congo
• India effort at promoting gender equality - India had sent a women unit of 125 personnel of CRPF
to Liberia in Jan 2007 show’s India’s stature to respect women in conflict areas as well, which have
been one of the most significant casualties as mentioned by Cynthia Enloe’s book Bananas,
Beaches and Bases. India became the first country to demonstrate the effectiveness of women as
UN peacekeepers in peacebuilding with the deployment of the first all-female formed police unit
(FFPU) to the UNPKO in Liberia (UNMIL) in 2007. When UNMIL was wound up in February 2018,
President Sirleaf of Liberia commented: "The contribution you have made in inspiring Liberian
women, imparting in them the spirit of professionalism and encouraging them to join operations
that protect the nation, for that we will always be grateful.”
• The end of the Cold War resulted in a mushrooming of crises. More than 20 new UNPKOs were
deployed between 1989-1994 alone. India’s contributions to these new operations rose
significantly. Three broad areas have emerged where India’s contributions have made a
difference.
o First - in making use of UN peacekeeping across the world to ensure a political transition
to peace eg. Congo, Korea, South Sudan, Cambodia, Mozambique, etc
o Second - in augmenting peacebuilding activities by encouraging and mentoring the
strengthening of national governance institutions. UNTAG saw Indian peacekeepers
assist in the creation of the institutions of an independent Namibia.
o Third - in leading the ground level response to new challenges, while the UN Security
Council remains ineffective in implementing its decisions, due to reasons set out
unanimously by world leaders at the 2005 UN World Summit which mandated reforms of
the Security Council.
So, India’s role in the UNPK makes India even a more strong contender for UNSC permanent seat and
hails India as a global leader with humanitarian values.
Conclusion
To conclude, India’s role in UNPKOs shows the nature of Indian Foreign Policy based on peace and
prosperity of the world as highlighted as Jumbudvipa in Shyam Saram’s How India sees the world
where India finds peace in the peace of the world. Thus, India has increased the credibility of the UNPK
mission to a much larger stake that it can today be seen as an institution of collective security.

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Day 46 synopsis
Topic: - Regionalisation of World Politics: EU, ASEAN, APEC,
Q.1) Myanmar is the greatest test for ASEAN to maintain its centrality and credibility. Comment (10
Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction:
• Start by explaining the situation in Myanmar and give importance of ASEAN 's reaction.
Body:
• Highlight the scepticism among international community about response by ASEAN
• Highlight the initiatives taken by ASEAN
Conclusion:
• Conclude the answer on a positive note by giving way forward on what lines ASEAN can proceed
further.
Introduction:
World witnessed a coup d'état in Myanmar on the morning of 1 February 2021, where democratically
elected members of the country were deposed by Myanmar's military Junta. The international actors
have reacted as per their strength and collectively condemned the coup in south-east asian countries.
ASEAN(Myanmar is a member), being the premier body in the region which is seen by the international
arena as the most important body to counter the situation as ‘Collective security’ has remained the
important tenet of liberal world order.
Body:
This is testing time for ASEAN because it has failed in the past to cope up in the crisis of past events
(Indonesia). There are many fault lines between the ASEAN countries over the Myanmar crisis. Group
has to sort out its policy of non interference and concessus because with Rising China's influence and
US's Indo-pacific tilt, ASEAN needs to show its capacity by dealing with Myanmar effectively as the
group's stakes are now under the radar. ASEAN though being late, has made some steps and picked
Brunei’s Second Foreign Minister and current ASEAN chair Erywan Pahin Yusof as the special envoy to
resolve the conflict in Myanmar.
Myanmar is going through one of the worst crises of democracy, humanity and security
and is further aggravated by Covid -19 has become one of the biggest threats for Myanmar. ASEAN
has come with a five point consensus which states that there shall be an immediate cessation of
violence in Myanmar and all parties shall exercise utmost restraint. Constructive dialogue among all
parties concerned shall commence to seek a peaceful solution in the interests of the people. India and
many other neighbouring countries have welcomed this move by ASEAN in the UNGA meetings.
Currently, the most pressing issue in Myanmar is the outbreak of Covid-19 and a
comprehensive and coordinated scheme is urgently needed under the tutelage of ASEAN and its
humanitarian and disaster management unit. The ASEAN Secretariat is planning an international
donor conference for Myanmar but right now some form of help and aid by ASEAN is the need of the
hour.
Conclusion:
ASEAN’s credibility and centrality will be tested based on the performance with respect to reducing
the turmoil in Myanmar. The lack of active response in the first few months has already tarnished the
ASEAN’s reputation and has raised concerns on its ability to tackle this quagmire. ASEAN needs to take

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more active steps to succeed in Myanmar and to meet the expectations of the international
community.
Q.2) While the formation of AUKUS has exposed strategic fault lines within the western bloc and
concerns in Southeast Asia, It raises a question over QUAD too. Critically examine. (20 Marks, 250
Words)
Introduction:
• Start by explaining what AUKUS is and members in it.
Body:
• Highlight the scepticism among the QUAD members about formation of AUKUS
• Highlight the gains QUAD can make with the formation of AUKUS
Conclusion:
• Conclude the answer on a positive note that due to there common goals, AUKUS will be helpful
for QUAD for its aim.
Introduction:
The newly created trilateral security partnership between Australia, the United Kingdom, and the
United States (AUKUS) has become, understandably, controversial across the Indo-Pacific and beyond.
Some are opposing it and few feel AUKUS will further strengthen other minilaterals in the Indo-Pacific
including the Quad.
Body:
AUKUS is a trilateral security partnership for the Indo-pacific region, also sharing nuclear submarine
technology with Australia. Scholars believe that the West's relentless efforts for securing the indo-
pacific region has made the overall strategic viewpoint all the more complex. Though AUKUS has
highlighted once again that concerns in Southeast Asia are real, it has created a big question mark of
the efficacy of functioning of a similar partnership alliance, that is QUAD.
AUKUS has been seen as an effort of the USA and UK to keep France out of the equation of
Indo-pacific because a nuclear submarine to Australia (as given in AUKUS’s deal) has dented France’s
traditional submarine contract. The angry France’s reaction was marked by a rare recall of envoys
from Washington and Canberra which suggests it will be a while before the crisis can be overcome.
There are doubts that AUKUS could leave a deep scar on US-EU relations and the North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation, and weaken the international coalition in the Indo-Pacific. Paris had even cancelled a
scheduled meeting of the foreign ministers of Australia, France, and India at the UN.
Creation of another security partnership made southeast asian countries all the more skeptical
about US’s further intentions for security of the region as any clear cut agenda is lacking here. For
example, among the ASEAN countries, the response to AUKUS appears to be mixed. Also Malaysia, for
instance, has decided to send its defense minister to China to understand the Chinese reaction to
AUKUS. ASEAN countries are already in concerned about non-ASEAN centric treaties in indo-pacefic,
with creation of AUKUS, has further increased their scepticism.
The formal inauguration of AUKUS created many questions on the relevance of QUAD, it is
likely so because, whether there was a need for another QUAD like body in the Indo-Pacific region
when QUAD itself is nascent and yet to fully develop. This creates a sense of insecurity among other
members of QUAD, that is India and Japan. Former naval chief, Admiral Arun Prakash, complained
that “AUKUS is an exclusive club that has left out two of the Quad members – India and Japan”. The
establishment of AUKUS could interpret that although the three countries (India, Japan and Australia)
are under the Quad framework, the USA’s position toward Australia is very different and somehow

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“special” from that toward Japan and India. But many maintain a view that AUKUS is both relevant
and important in the context of the QUAD.
According to Foreign secretary Harsh Shringla said, “Unlike AUKUS, which is only a security
alliance, Quad’s agenda is distinct that Quad is a plurilateral grouping with a vision for a free, open,
transparent and inclusive Indo-Pacific.” Also, the new partnership has involved Quad partners
expanding the Indo-Pacific strategic matrix to involve non-Quad members which is a way of bringing
more countries to endorse the central and common purpose of these minilaterals which is to balance
China.
The latest development is largely favorable from an Indian viewpoint because it is clear that
like-minded regional powers are trying to evolve a partnership that will see the closer alignment of
regional policies and actions as well as greater integration of their defense forces to counter China.
Also a nuclear militarily capable Australia is in the interests of the wider Indo-pacific region. According
to H.V. Pant, “AUKUS is significant because the U.K., after going back and forth on China, is now firmly
entrenched in the Indo-Pacific and countering China.” Hence, western block and east asian countries
should show more maturity and keep intact on reducing China’s influence in the region, keeping away
their individual grudges.
It is also true that whether QUAD or AUKUS, both are at initial phase of their working and
rather being skeptical about respective partnerships, major players must try to achieve their common
goal of countering China. As said by Sunjoy Joshi, “Be it AUKUS, or the Quad, both arrangements are
yet mere shells, thick on pronouncements and thin on details. Time will reveal their true shape.”
Conclusion:
It is pretty confirmed that building partnerships like AUKUS is more beneficial than being
disadvantageous for QUAD because ultimately joining new members shares the burden of possible
threat (J. Mearsheimer). Hence as said by C. Raja Mohan, “AUKUS is a step towards managing the
geopolitical turbulence in the Indo-Pacific, and it will complement, not diminish the importance of
Quad.”

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Day 47 synopsis
Topic: - Regionalisation of World Politics: SAARC, NAFTA.
Q.1) SAARC was developed to imitate the successes of ASEAN in South Asia, however it fell of the
cliff with no substantial successes. In this regard, discuss the ways of revival of SAARC to change as
an integrating force in South Asia. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Introduction to South Asia
Body
• Success of ASEAN and formation of SAARC
• Performance of SAARC
• Way forward
Conclusion
• Significance of SAARC for South Asia
Introduction
South Asia consists of seven state - Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan,
and Sri Lanka. With one-fifth of the world's population, it is home to two-fifths of the world's poor. It
has abysmally low intra-regional trade.
Body
The formation of ASEAN was seen as a shot in the arm for solving regional issues of poverty, conflict
abd development issues. South Asian leaders came together in 1985 to set up the South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation.
It was aimed to work around bilateral tensions in the subcontinent, especially between its two biggest
members, and to make space for discussion on common issues such as trade, infrastructure,
sustainable development and poverty alleviation, that SAARC was set up.
The founding principle was that together South Asia had a better chance of fighting its shared ills, an
idea that held the group together for decades in the face of intermittent regional tensions.
In the past, SAARC has played an important role in pacifying relations between India and Pakistan too.
For instance, after the second summit the then Pakistan Prime Minister Junejo admitted that
discussions on the sidelines with Rajiv Gandhi helped clear doubts about reports of India preparing to
attack Pakistan.
However, SAARC has essentially failed in realising it's true objectives of establishing a peaceful and
prosperous south Asia. According to Brookings India, intra-regional trade among the South Asian
nations is under 5% of total official trade – less than it was fifty years ago. In contrast, intra-regional
trade accounts for nearly 35% of the total trade in East Asia, 25% in Southeast Asia, and almost 12%
in Middle East and Africa.
The real problem is lack of political will on the part of the members. They should ensure that the three
decades of work does not go waste at a time when regionalism has emerged as an important agenda
item in global politics and economy, as can be seen with agreements like TPP and TTIP.

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Way Forward
• SAARC could serve as a shared platform to demand more sustainable development options, unite
against trade restrictions, and demand better terms for South Asian workers around the world.
• SAARC might use the "ASEAN minus X" approach, in which nations who refuse to join the
consensus can join at a later date while those that want to move forward with connectivity,
commerce, or technological cooperation agreements are not hampered.
• SAARC is required to facilitate diplomacy and coordination among member governments in order
to appropriately address the region's myriad dangers and difficulties.
• Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi spoke at a meeting of SAARC health ministers about open
entrance for health personnel from SAARC countries and an air ambulance service that would be
beneficial since it would aid each other in times of need. However, the discussion must be put into
action.
• All member countries should investigate the organization's capability to sustain regional peace
and stability.
• SAARC should be allowed to develop at its own pace, and the people of South Asia, who account
for a quarter of the world's population, should be given more opportunities to interact with one
another.
Conclusion
If the coming time is to be known as the Asian Century, SAARC has to play a central role in turning
South Asia into a peaceful and prosperous region.
Q.2) The prospects of increasing regionalism at the global sphere is enhancing the development of
multilateralism. critically examine. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• What is regionalization
Body
• Why is regionalization important
• Why is it increasing at global sphere
• How the process of regionalism enhances the prospects of multilateralism?
• How the process of regionalism makes multilateralism more difficult to achieve?
Conclusion
• Benefits of both- regionalization and multilateralism
Introduction
Regionalization is defined as intensification of political and economic interdependence among
various nations and other actors in any particular geographic region. At the broader level, regional
cooperation has various forms, like- Economic level cooperation, political cooperation, security level
cooperation, cooperation in foreign policy etc. These are usually limited arrangements, which are
agreed between states to work together and to achieve some goals. It is primarily a state-led process.
Body
Regional integration can be understood as one step further than the process of cooperation. It is
comparatively more permanent in nature. It may also involve interlinkages between societies. Further,
it may or may not be state led, in some cases, state may just act as a facilitator.
Here, economic integration is specifically distinct with practices like customs union, common market,
monetary union etc. And the entire region may act with single voice at international level, at least in

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tariff policy. However regional cooperation and integration are not entirely mutually exclusive terms.
Rather, all regional arrangements usually contain the mixture of both.
Why is regionalism increasing-

• It helps in management of independence of nations– many newly independent states want to re-
define and settle down their relations with their neighbors and colonial powers. This also aims to
ensure security in the concerned region.
• It helps in defining their economic and social relations wrt others.
• It also helps to expand their markets to increase their domestic production.
• It also helps the concerned region to assert more weight at various international forum when
they act together rather than acting alone on a common matter. For examples, EU countries acting
together can manage US unilateralism more effectively than acting alone. Similarly, ASEAN also
works better when acting together.
How the process of regionalism enhances the prospects of multilateralism?

• It helps in promoting the internal conditions of individual states to change in a way, that is more
conducive to international multilateralism.
• It shows the demonstrating effect i.e., it shows the various actors involved in the effects of
globalization.
• Each successive regional agreements reduces the margin of preference. Thus, it gradually
weakens the opposition to multilateralism.
• Regional agreements have been seen to often more doing with strategic and political alliance
than trade liberalization.
• Regionalism also has more positive than negative effects, like- when countries experience as,
how they are getting benefitted by increasing regionalization, they will be more optimistic about
cooperation at international level.
How the process of regionalism makes multilateralism more difficult to achieve?

• The net result of the preferential agreements can be some trade diversion from international to
regional market.
• There can also be instances of ‘attention diversion’ with countries becoming less interested in
multilateralism,
• Competitional arrangement may create an incompatible situation of regional and multilateral
agreements for nations
• Creation of several legal frameworks and some dispute settlement mechanism may weaken the
discipline and efficiency of the organization
• It might also lead to more competition and friction between several economic blocs.
Conclusion
From the above, it is clear that both will act contradictory to each other in global economic governance
and both will act complementary to each other in governance. Both of them are important for
sustaining good economic governance in the globe. For this to achieve regional blocks and multilateral
institutions have to reform their rules to uphold inclusive principles and equality.

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Day 48 synopsis
Topic: - Contemporary Global Concerns: Democracy, human rights, environment,
Q.1) The world has faced a pandemic of human rights abuses in the wake of COVID-19. Discuss. (10
Marks, 150 Words)
Introduction
• What are human rights
Body
• How has human rights developed- talk about UNHDR
• How has Human rights been neglected during times of COVID
• What is the crisis faced by human rights during times of COVID
• What is the need of the hour- how can society come together to fight the crisis
Conclusion
• Importance of human rights in today’s era
Introduction
Human rights are rights we have simply because we exist as human beings - they are not granted by
any state. These universal rights are inherent to us all, regardless of nationality, sex, national or ethnic
origin, color, religion, language, or any other status. They range from the most fundamental - the right
to life - to those that make life worth living, such as the rights to food, education, work, health, and
liberty.
Body
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948,
was the first legal document to set out the fundamental human rights to be universally protected. The
UDHR, together with the 2 covenants - the International Covenant for Civil and Political Rights, and
the International Covenant for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - make up the International Bill of
Rights.
At its core is a global public health emergency on a scale not seen for a century, requiring a global
response with far-reaching consequences for our economic, social and political lives. This is not a time
to neglect human rights; it is a time when, more than ever, human rights are needed to navigate this
crisis in a way that will allow us, as soon as possible, to focus again on achieving equitable sustainable
development and sustaining peace.
Crisis faced by Human rights during COVID-

• Forced curtailment of Human rights- In view of the exceptional situation and to preserve life,
countries have no choice but to adopt extraordinary measures. Extensive lockdowns, adopted to
slow transmission of the virus, restrict by necessity freedom of movement and, in the process,
freedom to enjoy many other human rights.
• Public health crisis- Guaranteeing human rights for everyone poses a challenge for every country
around the world to a differing degree. The public health crisis is fast becoming an economic and
social crisis and a protection and human rights crisis rolled into one
• COVID is impacting poor people more- Protecting people’s lives is the priority; protecting
livelihoods helps us do it- the health crisis has triggered an economic and social crisis that is hitting
individuals, families and communities hard.

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• This impact comes from the disease itself but also from the measures necessary to combat it
coming up against underlying factors like inequalities and weak protection systems. It falls
disproportionately on some people, often those least able to protect themselves.
We need a renewed impetus now. The many challenges that our societies will have to face require us
to give greater prominence to human rights in our societies, starting with more emphasis on the equal
enjoyment of social and economic rights and equal access to health care and education. There is no
easy fix, but taking the decision to address these long-standing problems is already a good start.
The founding principles and values of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights are as relevant
today as they were when they first emerged from bloodshed, tyranny and war. They require
governments to become more robust defenders of human rights and to strengthen multilateralism.
No single country can solve the complex human rights challenges that this health crisis poses, nor
those that will come with future crises.
Conclusion
Defending and promoting human rights is about the big and the small actions we all take every day,
however. If we want society to function more in line with human rights standards and principles, we
must all make an extra effort and move out of our comfort zones.
Q.2) Do you think that today's democracy are facing a state of crisis especially in context of rising
public resentment and the inherent issues with the global democratic architecture that has been
unable to prevent the Russian-Ukrainian Crisis? Critically Comment (20 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Introduction to democracy.
Body
• Present phase of democracy.
• Rise of popular movements
• Positives of the present phase of democracy.
Conclusion
• Way forward
Introduction
Democracy, the rule of the people, by the people and for the people became the most widely accepted
form of government in the modern world. However, in the recent times we see a decline in
democracy.
Body
Larry Diamond has held that we are passing through the phase of democratic recession . The year
2019 was the year of democratic setbacks and popular protests . For example– The 12th edition of
Democracy Index covering 2019 produced by Economist Intelligence Unit has concluded that global
democracy is in its most fragile state.
Around the world , there is a growth of authoritarian trends as well as identity politics. Some of the
prominent events include China’s new security law for Hong Kong, Thailand’s protest against increase
in the king's constitutional powers, mass protests in Belarus ,Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan triggered by the
elections believed to be rigged.

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Myanmar, which had been a budding democracy just beginning to recover from decades of military
control, was the victim of a military coup, whose leaders even justified their actions by citing defective
polls. The fall of the people's government in Afghanistan, which has witnessed a war undertaken for
the sake of defending democratic principles, was perhaps the worst blow to democratic ideals.
Significantly, the United States, the world democracy's bulwark, has succumbed to authoritarian
impulses and has fallen a large number of democratic steps.
It is essential to understand the reasons behind the democratic recession. According to Dani Rodrik,
the double standards of western countries can be seen as one of the reasons. For example– supporting
the autocrats and undermining the democratic movements whether in Egypt or in Bahrain.
The double standards of the west allowed authoritarian leaders like Putin and Xi to question the
western support for democracy. Similarly the failure of west in preventing a Russian invasion of
Ukraine has severely eroded the public trust in Global democratic order.
There are many other reasons behind this global decline in democracy. Failure to reform the
institutions of global governance, which could have promoted inclusive growth has also resulted into
undermining democracy. In European countries, refugee crisis, loss of job to the immigrants has
promoted populism
However Even in this hour of despair, there is hope. Countries from all across the world have banded
together to combat the disease, ushering in an era of unprecedented global collaboration. Protests
for better governance in nations such as Sudan and Chile have resulted in significant improvements.
A landmark ruling in Malawi to overturn rigged election results created a significant precedent,
symbolizing the triumph of democratic, independent institutions over government pressure. Election
victories in Montenegro and Bolivia, as well as protests against government corruption in Bulgaria,
demonstrate democracy's tenacity.
Conclusion
Therefore, going forward there is a need for Democratic reforms in the global Governance processes
and institutions as well as improving the democratic credentials of nations. Only then can we stop the
decline in democratic credentials of the world order.

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Day 49 synopsis
Topic: - Contemporary Global Concerns: gender justice, terrorism, nuclear proliferation.
Q.1) "Terrorism takes us back to ages we thought were long gone if we allow it a free hand to corrupt
democratic societies and destroy the basic rules of international life". Analyse the given statement
with respect of rising impact of globalisation on terrorism. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• What is terrorism
Body
• What is India’s law on terrorism
• How has globalisation impacted terrorism
• What steps have been taken internationally to fight terrorism
Conclusion
• Why rising terrorism is a global threat
Introduction
Terrorism has no precise global definition. It is said to be the incarnation of an organized violence and
an act of brutality leading to massive killing of innocent human beings. One traditional and accepted
definition of terrorism is the use of violence or threat to use of violence inducing fear, for attaining
certain political goals
Body
The Government of India has defined a ‘Terrorist Act’ in the rule of Terrorist and Disruptive Activities
(Prevention) Act (TADA), 1985. It very precisely suggests that the terrorism is an act of violence to
terrorize which aims to induce fear among the Government and the people by using such lethal
weapons which may cause death or injuries or may cause damage to the people and their property.
Impact of globalisation on terrorism-

• Cultural factors- Terrorist groups often consider violence as the only possible method to preserve
their traditions and customs from western values of globalization. The spread of thoughts like
neoliberal capitalism and social changes brought by globalization makes societies in the global
South isolated and insecure.
• Economic factors- Marxist scholars view the neoliberal globalization as the spread of western
imperialism. As per the World System of the theory of Immanuel Wallerstein, the world is divided
into Core, Periphery and semi-periphery parts.
• The policies and actions of the north world has direct and indirect impact on the global South as
it disturbs the social, economic as well as political fabric of these countries and thus threatens the
traditional basis of authority.
• Thus, while globalization plans to integrate these nations into global supply chains, it also hugely
drains them of their wealth and mineral resources. Thus, the resulting discontent is used to their
benefit by terrorist groups like ISIS.
• Political factors- the huge rise in inequality, fundamentalism and rightism in even advanced
industrial societies has resulted in hollowing out of the middle class.
• This disempowered group thus joins the terrorist groups which then aim to overthrow the
present 'unjust' political order and establish a new political order based on either religious
principles or on 'utopia'.

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• It also leads to increase in the cases of state sponsored terrorism, as seen in case of Pakistan,
Iran’s Houthi rebels in Yemen, etc.
• Countries like Pakistan have also used terrorism to initiate proxy wars in India, leading to
threatening of security structure between the two countries.
• Religion- New global jihad against western countries and non-Islamic world is in reality is a
reaction against oppression of Minorities and spiritual bankruptcy of the West. Further, the rise
in views like individualism and migration due to forces of globalization has also resulted into
isolation of the man. These youths get largely attracted to radical ideologies of terrorist groups.
Steps taken-
• The United Nations General Assembly has an essential role in developing international
cooperation and ensuring that governments work together against terrorism.
• All UN member nations adopted the ‘United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy’ to take
steps individually and collectively on the national and international level to counter-terrorism. The
Counter-Terrorism Strategy is based on four principles:
1. Addressing the conditions that lead to the spread of terrorism
2. Preventing and combating terrorism
3. Building capacity to prevent and combat terrorism as well as strengthening the role of the UN
4. Ensuring respect for human rights and establishing the rule of law
o Furthermore, the UN Security Council has established three Committees, namely: Al-Qaida and
Taliban Sanctions Committee, the Counter-Terrorism Committee (the “CTC”), and the 1540
Committee, to implement the specific resolutions relating to terrorism.
Conclusion
Rising terrorism is a significant threat to global security that needs to be resolved at the earliest.
Combatting terrorism requires cooperation among international states and international intelligence
agencies to increase efficiency. We must adopt security measures that are highly resilient to deal with
terrorism and at the same time comply with international law.
Q.2) "Gender equality is at the very heart of human rights and United Nations values. Protecting
and promoting women’s human rights is the responsibility of all States. Yet, many women around
the world continue to experience discrimination in many forms." Examine the reasons behind such
concern and tell what needs to be done to improve these conditions at a foreign policy level from
the Indian side. (15 Marks, 250 Words)
Introduction
• Women in international politics
Body
• UDHR and Gender Justice
• Present status of women worldwide
• India and gender diplomacy
Conclusion
• Way ahead for India
Introduction
For many years, the status of women has been a source of intense debate in the domain of
International Politics. It covers topics such as girl and women's education, maternal health, female
economic empowerment, and women's roles in the home, community, and politics, among others.

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Body
Gender Justice has become a key consideration in the Human rights regime promoted by the United
Nations and its various organs and initiatives.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was adopted by the United Nations General
Assembly on December 10, 1948, made gender equality a part of international human rights
legislation.
In 1975, the first women conference was organized by the women resulting in the first plan of action
by the international committee. It was realized that gender perspective has to be included in
international development and aid activities. In 1996, gender mainstreaming was adopted as official
UN policy by the UNGA.
The Economic and Social Council established the Commission on the Status of Women as the primary
global policy-making body dedicated solely to gender equality and women's empowerment within the
first year of the UN. Gender neutral language in the draft Universal Declaration of Human Rights was
one of its first achievements.
However, despite these efforts, the status of women in the world has remained grim. Women account
for more than two-thirds of the world's illiterate population, according to a United Nations report.
According to another study, women make up 80% of the world's refugees. Women also hold barely
1% of the world's resources and earn only a fraction of the world's income (1/10th).
According to the World Health Organization, 35 percent of women worldwide will encounter
intimate-partner violence or non-partner sexual violence at some point in their lives. According to a
recent World Bank analysis, the economic cost of violence against women in some countries reaches
3% of GDP.
Also surprising in the twenty-first century is the fact that complications associated with pregnancy and
childbirth are the top cause of death for girls aged 15 to 19, in many cases because girls are married
and delivering children before their bodies are ready. In some nations, high rates of child marriage
hinder girls' educational chances and economic independence. Add to it a long-standing predilection
for sons in South, East, and Central Asia, resulting in millions of "lost" children.
Efforts needed by India at diplomatic level to promote gender justice

• Promote Gender Mainstreaming : Gender mainstreaming requires organizations that adopt it to
evaluate the gendered effects of all aspects of their institutional decision making.
• Take steps to promote achievement of SDG Goals related to Gender Justice :The SDG goal
number 5 , goals correspondence to achieve gender equality.
• Adopt Feminist Foreign policy : a step in this direction by India will have immense impact given
its diplomatic heft in the global order today.
Gender considerations in Indian foreign policy are most visible in the development assistance
paradigm, where various programmes aim to make women the engines of inclusive and sustainable
industrial growth. Women Empowerment through Technical and Vocational Education (WETVE) and
Empowerment of Women through Enterprises (EWE) in Kenya and Pakistan, for example, and
fostering economic empowerment of Cambodian women entrepreneurs through capacity building in
information and communication technology in Cambodia.
Conclusion
Goaing ahead , Adopting a Feminist Foreign Policy Framework could offer an opportunity for India to
place some of its existing efforts in a wider strategy on gender mainstreaming with a stronger long-
term impact

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Day 50 synopsis
Topic: - Indian Foreign Policy: Determinants of foreign policy; institutions of policy-
making; continuity and change.
Q.1) Highlight the changing determinants in foreign policy making of India in the present world of
technocratic and neoliberal disruptions. (10 Marks 150 Words)
Introduction
· What is foreign policy
Body
· How has neoliberalism impacted foreign policy of India
· How the determinants of foreign policy have started to change in this era
Conclusion
· Aim to see stability despite changing times
Introduction
A foreign policy is a set of political goals that define how a sovereign country will interact with other
countries of the world. The execution of this policy involves deepening political, socio-cultural and
trade and defence ties between countries, as well as participating in multi-lateral forums involving
many countries.
Body
The term 'neoliberalism' has an economic refrain. It advocates a free market, laissez-faire economy.
In international relations, neoliberal institutionalism has a slightly modified tenor that lays emphasis
on economic interdependence which has been a marked feature of international politics in the post-
Cold War period. Such interdependence leads to inter-connectedness and linkage that ensures peace
and reduces the probability of conflict between states.
The concept of geo-economics that seems to guide foreign policy behavior of states today is also
regarded as a derivative of this approach whereby a great deal of emphasis is laid on trade and
commerce, unencumbered by restrictions (tariffs) and narrow nationalist protectionist
considerations, which would ensure global peace and prosperity, occasioned by the interlocking of
interests that lead to what some writers have termed as 'complex interdependence'.
A neoliberal foreign policy warrants cooperation in the economic sector irrespective of political and
ideological differences among states. In recent decades, India has shown its inclination for
neoliberalism as far as its foreign economic policy is concerned. There is an underlying optimism that
such interaction would create a web of interdependence that would engender greater mutual
understanding and harmony.
At the 2018 World Economic Forum in Davos, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi spoke eloquently
in Favour of free trade and slammed protectionism. In its relations with the outer world, India has
emphasized free trade agreements (FTAs) and expressed its desire to toe a neoliberal line. India is in
the process of signing FTAs with many countries, often privileging trade and commerce over political
considerations. India has either negotiated or signed FTAs with more than 35 countries and
consultations are on with many other counties.
Neoliberal foreign policy has been the trend the world over in the days of globalisation and hyper-
communication. However, despite the advent of neoliberalism, most countries including India do
resort to soft-protectionism in the name of cushioning the domestic economy or in their dealings with
states perceived as hostile. Even powerful countries like the United States have also demonstrated
their selective aversion to free trade. The smaller Neighbours of India continue to talk about non-

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tariff and para-tariff barriers being raised by India to disallow commodities from the neighborhood in
the name of protecting domestic producers.
Conclusion
Thus, while India's foreign policy may be taking an inevitable neoliberal turn, its pace and progress will
continue to be delimited by realist considerations that define its national interest. So, it's important
to keep an eye on the changing determinants and modify our behavior accordingly.
Q.2) "If the world is different, we need to think, talk and engage accordingly. Falling back
on the past is unlikely to help with the future". Examine this statement with reference to
the realist turn in foreign policy of India. (15Marks 250Words)
Introduction
· Changing world order
Body
· Features of changing the world.
· Need for a realistic turn in Indian foreign policy.
Conclusion
· Way ahead
Introduction
The world order is undergoing rapid changes since the past few years. Rise of Chinese
belligerence in South China Sea, the rising confrontational stance of US towards China,
growing assertiveness of Russia and the rise of China-Pakistan-Iran Axis along with
restoration of dreaded Taliban rule in Afghanistan. All of this calls for a reality check of a
nation's foreign policy.
Body
Outlining these changes, EAM S. Jaishankar held that 'If the world is different, we need to
think, talk and engage accordingly. Falling back on the past is unlikely to help with the
future'.
He further held that 'American nationalism, the rise of China, the saga of Brexit and the
rebalancing of the global economy are often cited as the more dramatic examples of
change. In fact, the phenomenon is far more pervasive than just these illustrations. We have
seen the return of old empires like Russia, Iran or Turkey.
The Middle East is in ferment, even by its exceptionally volatile standards. The centrality of
ASEAN to Asia is not what it used to be. Demographic and economic trends in Africa are
giving that continent a greater salience. South America is again a battleground for ideas.

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These changes have called for the need for realism in Indian foreign policy. Factors that
necessitate a realist foreign policy are multifarious.
Complex interdependence is the buzzword for today's world (where countries are
competing on geostrategic issues and cooperating on geo economic issues). Therefore,
strategic hedging is necessary for Indian foreign policy.
The Howdy Modi and Mamallapuram private meetings between the Indian Prime Minister
and his US and Chinese counterparts, the Quadrilateral and the Shanghai Cooperation
Organization, Iran and the Saudis, and Israel and Palestine are all tough to reconcile.
In India, the push for increased trade with China has given way to a deep dislike of it. India
has become dependent on Chinese commodities as a result of a significant trade deficit. Due
to the conflict between India's national commercial interests and an Asian economic
regionalism driven by China, India withdrew from the Regional Comprehensive Economic
Partnership (RCEP).
China's expansionism is another factor. China is acting like an "irredentist power" or

"expansionist power," attempting to push its borders as far as they could go during the Qing
Dynasty. China has a history of encroaching on territory along the Indian border in the west,
middle, and east. India must be tactical in tackling this challenge.
An accurate knowledge of Sino-US contradictions, increased multipolarity, weaker

multilateralism, stronger economic and political rebalancing, more room for regional
powers, and a world of convergence are all necessary components of modern international
politics. All these require clear eyed analysis of one's strengths and weaknesses.
Conclusion
India’s enthusiasm for shaping global conversations on climate change, terrorism,
connectivity and maritime security is already having an impact. However, India needs to
have more assertive participation in events of geopolitical significance. As Rabindranath
Tagore declared, you can't cross the sea merely by standing and staring at the water

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UPSC 2023

60 Days Daily Free Answer Writing Program for

Topic: - Political theory: meaning and approaches

Approach to the answer –

The term 'theory' stands for systematic

In political theory , Polity, denotes an organization where rules are

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Q.2) Post-behaviouralism is a project to reform ideological conservatism and abstraction in

Approach to the answer –

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• civil rights movement,

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Topic: - Theories of the state: Liberal, Neo-liberal, Marxist,

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Topic: - Theories of the state: Pluralist, Post-colonial and feminist.

Q.1) Comment on Feminist Theory of State. (10 marks, 150 words)

Approach to the answer –

State: Instrument of Power

State: Instrument of Regulation of Public Sphere

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Approach to the answer –

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Unlike western countries where the capitalist state

On the contrary, in western countries, there’s a match between the level of

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Approach to the answer –

However , Communitarians criticized Rawls. According to communitarians, Rawls' conception of "self"

Thus , Communitarians argue that Idea of justice can't be understood without

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Approach to the answer –

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Approach to the answer :

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Approach to the answer –

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