Sustainable yield of a borehole in

Fractured-rock aquifers
Presented by

Dr Gomo M

(January 2017)

Institute for Groundwater Studies

University of the Free State

 Borehole Sustainable yield definition
 The discharge rate at which a borehole must pumped in such a way that the
water level must not drop below a specified level (e.g fractures – min water
strike) in the borehole after abstracting water from the borehole for a long time
(e.g. 2 years) without any recharge taking place

 This is also determined through pump testing of the aquifer

Sustainable groundwater management

 For Large scale sustainability - Abstraction from the aquifer must be less
than recharge – to prevent the aquifer from being depleted

 For Small-scale sustainability - Water level must not reach specified level
(e.g. position of in water strike); - to prevent the borehole from becoming dry:
 Pump test for borehole sustainable yield and
aquifer parameters
 These are different types of aquifer pump testing:
 For sustainable yield, the constant discharge rate must fully stress the aquifer
in order to assess the maximum potential yield which a well/borehole can be
pumped over a long period of time without dewatering the aquifer (due
dropping of water level below the prescribed limit – often the main water
strike/fractures or any other flow zones)
 For determining aquifer parameters, a well is pumped at a constant rate that
can cause sufficient stress to result in measurable drawdown in the pumping
and monitoring wells – there is no need to fully stress the aquifer
 Sustainable yield pumping test data can be used for determining aquifer
parameters (since it is also at constant rate), but constant rate data
cannot be used to determine sustainable yield
 Slug test yield estimate is not borehole sustainable yield.
 Borehole sustainable yield is a single-well test
 FC – method (van Tonder et al. 2001
• FC – Flow Characteristic
• A method to determine the sustainable yield (Qsustainable) of a
borehole in fractured-rock aquifer based on the following
equation:
𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 (𝑡 = 𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 )
𝑄𝑆𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 𝑄𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝑠𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 (𝑡 = 𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 )

 Where tlong describes the maximum operation time in which the

drawdown s shall not exceed a maximum drawdown savailable
during operation period of the borehole,

 The extrapolation of the measured pumping test drawdown is

be used to determine the Qsustainable
 Extrapolation of pumping test drawdown

 The drawdown measured during a pumping test

is the sum of the drawdowns due to the
production well (swell) and the boundaries
(sboundary)

𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 = 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 + 𝑠𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦

 If other pumping wells exist, their drawdown
should also be included
 Where swell is extrapolated by a Taylor series
expansion
 Extrapolation of pumping test drawdown

 swell is extrapolated by expansion using a Taylor series (only first

2 terms) around the late measurement points of the drawdown at
t = tEOP (EOP - end of pumping test).
Average maximum derivative

𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔
𝜕𝑠
≈ 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑡𝐸𝑂𝑃 + log 𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 − log 𝑡𝐸𝑂𝑃
𝜕𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑡 𝑡=𝑡𝐸𝑂𝑃
1 𝜕2𝑠 2
+ log 𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 − log 𝑡𝐸𝑂𝑃
2 𝜕(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑡)2 𝑡=𝑡𝐸𝑂𝑃

Average second derivative

(3) s(Boundaries): Semi-analytical formulae
(3) s(Boundaries): Semi-analytical formulae
Four simplified cases of no-flow boundaries are
Four simplified cases of no-flow boundaries are
investigated:
investigated:
- Single barrier boundary
- Single barrier boundary
- Two barrier boundaries intersecting at 900
- Two barrier boundaries intersecting at 900
- Two parallel boundaries
- Two parallel boundaries
- Closed square barrier boundary
- Closed square barrier boundary
 q Single barrier boundary
q Single barrier boundary

Barrier Boundary
Barrier Production
Boundary
Well Production
a Well
a

Q
s Boundary (t ) = W (u 2a )
4pT Q
s Boundary (t ) = W (u 2a )
S × (2a ) 2 4pT
u 2a =
4Tt
S × (2a ) 2
u 2a =
4Tt

q Two barrier boundaries intersecting at 900

q Two barrier boundaries intersecting at 900

Barrier Boundary

Barrier Boundary
a

Production
b Well
Barrier Boundary

a
q Closed square boundary

Barrier Boundary

a
a

Barrier Boundary Production Barrier Boundary

Well

Barrier Boundary

Q Tt 1
s Boundary (t ) » {W (u 2 a ) + W ( 2u 2 a )} for <
4pT Sa 2 p

Ttp 2
Q 4 3 - Sa 2 Tt p 2a 1 Tt
s Boundary (t ) » {-2.6084 - e + 2 + 2 ln[ ]} for £ 2 < 1
4pT p 2 Sa r p Sa

Q Tt p 2a Tt
s Boundary (t ) » {-2.6084 + 2 + 2 ln[ ]} for ³1
4pT Sa r Sa 2
Main uncertainty for FC - method

qGreatest uncertainty of the FC-method is on the

choice of the available drawdown
q Available drawdown is the specified max.
drawdown that shall not be exceeded after a long
abstraction period)
 FC method - choice of available drawdown (AD)
 Choose AD = distance of main water strike from the static water
level (if drawdown during pumping test has reached the main water
strike)

 Choose AD = Use geometric mean of water strike and end

drawdown if the main water strike was not reached

 When no information on water strike positions, consider position

where the drawdown graph shows a sharp increase (potential
indication of fracture dewatering or impermeable boundaries)

 Choose AD = 5 m for dolomitic aquifers (Probably an expert’s

opinion, you still to understand the flow characteristics)
 FC method - choice of available drawdown (AD)

 AD = distance of main water strike from the static water level (if
drawdown during pumping test has reached the main water strike)

Semi-log plot of s against time

16
14

Water level [mbgl] 7 12

Main water strike [mbgl] 20 10

S[m]

Q [L/s] 18 8
6
Available drawdown [m] 13
4
2
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time [min]
FC method - choice of available drawdown (AD)
q AD = Use geometric mean of the available drawdown based on the
water strike and end drawdown if the main water strike was not
reached
Semi-log plot of s against time
25
Water level [mbgl] 7.5
Main water strike
[mbgl] 35
20
Q [L/s] 23
Available s based on 15
S [m]
water strike 27.5
Drawdown at the end 10
of the pumping test 22.69
Available s [m] 24.98 5

0
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Time [min]

Geometric mean = 𝒏
𝒙𝟏 ∗ 𝒙𝟐 ∗ 𝒙𝟑 ∗ ⋯ ∗ 𝒙𝒏
FC method - choice of available drawdown (AD)
 When no information on water strike positions, consider position where
the drawdown graph shows a sharp increase (potential indication of
fracture dewatering or impermeable boundaries). This requires
identification of flow characteristics using diagnostic plots

Semi – log plot of s against time

60
50

Available drawdown 40
S [m]

=26.22 m 30
20
10
0
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time [min]
 FC method – Level/types of analysis
q FC analysis for borehole sustainable yield includes two types of
analysis, Basic and advanced.

q Basic analysis – uses derivatives and subjective or generalised

information about boundaries, does not require determination of T and
S

q Advanced analysis – Uses derivatives, specific information about:

boundary (e.g. distances to the pumping well, boundary types) and
other boreholes in the area (pumping rates and distance from the
pumping well. Solution also requires T and S
q EXCEL SPREADSHEET EXAMPLE
 Identification of characteristic flow regimes in
fractured-rock aquifers
 In the FC method, information of the available drawdown and the water
strikes is critical.

 The flow regime in the aquifer during pumping is therefore investigated to

identify the main fractures and the water strikes.

 FC method was developed mainly to determine sustainable yield of

boreholes in fractured-rock aquifers like aquifers (with distinct water
strikes) and not for porous aquifers

 This is achieved through the use of derivative and diagnostic plots

 Derivative and diagnostic plots are also used to understand drawdown time
trends which are used to determine T and S
 Borehole sustainable yield – General steps
 Conduct a step drawdown test is set as a minimum requirement
in order to to identify fracture positions and to choose a suitable
rate for the constant rate test (Use same data to determine well
efficiency).
 Conduct a constant rate pump test to stress the boreholes, target
is to drop the water to the position of the fracture (not below).,
time duration depends on project specifications, Manual (van
Tonder et al 2001) recommends at least 8 hours
 Use Flow Characteristic method (FC) to estimate the borehole
sustainable yield for the extrapolated time, the main priority to
ensure that the water level in the borehole does not drop below
position of the main water strike
 Borehole must be monitored during production phase
 EXCEL SPREADSHEET EXAMPLE
FC sustainable yield method data requirements

 Performed on a single boreholes, but monitoring can be

done if observation boreholes are available
 Location of the water strikes (both major and minor)
and associated blow yields
 Borehole depth, construction details and geological logs
 Distance from water level to the main water strikes
(This gives the available drawdown)
 Step drawdown test to identify fracture positions and
determine the rate for constant discharge test
FC sustainable yield method data requirements

Constant discharge rate good enough to stress

the borehole and test its maximum potential
yield without dewatering the main water
bearing zones or yield fractures
Drawdown – time data from constant rate test
for sustainable yield
 ON THE EXCEL SPREADSHEET, FC –
Method is under the SUST_Q sheet
 References
• van Tonder, G.J., Kunstmann, H., Xu, Y., 2001b. FC program, software
developed for DWAF by the Institute of Groundwater Studies. Institute
of Groundwater Studies, University of the Free State, South Africa
• Gerrit van Tonder, Ingo Bardenhagen, Kornelius Riemann, Jackie van
Bosch, Panganai Dzanga and Yongxin Xu (2001). Manual on Pumping
Test, Analysis in fractured – Rock Aquifers. Institute of groundwater
Studies, University of the Free State. Bloemfontein
• G.J. v, J.F. Botha, W.-H. Chiang, H. Kunstmannb, Y. Xu (2001).
Estimation of the sustainable yields of boreholes in fractured rock
formations. Journal of Hydrology 241, 70–90