Part 1 The Science of Teaching

Reading and Writing Literacy

1.1 Identify key
1.2 Explain what is meant
characteristics of four
by “a balanced approach” to
different perspectives about
instruction
learning

1.3 Explain how and why

1.4 Describe how teachers
teachers differentiate
link instruction and
instruction through universal
assessment
design for learning

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Learning and Learning to Read
• This resource examines:
– The theoretical foundations of how students learn and
learn to read
– How teachers create a community of learners
– The four cueing systems students utilize when reading
and writing

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Effective Teachers Are
Knowledgeable About Learning
• There are two theoretical orientations which dictate
characteristics of teaching and learning. Effective teachers
adopt a realistic balance of both of these:
– Teacher-Centered
▪ Behaviorism
– Student-Centered
▪ Constructivism
▪ Sociolinguistics
▪ Information Processing

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Behaviorism
• Focuses on observable behaviors
• Teachers provide explicit instruction
• Reading is seen as a set of sequential, discrete skills and
sub-skills where each must be taught and mastered before
moving on to the next
• Behavior is controlled extrinsically with rewards and
punishments

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Constructivism

Learners are actively engaged in constructing new

knowledge while reflecting on background knowledge

Learning occurs when students integrate new learning with

prior knowledge
Engagement Theory - engaged
Schema Theory - knowledge is Inquiry Learning - learning is
learners are intrinsically motivated,
organized into schemas where collaborative; students ask questions,
reach higher levels of achievement,
students assimilate and seek information, and create new
and are confident they will reach their
accommodate new learning knowledge
learning goals (self-efficacy)

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Sociolinguistics

Language organizes thought

Students should be encouraged to talk with classmates

Instruction should be focused on the zone of proximal development

Sociocultural Theory - reading and writing Situated Learning Theory - students learn Critical Literacy - language and literacy
are social activities; reflect the culture through authentic and meaningful are means for social action; students
and community of learners activities within a community of learners become agents for social change

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Information Processing
• Compares the mind to a computer
• Information moves through processing units from sensory
register to short-term memory to long-term memory
• Reading and writing are related
– Interactive Models - reading and writing are interactive,
meaning-making processes
– Transactional Theory - a reader’s interpretation of the text
based on evidence in the text and background knowledge
– Strategic Behaviors - goal-oriented processes which direct a
reader’s thinking; monitoring one’s own reading;
metacognition

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Effective Teachers Create a
Community of Learners

The classroom community is an environment which strongly

influences the learning taking place

Effective teachers promote a safety, respect, high expectations,

classroom community which risk-taking, collaboration, choice,
includes and family involvement

Effective teachers create a

classroom culture by teachers are classroom managers
establishing procedures and the environment is predictable
routines early in the school year

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Effective Teachers Support Use of the
Cueing Systems
• English involves four cueing systems to create meaning; good readers
employ a balance of all four cueing systems:
– The phonological system
▪ 44 phonemes and 26 graphemes; readers learn sound/symbol
correspondences and apply in decoding and spelling
– The syntactic system
▪ The structural organization of English; grammar rules governing
word order in sentences
– The semantic system
▪ The meaning-making system; vocabulary is the key component of
this system
– The pragmatic system
▪ Social and cultural uses of language; dependent upon purpose and
audience

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Theme 2: Effective Reading Instruction
• This theme examines:
– The components of a balanced literacy program
– The levels of support when scaffolding students’
reading and writing
– The various approaches to organizing literacy
instruction in order to achieve balance

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Effective Teachers Adopt a Balanced
Approach to Instruction
• Balanced literacy is a comprehensive view combining explicit
instruction, guided practice, collaborative learning, and independent
practice; instruction should be developmentally appropriate and
include the core elements of reading and writing
– Characteristics of balanced literacy programs include explicit
instruction, authentic application, reading and writing strategies,
oral language, and tools for learning
• Creating a balance is a complex process including all of literacy’s
conceptual and contextual processes
– PK-4th balanced literacy instructional programs include reading,
phonemic awareness and phonics, literacy strategies and skills,
vocabulary, comprehension, literature, content-area study, oral
language, writing, and spelling

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Effective Teachers Scaffold Students’
Reading and Writing

Effective teachers vary the level of support they provide based on the purpose
and the individual student’s needs

The levels of support range from modeled to interactive to independent based

on Pearson and Gallagher’s model of gradual release of responsibility and
include:
Interactive reading and
Guided reading and Independent reading and
Modeled reading and writing - students are
Shared reading and writing - students do the writing - students read and
writing - teachers provide actively involved in
writing - teachers share reading and writing with write while applying skills
the greatest amount of reading and writing while
the tasks with students the support of teachers and strategies in authentic
support teachers provide
only when needed texts
assistance when needed

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Effective Teachers Organize for
Literacy Instruction
Teachers must organize literacy instruction based
on student needs and grade-level standards in
order to create a balanced literacy program

create a community of learners

Instructional programs
incorporate the components of balanced
literacy

should: combine components of various approaches

scaffold students’ reading and writing
experiences

Five popular organizational guided reading, basal reading programs,

literature focus units, literature circles, and
approaches include: reading and writing workshops

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Guided Reading
Small group instruction with students who read at the same proficiency level

Approximately 20 minutes daily

Personalized to meet students’ needs

Comprehension is main goal

Word identification skills are also taught

Students apply skills and strategies in instructional level text

Other students work independently or at literacy centers

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Basal Reading Programs
Commercially produced textbooks with grade-level reading
selections
Accompanied by workbooks, supplemental texts, digital
components
Teacher’s guide provides detailed descriptions of procedures

Includes main story selections and skills and strategy instruction

Primarily whole group

Tests to monitor progress

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Literature Focus Units
• High-quality children’s literature
• Award-winning picture books or novels
• Whole group - everyone reads and responds to the same
book
• Teachers provide support through explicit instruction and
authentic reading and writing activities
• Students learn about genres and authors and develop an
interest in literature

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Literature Circles

Small group “book Teacher selects Book selections may

clubs” read the same multiple books at share a common
book various reading levels theme or author

Teacher provides
Groups work
book talk and students
independently, Teacher may sit in on
select a book and
following discussion discussions
form a group to read
guidelines and roles
and respond

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Reading and Writing Workshop
Independent reading and writing

Students select books, read independently, and conference with

teacher to discuss their reading

Students write books on topics of their choice and conference with

teacher to discuss their writing

Minilessons are developed as a result of conferences and student

needs

Teachers read aloud to whole group, modeling fluency and good

reader behaviors

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Theme 3: Adjusting Instruction to Meet
Students’ Needs
• This theme examines:
– how effective teachers differentiate instruction based
on student needs
– how to effectively teach reading to English learners
– the importance of partnering with parents
– intervention programs

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Effective Teachers Differentiate
Instruction

Differentiation is based on
When differentiating
Teachers must provide Vygotsky’s zone of proximal
instruction, teachers
instruction that meets the development model and is
personalize the content,
needs of all students neither too easy nor too
process, and products
difficult

Parent partnerships are crucial

When teaching English to student success. Teachers
learners, teachers adapt should respect the literacy
learning to meet students’ activities of families, reach out
needs and scaffold literacy to families in new ways, and
development build parents’ knowledge of
literacy procedures

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Interventions
• Assessment results identify students who need additional support in
reading and writing
• Interventions are provided in addition to the regular classroom
instruction, not in place of
• Teachers and specialists provide intensive instruction to individuals or
small groups of 2-3 students
• Early intervention is critical to students’ later reading success
• Federally funded intervention programs were designed to prevent
literacy problems and break the cycle of poverty
• Response To Intervention (RTI) is a 3-tiered intervention program
ranging from screening and prevention to early intervention to
intensive intervention

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Theme 4: Linking Assessment to
Instruction Planning
• This theme examines:
– how effective teachers monitor student learning and
adjust instruction accordingly
– various ways to assess student learning
– the instruction-assessment cycle

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Effective Teachers Link Instruction
and Assessment

Assessment is integral to teaching and

learning

Classroom assessments occur daily and are

an ongoing process

determine reading levels

Teachers collect and monitor progress

analyze data to: diagnose strengths and weaknesses

document learning

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The Instruction-Assessment Cycle
Planning
Teachers link assessment data Monitoring
to instruction using a four-step Evaluating
cycle: Reflecting

Teachers use various

assessment tools, both formal observations, running records,
work samples, conferences,
and informal, to document checklists, and rubrics
learning and support instruction

Standardized tests are used to document learning from one

year to the next, but are less informative than classroom
assessments when planning, monitoring, evaluating, and
reflecting

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Part 2 Learning Outcomes
2.1 Explain how teachers promote young students’ oral
language development
2.2 Discuss the ways teachers build students’ interest in
written language
2.3 Describe the three stages that students move through
as they develop as readers and writers

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Promoting Students’ Oral Language
Development
• Through language-rich experiences, students develop expertise in all
four language modes
– Phonology, Syntax, Semantics, and Pragmatics
• Oral Language Activities
– Interactive read-alouds, grand conversations, story retelling, and
story boards
• English Learners
– Benefit most in a classroom where talk is encouraged
• The Link Between Oral Language and Literacy
– Oral language is the foundation for later literacy learning
• Assessing Students’ Oral Language
– Checklists, observations, anecdotal notes, and video clips
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Building Students’ Interest in Written
Language (1 of 2)
Young students learn about language before they ever come to school, but
expand on this learning once they begin school and participate in meaningful
reading and writing experiences.
• Concepts About Written Language
– Print- and language-rich classrooms; book orientation concepts;
directionality concepts; and letter and word concepts
• Concepts About Words
– Shared reading; Environmental print; and literacy play centers
• Concepts About the Alphabet
– Letter knowledge; multiple, meaningful experiences with the alphabet
to capitalize on students’ interests; talk about the role of letters in
reading and writing; and daily opportunities for alphabet learning
through interactive writing, invented spelling, books, and games

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Building Students’ Interest in Written
Language (2 of 2)
• Manuscript Handwriting
– Develop fine-motor skills; hold pencil correctly; form
letters correctly; use moving models
• Teaching Students About Written Language
– Morning Message; Language Experience Approach;
Interactive Writing
• Assessing Students’ Knowledge About Written Language
– Observe students as they read and write

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How Students Develop as Readers
and Writers
Students move through three stages as they learn to read
and write.
• Stage 1: Emergent Reading and Writing
• Stage 2: Beginning Reading and Writing
• Stage 3: Fluent Reading and Writing

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Stage 1: Emergent Reading and
Writing
Emergent readers and writers gain an understanding of the purpose of
reading and writing, notice environmental print, and develop concepts
about print.
• Reading
– Interest in books; develop concepts about written language; book
orientation skills; directionality; letters of the alphabet; recognize
familiar names and some high-frequency words
• Writing
– Scribbles represent writing; “read” or tell about their writing; use
sentence frames; write first and last names
• Instructional Procedures
– participate in modeled, shared, and independent reading and
writing activities

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Stage 2: Beginning Reading and
Writing
Beginning readers and writers learn the alphabetic principle, sound/symbol
correspondences, phonics rules, and word families.

• Reading
– Slow, word-by-word reading aloud; track print with finger; make
predictions; connect with text; monitor for understanding and cross-check
cueing systems when their reading doesn’t make sense

• Writing
– Writing several sentences and organized paragraphs; acquire a sense of
audience; apply phonics to spelling; use word walls; correctly spell many
high-frequency words

• Instructional Procedures
– participate in interactive and guided reading and writing activities;
teachers scaffold instruction and teach skills and strategies in
minilessons; writing process is introduced

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Stage 3: Fluent Reading and Writing
Fluent readers and writers read with expression, use decoding and
comprehension strategies effectively, use the writing process, and spell most
high-frequency words correctly.

• Reading
– Read words accurately, rapidly, and expressively; vary reading speed
accordingly; make predictions, visualize, monitor their understanding,
and repair mistakes; comprehension is stronger

• Writing
– Use all stages of the writing process; develop ideas and organize
thoughts; use sophisticated vocabulary; use conventional spelling

• Instructional Procedures
– Participate in reading and writing workshop; apply knowledge of
genres, text structures, and literary devices; apply comprehension
strategies in narrative and expository texts

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Part 3 Learning Outcomes
3.1 Explain how teachers link instruction and assessment
3.2 Discuss how teachers use diagnostic tests to determine
students/ reading levels and diagnose their strengths and
weaknesses
3.3 Define high-stakes testing and discuss its role in literacy
instruction and assessment
3.4 Describe how teachers use portfolios to assess
students’ learning and their progress toward meeting
grade-level standards

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Classroom Assessment
• Assessment refers to the collection and interpretation of data to inform
decision-making
• Formative assessments are used for screening and progress
monitoring as well as to inform instruction
• Summative assessments measure student progress at the end of a
grading period
• Evaluation is the decision-making or judgment made after analyzing
assessment data
• Classroom assessment drives instruction, ensures students are
making progress, determines effectiveness of instruction, and
assesses students’ achievement

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Step 1: Planning for Assessment
Teachers plan for assessment while they are designing
instruction. When planning for assessment, teachers must
consider:
• What must students have learned in this unit?
• What kinds of formative assessments will I use?
• How often will I conduct formative assessments?
• How will I collect, organize, and display data?
• How will I adjust my teaching for students who are falling
behind?

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Step 2: Assessing Students’ Progress
Every Day
Teachers must assess student learning every day, in every literacy lesson,
in order to adjust instruction as needed. Classroom assessments are
ongoing and organized into one of the following categories:
• Observations - “kid watching”
• Anecdotal Notes - brief notes of observations
• Conferences - on-the-spot, planning, revising, book-discussion, editing,
and evaluation conferences with students
• Checklists - predetermined lists of criteria to be evaluated
• Students’ Work Samples - multi-media collections to celebrate learning
and document progress
• Rubrics - scoring guides to assess performance

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Step 3: Evaluating Students’ Learning
Teachers evaluate students’ learning to make sense of the
information collected from various assessments at the end of
an instructional period.
• Checklists and rubrics can be used to evaluate and grade
students’ work
• Collections of students’ work can be examined to determine
grades
• Tests, when necessary, can be used to evaluate students’
achievement

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Step 4: Reflecting on Instruction
Teachers reflect on instruction to improve their teaching
effectiveness. Students reflect on their achievement to develop
self-awareness and learn to take responsibility for their learning.
Teachers prompt students’ reflections by asking:
• What did you learn?
• How can your teacher help you be a better reader? Writer?
• How did you feel at the beginning, middle, and end of the unit?
• How did you contribute to the classroom community?
• What are your 3 strengths as a reader? Writer?
• What would you like to get better at?

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Diagnostic Tests
Teachers use commercial diagnostic tests to differentiate
instruction, make placement decisions and create meaningful
interventions.
• Determining Students’ Reading Levels
– Readability Formulas
– Leveled Books
– The Lexile Framework
• Diagnosing Students’ Strengths and Needs
– Running Records
– Informal Reading Inventories
– Oral Language Assessment

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English Proficiency Screening
• School districts are required, by law, to ensure English learners
participate meaningfully and equally in school instruction and to
overcome the language barriers these students face in school
• Teachers assess language proficiency and progress in fluency,
vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar
• Reading assessments identify reading levels, monitor growth,
and document learning
• Writing assessments monitor fluency, assess writing traits, and
check for grammar, spelling, and conventions of English
• Alternative assessments may be more authentic such as oral
performances, story retellings, and projects

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Preparing for Standardized Tests
Effective teachers prepare students for high-stakes tests
without sacrificing their instructional programs by teaching:
• The genre of standardized tests
• The language of testing
• Test-taking strategies
• Practice tests

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Portfolio Assessment
Students and teachers use portfolios to showcase students’ best
work and demonstrate progress. Students use portfolios to set
learning goals for themselves.
• Collecting Work in Portfolios
– Can be original artifacts or digital files
• Involving Students in Self-Assessment
– Allows students to reflect on literacy strengths and set goals
for addressing needs
• Showcasing Students’ Portfolios
– Students celebrate accomplishments and take ownership of
their learning

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Part 4 Learning Outcomes
4.1 Define the alphabetic principle and discuss its
importance in learning to read

4.2 Identify five phonemic awareness strategies that

students use to decode and spell words

4.3 Define phonics

4.4 Describe what is meant by the assessment-instruction

cycle and how it can be used to plan instruction
The Alphabetic Principle
Students learn the alphabetic principle when they understand the
sounds they hear in oral language are represented by letters in
print. The alphabetic principle consists of the following
components:
• Phonological Awareness
– An awareness of the different units of sounds in oral
language - syllables, rimes, and phonemes
• Phonics
– Converting letters into sounds and blending them to
recognize words
• Orthographic Awareness
– An awareness of the spelling patterns in English
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Developing Phonemic Awareness
Phonemic awareness
• A student’s basic understanding that speech is composed of
a series of individual sounds
• The foundation for phonics and spelling
• The ability to break words apart and reassemble them
Phonemes
• The smallest units of speech sounds (e.g., /d/)

Graphemes
• Letters of the alphabet (e.g., “d”)

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Why is Phonemic Awareness
Important?
Phonemic awareness is a prerequisite for learning to read

Phonemic awareness is the most powerful predictor of later

reading achievement

Phonemes are abstract language units

Phonemic awareness requires students to treat speech as an

object, taking something abstract and making it concrete

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Using Phonemic Awareness
Strategies

Students become
phonemically • Identifying Sounds
aware by • Categorizing Sounds
manipulating
spoken language in Words
and applying • Substituting Sounds
strategies to
manipulate • Blending Sounds
sounds in spoken
language. • Segmenting Sounds

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Teaching Phonemic Awareness
Strategies
Teachers promote phonemic awareness through language-
rich environments. Phonemic awareness instruction should
be appropriate, planned and purposeful, and integrated into
a balanced literacy program. Instructional strategies include:
• Sound Matching
• Sound Isolation
• Sound Blending
• Sound Addition and Substitution
• Sound Segmentation

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Teaching English Learners
• Phonemic awareness must be taught to English learners using
words that are familiar and meaningful
• Create a rich literacy environment so students can recognize
and pronounce sound patterns in English
• Be familiar with learners’ home languages and understand how
they differ from English
• Begin instruction with sounds students can easily pronounce
• Provide explicit instruction with opportunities to practice
• Students who have learned to read in their native language - if
it’s alphabetic - are already phonemically aware

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Assessing Students’ Phonemic
Awareness
• Screening Tests
• The Instruction-Assessment Cycle
– Planning, monitoring, evaluating, and reflecting
• If Students Struggle
– Provide interventions immediately
– Focus on oral language sounds (link to reading and
writing)
▪ Identify and match sounds
▪ Count phonemes
▪ Manipulate sounds

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Phonics
• Phonics is the set of relationships between the sounds in
speech (phonology) and the spelling system (orthography)
• The emphasis is on spelling patterns rather than individual
letters since English lacks a one-to-one correspondence
between sounds and symbols
• Sounds vary according to their location in a word, adjacent
letters, and vowel markers
• Etymology influences pronunciation
– Some spellings are retained for semantic reasons rather
than phonological (e.g., sign, bomb, write, know)

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Phonics Concepts
• Phonics explains the relationship between phonemes and
graphemes
• There are 44 phonemes in the English language which are
represented by the 26 letters of the alphabet; there are over 500
ways to represent the 44 phonemes
• Consonants - single consonant sounds, consonant blends, and
consonant digraphs
• Vowels - short and long vowel sounds, vowel digraphs, and
diphthongs
• Blending into Words - blend sounds to decode words
• Phonograms -rimes or word families; 37 rime patterns

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Phonics Rules

Phonics rules were created to compensate for the

imperfect correspondence between sounds and
letters in English

Students should be taught rules that are most useful

Two Two Final e or r-
CVC CV kn- and
sounds of sounds of CVCe controlled igh
pattern pattern wr-
c g pattern vowels

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Teaching Phonics
The best way to teach phonics is through a combination of explicit
instruction and authentic application activities. The most effective
programs are systematic, beginning with simple skills and progressively
becoming more complex.
• Strategies for Identifying Unfamiliar Words
– Sounding out words; decoding by analogy; applying phonics rules
• Explicit Instruction
– Minilessons to whole class or small groups; differentiated based on
individual needs
• Authentic Application
– Students apply newly learned phonics concepts in reading and
writing

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Assessing Students’ Phonics
Knowledge
Teachers assess students’ knowledge of phonics with tests,
observations, and reading and writing samples
• Beginning of year = obtain baseline
• Middle of year = monitor progress
• End of year = document achievement

The Instruction-Assessment Cycle

• Plan, teach, and evaluate students’ learning and the effectiveness of the literacy
program

If Students Struggle

• Identify the problem, reteach concepts, provide opportunities for authentic

application; provide extended guided practice

What’s the Role of Phonics in a Balanced Literacy Program?

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Part 5 Learning Outcomes
5.1 Describe the stages of spelling development that
students move through as they learn to spell words
conventionally
5.2 List the components of a complete spelling program
5.3 Describe how teachers assess students’ spelling
development
Stages of Spelling Development
Based on the examination of students’ spellings, researchers have identified five
stages of spelling development students move through on their way to becoming
conventional spellers:
Letter
Within-Word Syllables Derivational
Emergent Name-
Pattern and Affixes Relations
Alphabetic

At each stage, students use different strategies and focus on different aspects of
spelling that reflect what they are learning about literacy

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Stage 1: Emergent Spelling
• PreK - Kindergarten
• 3 - 5 years old
• Scribbles, letters, letterlike forms
• Marks unrelated to phonemes
• May or may not understand directionality of print
• Typically uppercase letter formations
• Concepts learned: distinction between drawing and writing;
how to make letters; direction of writing on page; some
letter-sound matches

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Stage 2: Letter Name-Alphabetic
Spelling
• Kindergarten - 1st grade
• 5 - 7 years old
• Phonemes represented with letters
• Spells most beginning and final consonants, short-vowel
patterns, consonant blends, and consonant digraphs
• Concepts learned: alphabetic principle; consonant sounds;
short-vowel sounds; consonant blends and digraphs

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Stage 3: Within-Word Pattern Spelling
• 1st - 2nd grade
• 6 - 8 years old
• Long-vowel patterns
• r-controlled vowels
• May confuse spelling patterns and reverse the order of letters
• Concepts learned: long-vowel spelling patterns; r-controlled
vowels; more complex consonant patterns; diphthongs and
other less common vowel patterns
• Most one syllable words spelled correctly by end of stage

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Stage 4: Syllables and Affixes
Spelling
2nd - 4th grade

7 - 9 years old

Spells longer words

Breaks words into syllables

Inflectional endings

Homophones

Concepts learned: inflectional endings; compound words; syllabication; affixes;

homophones
Most two syllable words and homophones spelled correctly

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Stage 5: Derivational Relations Spelling
• 5th grade+
• 10 - 12 years old
• Explores relationship between spelling and meaning
• Focuses on morphemes
• Latin and Greek root words
• Derivational affixes
• Concepts learned: consonant alternations; vowel
alternations; Greek and Latin root words and affixes;
etymologies

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Teaching English Learners
English learners move through the same 5 stages of
spelling, but at a slower pace

Spelling development reflects reading achievement

Teachers should learn how English differs from the

students’ native languages and teach students about the
contrasts rather than the similarities
Base instruction on English learners’ stages of spelling
development and emphasize the contrasts

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Teaching Spelling
To become good spellers, students need to learn about the
English orthographic system and move through the stages of
spelling development. A complete spelling program includes:
• Spelling strategies
• Developmentally appropriate instruction
• Daily reading and writing opportunities
• Teaching high frequency words

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Instructional Approaches
• Minilessons
– Phonics, phonograms, high frequency words, spelling strategies, spelling
rules, spelling concepts

• Word Walls
– Content specific words, high frequency words, literature or theme based
words

• Word Study Activities

– Making words, word ladders, word sorts, interactive writing, proofreading,
dictionary use

• Weekly Spelling Tests

– Should be individualized to reflect what students need to spell for their
writing; use strategies for spelling words

What’s the Controversy About Spelling Instruction?

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Assessing Spelling
Teachers assess spelling as they observe the choices
students make when misspelling words and plan
instruction based on those mistakes. When assessing
spelling, teachers should:
• Determine a student’s stage of spelling development
– Choose a writing sample; identify spelling errors;
make a spelling analysis chart; categorize the
spelling errors; tally the errors; identify instructional
priorities
• Integrate the instruction-assessment cycle
– Planning; monitoring; evaluating; reflecting

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If Students Struggle…
Students who struggle with spelling often have difficulty with
one or more of these concepts:
• High Frequency Words
• Phonics
• Handwriting
Teachers should identify the students’ spelling problems and
plan minilessons to address specific problems. Include
students in practice activities such as interactive writing,
making words, word ladders, and word sorts.

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Part 6 Learning Outcomes
6.1 Identify components of reading fluency
and know how to teach for it

6.2 Identify and explain the components of

writing fluency and know how to teach for it

6.3 Describe approaches to assessing

reading and writing fluency

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Reading Fluency
Reading fluency means reading quickly, accurately, with
expression, and in a phrased way. Reading fluency involves
these three components:
• Automaticity
– Recognizing familiar words without conscious thought
• Speed
– The rate at which students read; varies depending on
genre, level of difficulty, and purpose for reading
• Prosody
– Reading with appropriate phrasing and intonation

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Automatic Reading
Through repeated reading and writing experiences, students develop
automaticity. Learning each word’s unique letter sequence is vital in
automatic word recognition.
• High Frequency Words
– The most common words readers use again and again
– 72% of the words we read and write are high frequency words
– Use word walls to teach high frequency words
• Word-Identification Strategies
– Phonic analysis
– Decoding by analogy
– Syllabic analysis
– Morphemic analysis

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Reading Speed
Students must develop an adequate reading speed in order to
focus on meaning. Factors that influence reading speed include:
• Background knowledge
• Knowledge of genre, text structure, and text layout
• English speaking fluency

Instructional practices that develop speed and stamina include:

• Choral reading
• Readers theatre
• Listening centers
• Partner reading

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Prosody
Fluent readers read with expression, using their voices to
add meaning to the words. Prosody includes the following
components:
• Expression - reading with enthusiasm
• Phrasing - chunking words into phrases
• Volume - varying the loudness to add meaning
• Smoothness - reading with a smooth rhythm and quickly
self-correcting
• Pacing - reading at a conversational speed

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Writing Fluency
Fluent writers spell words automatically and write quickly so
they can focus on their ideas. Writing fluency involves these
three components:
• Automaticity
– Writing most words automatically without thinking about
spelling
• Speed
– Writing quickly to keep up pace with thinking
• Writer’s Voice
– Distinctive voices that reflect their individuality

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Automatic Writing
Fluent writers spell most high frequency words
automatically and apply spelling strategies to write
unknown words. Automatic writers:
• Spell most high frequency words correctly
• Apply spelling patterns and rules to spell words correctly
• “Sound out” and “think out” spellings of words
• Become conventional spellers

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Writing Speed
Fluent writers must be able to transcribe their ideas onto
paper automatically and legibly. Fluent writers:
• Write quickly
• Write easily, without discomfort
• Write legibly
• Develop keyboarding skills to word process quickly

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Writer’s Voice
Writer’s voice reflects the person doing the writing. It should
sound natural and expressive when read. As writers develop
their voices, they learn to vary their tone to entertain, inform,
or persuade. When writers develop their voices, their writing
includes:
• Personal style
• Distinctive vocabulary
• Particular sentence structures

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Assessing Reading and Writing
Fluency
Fluent readers comprehend what they’re reading better than less
fluent readers. Fluent writers are more successful in crafting
effective compositions. Teachers can scaffold students’ fluency by
assessing and planning instruction in the following areas:
• Reading Fluency
– Automaticity, speed, and prosody
– Running Records, IRIs, and rubrics help document reading
fluency
• Writing Fluency
– Automaticity, speed, and writer’s voice
– Observations and examining writing samples help document
fluency
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If Students Struggle…
• Reading Fluency
– Analyze assessment data, plan and teach minilessons
– Teach high frequency words explicitly
– Implement choral reading, readers theatre, partner reading,
and listening centers
– Monitor progress frequently
• Writing Fluency
– Analyze assessment data, plan and teach minilessons
– Teach high frequency words and spelling strategies
– Increase reading and writing opportunities
– Read aloud and talk about how authors develop their voices

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Teaching English Learners
To become fluent readers, English learners must first be fluent
speakers. Their lack of oral language proficiency limits their high
frequency word recognition and use of word-identification
strategies.
• Immerse English learners in oral language, reading, and writing
• Make connections between oral and written language modes
• Provide English learners opportunities to reread familiar texts
• Build background knowledge before reading and writing

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Part 7 Learning Outcomes

7.1 Explain what academic vocabulary

means and cite some examples

7.2 Define word-study and explain why it

supports students’ vocabulary development
better than studying individual words

7.3 Identify four components of vocabulary

instruction and explain why they all go
together in a balanced literacy classroom

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Academic Vocabulary
• Academic vocabulary refers to words that are frequently
used in language arts, social studies, science, and math
• These are the words found in books and textbooks
students read in school
• Students’ knowledge of academic vocabulary is part of
their background knowledge and affects school success
• Words are categorized into three levels or tiers
– Tier 1: Basic Words - common, social, conversational
– Tier 2: Academic Vocabulary - wide application in
school
– Tier 3: Specialized Terms - technical, content specific
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Teaching English Learners
• Young English learners may require explicit vocabulary
instruction
• Sometimes words must be translated
• Tier 1 Words
– Easiest for English learners; known words in their native
language
• Tier 2 Words
– Preteach these prior to reading or being read to
• Tier 3 Words
– Limited in usefulness; when needed, introduce with explicit
instruction and word-study activities

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The Development of Word Knowledge
Students
develop word • Level 1: Unknown Word
knowledge • Students do not recognize
• Level 2: Initial Recognition
through • Students have seen, heard, or can
repeated pronounce, but do not know the meaning
• Level 3: Partial Word Knowledge
exposure. • Students know one meaning and can use
Word it in a sentence
• Level 4: Full Word Knowledge
knowledge • Students know more than one meaning
spans across and can use it in several ways

four levels.

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Word Consciousness
• Word consciousness is students’ interest in learning and using
words
• Word consciousness is essential for vocabulary growth
• Word conscious students:
– Use words skillfully
– Understand nuances of word meanings
– Gain a deep appreciation of words and value them
– Are aware of differences between social and academic
language
– Understand the power of word choice
– Are motivated to learn the meanings of unfamiliar words

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Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading
Achievement
Vocabulary knowledge and reading achievement are closely
related

Students with larger vocabularies are more capable readers

Students who are exposed to reading from an early age have

larger vocabularies and are more prepared for reading instruction

Once students become fluent readers, reading widely is the most

important way they learn new words

Better readers do more reading and those books have more

sophisticated words

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Word-Study Concepts
In order to develop full word knowledge, students need to learn more about
words and their meanings.
• Synonyms - the same or nearly the same meanings
• Antonyms - the opposite meanings
• Homonyms - words that sound alike or are spelled alike
– Homophones: sound alike, spelled differently
– Homographs: spelled alike, pronounced differently
– Homographic homophones: sound alike and spelled alike, but have
multiple meanings
• Multiple Meanings - noun and verb forms
• Figurative Meanings - metaphorical; idioms and comparisons
– Simile: comparison using like or as
– Metaphor: stronger comparison; implies one is the other

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Teaching Students About Words
Effective vocabulary instruction should include:
• Immersing students in words through listening, talking,
reading, and writing
• Teaching specific words through active involvement and
multiple encounters
• Teaching word-learning strategies so students can figure
out the meanings of unfamiliar words
• Developing students’ word consciousness

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Word Walls
Word walls are useful resources for students to use
when writing and spelling

Word walls might contain interesting, confusing, or

important words that students are learning

Word walls should represent all three tiers of words

Word walls should be a “living part” of the classroom

and used every day

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Explicit Instruction
• Teachers explicitly teach students about specific words,
usually Tier 2 words
• Instruction should be rich, deep, and extended
• Teachers provide multiple encounters with words
• Teachers present a variety of information about words
including definitions, examples, contexts, and related
words
• Teachers consider what students already know
• Teachers use minilessons to teach specific words and
other vocabulary concepts

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Word-Study Activities
Students use word-study activities to visualize, categorize,
and investigate words
• Word Posters
• Word Maps
• Dramatizing Words
• Word Sorts
• Word Chains
• Semantic Feature Analysis

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Word-Learning Strategies
Using context clues
Using • Look at the words and sentences surrounding a new word
• Teachers model this when reading aloud
• 6 types of context clues: definition; example-illustration; contrast; logic; root words and affixes; grammar

Analyzing word parts

Analyzing • Students use knowledge of prefixes, suffixes, and root words to figure out longer words

Checking a dictionary
Checking • Dictionary definitions are more useful when students are vaguely familiar with the word’s meaning

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Incidental Word Learning
• Students learn words incidentally all the time
• Research indicates that reading is the single largest
source of vocabulary growth for students, especially after
3rd grade
• The amount of time students spend reading independently
is the best predictor of vocabulary growth between 2nd and
5th grades
• Incidental word learning occurs in the following contexts:
– Independent reading
– Reading aloud to students

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Assessing Students’ Word
Knowledge
Assessing students’ word knowledge is difficult because there aren’t
any grade-level standards identifying which words students should
know

Students are always moving into deeper levels of word knowledge as

they gradually learn new words

Monitoring students’ independent reading allows teachers to informally

assess vocabulary

Using the instruction-assessment cycle, teachers observe students

during word-study activities, minilessons, discussions, story retelling,
conferences, and presentations

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If Students Struggle…
explain the meanings of new words
locate the words on the word wall
Identify the problems by asking pronounce the words
them to: use the words in conversation
use them in writing

Emphasis on Vocabulary - draw their attention to new words

Word Meanings - preteach vocabulary and involve them in

interactive games

Talk Activities - collaborate with classmates to investigate new

words

Writing Activities - complete posters and projects to incorporate

new vocabulary in written work

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Part 8 Learning Outcomes
8.1 Define comprehension in terms of reader and
text factors and identify three prerequisites that
support a reader’s comprehension of a text

8.2 List 12 comprehension strategies that readers

use during reading, and explain how they support
comprehension

8.3 Discuss how teachers can teach

comprehension strategies

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What is Comprehension?
• Comprehension is the goal of reading instruction
• Readers use four levels of comprehension as they read:
– Literal comprehension
– Inferential comprehension
– Critical comprehension
– Evaluative comprehension
• Comprehension is a creative, multifaceted process in
which readers engage with and think about the text
• Comprehension is a reader’s process of using prior
experiences and the text to construct meaning

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Comprehension Involves Reader and
Text Factors
Students actively engage with text when they read or listen to a book being read
aloud. They rely on text factors to aid in their comprehension.

• Reader Factors
– Background knowledge
– Vocabulary
– Fluency
– Strategies and skills
– Engagement

• Text Factors
– Genres
– Text Structures
– Text Features

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Text Complexity
• Text complexity examines reader and text factors to
determine how well readers can engage with and
understand an assigned text
• Teachers identify students’ independent, instructional, and
frustration reading levels and match them with appropriate
texts as well as texts at their grade-level placements
• There are 3 components of text complexity
– Qualitative Dimensions
– Quantitative Measures
– Reader and Task Considerations

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Before Reading: Reader Factors to
Consider
• Background Knowledge
– Students’ world and literacy knowledge that provides a bridge to a
new text
– When students lack background knowledge, teachers provide it
through authentic experiences, visual representations, and lecture
• Vocabulary
– Knowledge of vocabulary is critical to comprehension
– When students lack the necessary vocabulary to understand what
they’re reading, teachers introduce key vocabulary while building
background knowledge
• Fluency
– Fluent readers read quickly and efficiently, devoting all cognitive
resources to comprehending rather than decoding

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Comprehension Strategies That
Readers Use While Reading
• Comprehension strategies are thoughtful behaviors
readers use to facilitate understanding of what they are
reading
• Readers apply strategies to deepen understanding,
determine if they are comprehending, and solve problems
that may arise during reading
• Readers apply metacognitive strategies while reading -
they consider how well they are understanding what
they’re reading and determine whether they need to apply
any additional strategies

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12 Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategies
Readers Use During Reading
• Activating background • Predicting
knowledge
• Questioning
• Connecting
• Repairing
• Determining importance
• Setting a purpose
• Drawing inferences
• Summarizing
• Evaluating
• Visualizing
• Monitoring

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Comprehension Strategies (1 of 4)
Making connections between what
Activating Background they know and what is in the text
Knowledge Filling in gaps in the text enhances
comprehension

Linking text-to-self, text-to-text,

and text-to-world while reading
Connecting Relating personal experiences to
text

Noticing the big ideas and the

relationships among them
Determining Importance Focusing on big ideas so as not to
be overwhelmed by details

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Comprehension Strategies (2 of 4)
Reading between the lines using
background knowledge and clues
Drawing Inferences in text
Moving beyond literal thinking to
what is implied

Evaluating both the text and the

reading experience
Evaluating Assuming responsibility for
strategy use

Supervising the reading

experience to check for
Monitoring understanding
Expecting the text to make sense
and recognizing when it doesn’t

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Comprehension Strategies (3 of 4)
Making thoughtful “guesses” about
what will happen
Predicting Becoming more engaged and
wanting to continue reading

Asking literal and higher level

questions about the text
Questioning Using questions to direct reading,
clarify confusions, and make
inferences

Identifying a problem interfering

with comprehension and solving
Repairing the problem
Regaining comprehension and
continuing reading

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Comprehension Strategies (4 of 4)
Identifying a broad focus to
direct reading
Setting a Purpose Focusing attention according
to the goal of reading

Paraphrasing the big ideas to

create a concise statement
Summarizing Recalling big ideas better
when they summarize

Creating mental images of

what is being read
Visualizing Using images to make the text
more memorable

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Teaching Comprehension Strategies
• Comprehension instruction involves teaching students
about comprehension and the strategies readers use to
understand what they are reading
• Teachers provide students opportunities to practice what
they’re learning using authentic books
• Teachers create an expectation the books students read
will make sense

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Using Explicit Instruction
• Through explicit instruction, teachers explain what
comprehension is and why it’s important
• Teachers model how to apply comprehension strategies
• Teachers use think-alouds to model their use of
comprehension strategies
• Introduce strategies in minilessons, model while reading
aloud, use collaboratively with students, then use during
guided and independent practice

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Teaching for Comprehension During
Reading
• As students read books at their reading levels, they
reinforce their awareness that reading is a meaning-
making process, and they refine their abilities to apply
strategies while reading
• Teachers provide a combination of independent, small-
group, and whole-class reading opportunities daily
– Independent reading
– Interactive read-alouds
– Shared reading

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Activities That Promote
Comprehension

K W L Charts Reading Aloud Hot Seat Graphic

Organizers

Conferencing Reading Logs Grand Open-mind

with Students Conversations Portraits

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Teaching English Learners
English Learners often lack one or more of the three
prerequisites for comprehension

Limited background knowledge is related to a lack of familiarity

with Tier 2 (academic) vocabulary

If the book is too difficult, English learners cannot read fluently

and will not comprehend

Teachers can help by choosing appropriate books, teaching

comprehension strategies, and helping students actively engage
with the books they’re reading

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Assessing Students’ Knowledge of
Reader Factors
Teachers use a combination of diagnostic tests along with the instruction-
assessment cycle to assess students’ comprehension and use of strategies to
deepen comprehension.

• Classroom Assessments
– Cloze Procedure, Story Retellings, Running Records, and Think-Alouds

If Students Struggle…

• they most likely are not applying comprehension strategies

• they may not be able to transfer strategies used for listening comprehension to
reading

• they may lack one or more of the three prerequisites for comprehension

• teachers should match students to books and differentiate instruction

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Part 9 Learning Outcomes
9.1 Discuss the text factors of stories

9.2 Discuss the text factors of informational books

9.3 Discuss the text factors of poems

9.4 Explain how to teach students about text factors

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Text Factors
• In addition to reader factors, comprehension involves text
factors
– Genres
▪ Stories, informational texts, and poetry
– Text Structures
▪ Patterns used to organize texts and emphasize big
ideas
– Text Features
▪ Narrative devices, headings and indexes, repetition
and rhyme

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Text Factors of Stories
• Stories are narratives about characters trying to overcome problems or
deal with conflict
• Stories help readers find meaning in their lives
• Stories are either picture books or chapter books
• Stories can be categorized into three genres
– Folklore
▪ fables, folktales, myths, legends
– Fantasies
▪ modern literary tales, fantastic stories, science fiction, high
fantasy
– Realistic Fiction
▪ contemporary stories or historical stories

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Elements of Story Structure
Stories Plot - the sequence of events involving
have characters in conflict situations
unique
structural Characters - the people or personified
elements animals in the story
that
distinguish Setting - the location, weather, time period,
them from or time the story takes place
other
genres. Point of View - the perspective from which
the story is written
Theme - the underlying meaning of the story

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Narrative Devices
Devices which make the writing more vivid and memorable
are considered narrative devices.
• Dialogue - written conversations
• Flashbacks -interruption
• Foreshadowing - hints about events to come
• Imagery - descriptive words and phrases
• Suspense - excited uncertainty
• Symbol - person, place, or thing used to represent
something else (e.g., lion implies courage)

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Text Factors of Informational Books
• Students learn about the world around them through
reading nonfiction or expository texts
• Nonfiction can be categorized into three genres:
– Informational Books
– Alphabet Books
– Biographies
• Expository text structures help students comprehend what
they are reading in informational books
– Description, Sequence, Comparison, Cause and Effect,
Problem and Solution

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Nonfiction Features
Informational
books have Headings and subheadings
unique text
features that
make them Photographs and drawing
easier to read
and to facilitate
readers’
comprehension.
Figures, maps, and tables
Margin notes
Highlighted vocabulary words
Glossary
Index

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Text Factors of Poetry
• Poetic Forms • Poetic Devices
– Rhymed Verse – Alliteration
– Narrative Poems – Imagery
– Haiku – Metaphor
– Free Verse – Onomatopoeia
– Concrete Poems – Repetition
– Rhyme
– Rhythm
– Simile

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Teaching about Text Factors
When teachers teach about text factors, comprehension increases

When students are familiar with text factors they are better able to
create those factors in their own writing

Students need to learn about a variety of genres

Minilessons are used to teach about text factors directly

Comprehension strategies are applied when noticing text factors

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Reading and Writing Activities
Instructional activities provide opportunities for students to examine text
factors and offer guided practice where students apply what they’ve
learned about comprehension strategies. Teachers differentiate
instruction through activities for reading and writing stories, nonfiction,
and poetry.
• Stories
– Story boards, hot seat, drawings and diagrams, story retelling,
open-mind portraits
• Nonfiction
– Semantic feature analysis, story boards, writing informational
books
• Poetry
– Interactive read-alouds, choral reading, poetry picture books,
writing poems
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Assessing Students’ Knowledge of
Text Factors
Students apply what they know about text factors when
they read and write
Teachers observe students while reading and writing

Teachers use the instruction-assessment cycle to evaluate

students’ developing knowledge about text factors
Embedding assessment into instruction makes it easier for
teachers to notice students who are struggling
Teachers modify instruction to improve students’
comprehension

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If Students Struggle…

01 02 03 04 05 06
Increase read- Provide Invite students Encourage Ask students to Have students
aloud opportunities for to participate in students to use compare books create charts
experiences independent grand academic they are reading about text
reading conversations vocabulary with those factors to
when discussing they’ve read display in the
text factors previously classroom

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Part 10 Learning Outcomes

10.1 Describe the five stages of the reading

process

10.2 Explain the difference between

strategies and skills

10.3 Identify the five commonly used

instructional programs and discuss the
strengths and weaknesses of each one

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The Reading Process
• Reading is a constructive process of creating meaning that
involves the reader, the text, and the purpose within social
and cultural contexts
• Comprehension is the goal of all reading
• Reading is a complex process that involves five essential
elements
– Phonemic Awareness and Phonics
– Word Identification
– Fluency
– Vocabulary
– Comprehension
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Five Stages of the Reading Process

Teachers involve students in activities to teach,

practice, and apply all five essential elements of
reading

The reading process is organized into five stages

Prereading Reading Responding Exploring Applying

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Stage 1: Prereading
Reading begins before readers ever open a book as readers
prepare to read. During this stage, students and teachers:
• Activate or build background knowledge and related
vocabulary
• Set purposes
• Introduce key vocabulary words
• Make predictions
• Do a picture walk to preview the text

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Stage 2: Reading
During this stage, students participate in independent
reading, partner reading, shared reading, and teacher
read-alouds. During this stage, students:
• Read independently, with a partner, or using shared
reading; or listen to the teacher read aloud
• Apply reading strategies and skills
• Examine illustrations, charts, and diagrams

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Stage 3: Responding
During this stage, students respond to what they’ve read to
continue the meaning-making process. During this stage,
students:
• Write and draw pictures in reading logs
• Participate in grand conversations or other discussions

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Stage 4: Exploring
After the initial reading, students revisit the text to examine it
more analytically. This stage is more teacher directed than
the previous stages. During this stage, students:
• Reread all or part of the text
• Learn new vocabulary words
• Participate in minilessons on reading strategies and skills
• Examine the writer’s craft

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Stage 5: Applying
After reading, readers extend their comprehension, reflect
on their understanding, and value the reading experience.
During this stage, students:
• Construct projects
• Read related books
• Use information in thematic units
• Value the reading experience

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Reading Strategies and Skills
Strategies represent the thinking readers do, whereas skills are automatic
behaviors that don’t require thought.

• Strategies
– Deliberate, goal-directed
– Linked with motivation
– Cognitive and metacognitive
– Phonemic awareness, word-identification, word-learning, comprehension
– Require explicit instruction (declarative - what, procedural - how, and
conditional - when)

• Skills
– Automatic behaviors; don’t require thought
– Phonemic awareness, word-identification, word-learning, comprehension

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Organizing for Instruction: Five
Approaches
Teachers adopt a balanced literacy approach, combining
components from two or more instructional programs.
Five of the most common instructional approaches are:
• Guided Reading Lessons
• Basal Reading Programs
• Literature Focus Units
• Literature Circles
• Reading Workshop

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Guided Reading Lessons
Small groups of 4-6 students reading at the same level

Teachers scaffold students as they read instructional level text

Students apply comprehension strategies and receive support from the

teacher as needed

Lessons last about 20 minutes each

Typically used in K-3, but can be used with older readers

The goal of this program is to develop independent readers

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Basal Reading Programs
Commercial reading programs

Aligned with grade level standards

Introduce skills in a sequential manner

Text gets increasingly more difficult

Detailed lesson plans in the teacher’s guide

Practice in workbooks

Whole group lessons with some opportunities for independent reading

Don’t provide for the sustained development of background knowledge

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Literature Focus Units
Feature popular and award-winning texts

May be one single book or multiple books for author or genre

studies
Focus on teaching students about literature while teachers plan
minilessons on vocabulary and comprehension
Teachers scaffold students’ comprehension as they read

Students learn about genres, story structures, and literary

devices
All students read the same book even if they don’t like it or it isn’t
at their instructional level

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Literature Circles
• Nurture students’ love of reading
• Ensure students become lifelong readers
• Student-led discussions allow all readers to respond
• Quality literature selected by the teacher for students to
choose
• Students have specific roles which help facilitate
discussions
• Selected books are at a variety of reading levels
• Students must be task oriented and use their time wisely

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Reading Workshop
• An alternative to traditional reading instruction
• Students read independently in an authentic manner
• Teachers present minilessons on reading concepts,
strategies, and procedures
• Individualized instruction
• Students choose the books they wish to read
• Activities are authentic and student-directed
• Teachers may feel a loss of control because all students
are reading different books

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Part 11 Learning Outcomes
11.1 Describe the five stages in the writing process

11.2 Discuss how to teach writing using the six traits

11.3 Explain how to assess students’ writing

development

11.4 Describe three ways to implement the writing

process in classrooms

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The Writing Process
• The writing process involves a series of five recursive
stages
• Reading and writing are parallel processes of constructing
meaning
• Readers and writers use similar strategies for making
meaning with text
• The writing process involves recurring cycles rather than a
linear progression through the stages
• The five stages of the writing process are:
– Prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, publishing

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Stage 1: Prewriting
The “getting ready to write” stage

Choose a topic

Consider the purpose

Identify the genre

Gather and organize ideas

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Stage 2: Drafting
Getting ideas down on paper

Rough draft; often a messy reflection of the prewriting

stage

Students write quickly with little attention to handwriting,

grammar, or mechanics

May be hand-written or typed on a computer using a

word processing program

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Stage 3: Revising
Refine the presentation of ideas to meet the needs of the readers

Reread the rough draft

Share in revising groups

Make substantive changes that reflect classmates’ comments

Conference with the teacher

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Stage 4: Editing
Writing is put into its final form as students proofread
the revised rough draft

Students identify and correct spelling, capitalization,

punctuation, and grammar errors

Students may use an editing checklist to help them in

identifying additional errors

Students conference with teachers one last time to find

and correct any remaining errors

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Stage 5: Publishing
Students make the final copy

Students share their writing with an authentic audience

Publishing brings writing to life

Motivates students to continue writing and improve the quality of

their writing

Sharing with an audience brings meaning to their work

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Writing Strategies and Skills
• Writing strategies are tools students use deliberately to craft
effective compositions
• Writing skills are automatic and knowledge-based
• Many strategies are the same for both reading and writing
• Teachers present skill an strategy instruction in minilessons
• Writing strategies
– Elaborating, formatting, generating, narrowing, organizing,
proofreading, rereading, revising
• Writing skills
– Content skills, word skills, sentence skills, grammar skills,
mechanical skills
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The Six Traits
• Writers use specific techniques, referred to as writer’s
craft, to capture readers’ attention and convey meaning
• Six writer’s craft techniques, or traits, were identified to
assist teachers and students in making their writing more
effective
– Ideas
– Organization
– Voice
– Word choice
– Sentence fluency
– Conventions
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Writing Genres
• Forms of writing are referred to as genres
• Students learn to use a variety of genres through
authentic reading and writing activities
• Six writing genres:
– Descriptive writing
– Expository writing
– Journals and letters
– Narrative writing
– Persuasive/argumentative writing
– Poetry

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Teaching English Learners

English learners must know English vocabulary, sentence structure,

and spelling

Teachers set high expectations, teach them how to write, and

involve them in daily, authentic writing activities

Topics - use writing as a tool for learning

Teachers must consider the academic vocabulary
Talk - activates background knowledge and
demands on English learners’ builds ideas
language knowledge and consider Models - use pattern books as models
the following as they teach writing: Focus on ideas - use the writing process as
a guide

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Assessing Students’ Writing
Teachers use the instruction-assessment cycle to assess the process
students use as they write

Rubrics are scoring guides used to assess the quality of students’ writing

Students keep drafts, checklists, and rubrics in writing folders to document

progress

Teachers prepare students for on-demand tests by teaching them to

analyze prompts, develop ideas, plan writing, and proofread

When students struggle, teachers use shared reading, Language

Experience Approach, minilessons, interactive writing, and provide daily
opportunities for authentic writing

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The Writing Process in Action
Teachers use an apprenticeship model to cultivate a community of writers.
Students use the writing process to draft, refine, and publish their writing while
teachers plan instructional opportunities.

• Interactive Writing
– Creating text together, or “sharing the pen” with teacher and students
– Teachers assist with conventional spelling

• Writing Centers
– Specific locations in the classroom for students to write independently
– Teachers may assist and encourage as well as observe progress

• Writing Workshop
– Students choose topics for their writing
– Teachers guide students through the writing process

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Part 12 Learning Outcomes

12.1 Describe how reading and writing are

used as learning tools

12.2 Discuss how students create projects

rather than take tests to demonstrate their
learning

12.3 Explain how to develop a thematic unit

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Connecting Reading and Writing
Reading has a powerful impact on writing

Writing has a powerful impact on reading

Making meaning is the goal of both reading and writing

Students activate background knowledge, set purposes, and use many other
strategies for both reading and writing

When students read about a topic prior to writing about that topic, their writing
is enhanced as a result

When students write about the ideas in a book they are reading, their
comprehension is deepened

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Reading to Learn
Teachers use picture and chapter books when teaching thematic
units
Choosing high-quality literature both informs and entertains
readers and encourages them to continue reading and writing
Teachers read aloud books that are too difficult for students to
read on their own
Students read independently during reading workshop

Teachers use text sets at different reading levels to integrate

content area learning
Mentor texts are used to model writer’s craft

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Writing as a Learning Tool
Students use writing during thematic units to record information,
categorize ideas, draw graphic organizers, and write summaries

The focus should be on thinking and learning rather than spelling

and mechanics

Students use classroom resources, such as word walls, to spell

most words correctly

When students write about what they’re learning, they become

better writers

Students display their writing in learning logs, graphic organizers

and Quickwrite activities

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Demonstrating Learning
Students use writing to demonstrate their learning as they write books
and poems and make oral presentations.
• Writing Projects - students demonstrate learning through writing about
research topics when completing reports and poetry projects
• Oral Presentations - students demonstrate learning through giving
brief oral presentations; they may begin by drawing a picture and
discussing it, then by doing a question-answer report, “three-things-I-
know” report, and, finally, individual and group presentations
• Multigenre Projects - students explore content area topics through
writing about them in meaningful ways; students identify a repetend,
or common thread, for the project

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Thematic Units
Thematic units are interdisciplinary units that
integrate reading and writing across all
content areas

Students are assessed on what they’ve

learned as well as the processes used when
learning and working in the classroom

When developing
determine the focus; collect a text set of
books; locate Internet, digital, and other
multimedia materials; plan instructional
thematic units, activities; identify topics for minilessons;
devise ways to differentiate instruction;
teachers: brainstorm possible projects; plan for
assessment

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Teaching English Learners
When developing thematic units, teachers consider the
instructional needs of English learners to maximize opportunities
to learn English and develop content-area knowledge

English learners may struggle more with content-area study

because of the additional language demands and unfamiliar
vocabulary

Teachers differentiate instruction to maximize students’ learning

and participation

Choosing alternative assessments, such as asking questions

and talking with them about the activity, allows English learners
to better demonstrate understanding of the topics

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Topics for Thematic Units
Teachers develop thematic units on a variety of topics

The units are organized to provide opportunities for students to

apply what they’re learning about reading and writing as well as
to meet grade-level standards
Teachers differentiate instruction in thematic units to meet the
instructional needs of all learners with a large selection of texts at
many levels, varying grouping patterns, and diverse activities
Teachers link assessment with instruction in thematic units to
monitor students’ progress and evaluate what they’ve learned
without using tests

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