MATERIAL SCIENCE

VELAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS),

CHENNAI - 66
SUBJECT: MATERIAL SCIENCE (19PH203T) YEAR: II BRANCH: AUTO & MECH

What are materials science?

Materials science is an interdisciplinary field involving the properties of matter and its
applications to various areas of science and engineering. It includes elements of applied
physics and chemistry, as well as chemical, mechanical, civil and electrical engineering.

Why do we need to study material science?

Studying Materials Science and Engineering can lead to an international career. To
make things stronger, cheaper, lighter, more functional and more sustainable, the
manipulation of materials, their properties and processes is key.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
• To understand the basics of various Phase diagrams and the
Phases in Fe-C diagram
• To understand the properties and applications of Ferrous and
Non-Ferrous materials.
• To design an engineering materials by understanding the
mechanical behavior of materials and their testing methods.
• To understand the various heat treatment methods for
different applications.
• To enhance the knowledge on Non-metallic materials
including Polymers, Ceramics, Composites, and Shape
memory alloys
UNIT I : PHASE DIAGRAMS

UNIT II : FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS ALLOYS:

UNIT III MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND MATERIALS TESTING

UNIT IV : HEAT TREATMENT

UNIT V: NON-METALLIC MATERIALS

UNIT I – PHASE DIAGRAMS
Contents
• Introduction
• Definition and Basic concepts
• Solid solutions
– Subtitutional solid solution
– Interstitial solid solution
• Hume-Rothery’s rule
• Gibb’s Phase rule
• Unary & Binary phase diagrams
 Introduction
• Phase diagrams are maps that give the relationships
between phases in equilibrium in a system as a function of
temperature, pressure and composition.

• Phase diagrams can be used to predict the phase changes

that have occurred in an alloy that has been exposed to a
particular heat treatment process. This is important because
the properties of a metal component depend on
the phases present in the metal.
• It give information about melting, casting,
crystallization and other phenomena.

• A typical phase diagram has pressure on the y-axis and

temperature on the x-axis. In addition, two states of the
substance coexist in equilibrium on the lines or curves.
 DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS

1. PHASE DIAGRAMS : A graphical representation between

environmental constraints (e.g. temperature and some times pressure),
composition, and regions of phase stability, ordinarily under conditions
of equilibrium is called phase diagram.

2. PHASE : A homogenous portion of a system that has uniform physical

and chemical characteristics is called phase.

3. SOLVENT : Solvent represents the element or compound that is present

in the greatest amount. It is the component that dissolves a solute.

4. SOLUTE : Solute represents one component or element of a solution

present in a minor concentration. It is dissolved in the solvent.

5. SOLUBILITY LIMIT: The maximum concentration of solute that may

be added without forming a new phase is called solubility limit.
 SOLID SOLUTIONS

• DEFINITION : A homogeneous mixture of atoms of two or more elements

in solid state is called as solid solution. It is a single phase system. Atoms
of different elements in it cannot be either mechanically separated or
physically distinguished.
A solid solution is formed when two metals are completely
soluble in liquid state and also completely soluble in solid state.

EXAMPLE : Sterling silver.

TYPES OF SOLID SOLUTION :

Solid solutions are of two types. They are:
a) Substitutional Solid Solutions.
b) Interstitial Solid Solutions.
 SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLID SOLUTION

DEFINITION : If the atoms of the solvent

or parent metal are replaced in the crystal
lattice by atoms of the solute metal then the
solid solution is known as substitutional
solid solution.
• The binary Au-Ag, Ni-Cu, Si-Ge systems showing
complete solid solubility are the examples of
subsitutional solid solution. Such solid solution may
be (i) Random or disordered or (ii) Arranged or
ordered.

• Temperature is the deciding factor in the making of

random or arranged solid solutions.
• Brass, an alloy of Cu-Zn system has ordered
arrangement below 450°C.
 INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION

DEFINITION : In interstitial solid solutions, the solute

atom does not replace a solvent atom, but rather it enters
one of the holes or interstices between the solvent atoms.

• Carbon atoms of atomic radius 0.7 Å form solid solution

of this kind in α-iron of atomic radius of 1.24 Å.
 HUME ROTHERY’S RULES

DEFINITION : The Hume-Rothery Rules are a set of basic

rules that describe the conditions under which an element
could dissolve in a metal, forming a solid solution.
 THE PHASE RULE

J.Williard Gibbs proposed the Gibbs phase rule. It tells the number of phases that
exists within a system under equilibrium. By Formula,
F=C–P+N
Where, F = No of degrees of freedom
C = Components
P = No of phases present
–
N = No of non-compositional variables like temperature,
pressure, etc.
EXAMPLE: Water
Water is a one component system which is a
temperature and pressure dependent.
F=C –P+N
F=1–P+2
F=3–P
Phase diagram of water
Water usually exists in three phases.

It should be noted that there are three different cases

that are possible in water system.
Case 1 : Water (or) Ice (or) Vapour has only one
phase.
Therefore, the phase rule becomes,
F=C–P+N
F=1–1+2
F=2
Now, the system is known as “bivariant system”.
Case 2 : Suppose, Water is converted into vapour,
which has two phases.
Therefore, the phase rule becomes,
F=C–P+N
F=1–2+2
F=1
Now, the system is known as “univariant system”.
Case 3 : Consider the system has three phases,
i.e. ice → water → vapour
Therefore, the phase rule becomes,
F=C–P+N
F=1–3+2
F=0
Now, the system is known as “invariant system”.
The maximum number of degree of freedom for one
component system is two.
Inferences

• The phase boundaries meet at D & H.

• D & H are called triple points.
• At this points, three phase equilibrium exists.
• The degrees of freedom is zero.
• Crystal forms of iron such as α, γ and δ.
• α becomes ε near at 15 Gpa.
 BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS

DEFINITION : A phase diagram for a system with

two components is known as binary phase diagram.
ISOMORPHOUS SYSTEMS OR BINARY
ISOMORPHOUS SYSTEMS
A binary phase diagram in which two components
exhibit complete solid solubility and liquid solubility
is called binary isomorphous systems.

EXAMPLE: Cu-Ni, Ag-Au, Ge-Si and Al2O3-Cr2O3

 The modified form of Phase rule for two
component system is
F=C–P+N
(when N = 1) F = C – P + 1
For two component C = 2
F=2–P+1
F=3-P
Alumina – Chromia Systems
Key Points
•

•
 THE TIE - LINE RULE
DEFINITION : The tie-line is a horizontal line
drawn in a two phase region of a binary phase
diagram to assist in determining the composition of
two phases.

USES : The tie-line rule is applied to determine the

composition of two co-existing phases in a binary
diagram.
ISOMORPHOS SYSTEM AND TIE-LINE RULE
 THE LEVER RULE

DEFINITION : The lever rule is a procedure used to find

mole fraction of each phase of a binary equilibrium phase
diagram. It is used to determine the percent of liquid and
solid phases for a given binary composition and
temperature that is between the liquidus and solidus line.
It is used to determine percent weight of the liquid phase and
percent weight of solid phase,
WL = Cs – CO / Cs – CL
Ws (or) α = CO – CL / Cs – CL
• Overall Composition - CO
• Liquid Composition - CL
• Solid Composition – Cs (or) Cα
 Cu-Ni Isomorphous system
X-axis : composition in wt%
(From left – right – Ni &
from right – left – Cu)
Y-axis : Temp in ° C
1). In the graph three phase
regions appear,
(i) α region (substitutional
solid solution of Ni - Cu)
(ii) Liquid region
(homogeneous liquid
solution of Ni - Cu)
(iii) Two phase region (α + L)
1) Below 1080 ° C, both Cu & Ni atoms are soluble in solid state
due to same crystal structure (FCC), similar atomic radii, similar
electro negativities and similar valencies.
2) The line separating the L and α + L phase region is called the
liquidus line.
3) The line separating the α and α + L phase region is called the
solidus line.
4) The melting temperatures of the pure copper and nickel are
1085 ° C and 1453 ° C respectively. The solid to liquid
transformation takes place at the melting temperature and no
further heating is possible until this transformation is completed.
INFERENCE:
1) We can find the phases that are present
2) We can determine the composition of phases and
3) We can evaluate the percentage of phases
PHASES PRESENT:
Cu and Ni are two components in a binary system.
Therefore, C = 2 and N = 1
The phase rule equation is:
F= C – P+ N
F=2–P+1
F=3–P
a). For single phase region (liquid or solid)
F= C – P+ N
F=2–1+1
F=2
Both temperature and composition of the phase can be independently
varied.
b). In the two phase region, both liquid and solid are present
F= C – P+ N
F=2–2+1
F=1
Out of three variables temperature, composition of liquid phase and
composition of the solid phase only one is independent.
 DETERMINATION OF PHASE
COMPOSITIONS
1). When one phase is present either
α or L, then composition at
particular temperature can be
determined from the X- axis
directly.
2). When two phases are present, a
Tie Line is drawn across the two
phase region.
3). The point of intersection of tie
line with the solidus line and the
liquidus line give the solid and
liquid composition Cα and CL
respectively.
Overall Composition CO = 35% Ni
(65% Cu)
Liquid Composition CL = 31.5% Ni
(68.5% Cu)
Solid Composition Cα = 42.5% Ni
(57.5% Cu)
 DETERMINATION OF PHASE AMOUNTS
The relative amount of phases present at equilibrium in binary phase
diagram can be determined by Lever Rule.
We have,
CO = 35 Wt% Ni
Cα = 42.5 Wt% Ni
CL = 31.5 Wt% Ni
Percent weight of the liquid phase
WL = Cα – CO / Cα – CL
WL = 42.5 – 35 / 42.5 – 31.5
WL = 0.68
Percent weight of the α phase
Wα = CO – CL / Cα – CL
W α = 35 – 31.5 / 42.5 – 31.5
W α = 0.32
 EUTECTIC PHASE DIAGRAM
-Binary phase diagram of partially soluble sytem
• Melting point of two components are much
closer
• Complete liquid solubility, partially (or)
negligible solid solubility
• Ex.: negligible solid solubility Cd- Bi
Partially solid solubility Pb-Sn
 Eutectic Pb-Sn
Phase diagram of Pb-Sn
Solder alloy?

An alloy of Pb and Sn

What is best composition of the

solder alloy?

Requirements:
1. should melt easily
2. should give a strong joint
 Solder alloy 1-2-1 rule Eutectic diagram

327
L
232
L
L
183  Eutectic horizontal 

Eutectic
 point

Pb Sn
62 Eutectic
Eutectic
temperature composition
Wt % Sn
Pb: monatomic fcc
Sn: monatomic bct

: Pb rich substitutional solid

solution of Pb and Sn
crystal structure: monatomic FCC

: Sn rich substitutional solid

solution of Pb and Sn
crystal structure: monatomic BCT
Eutectic
reaction

Invariant
reaction
cool
L 183ºC
  
62 18 97
wt%Sn wt%Sn wt%Sn

Eutectic mixture

375 X
Callister Figs. 9.11, 12
• Melting point of Pb – 327 ◦ C, Sn – 232 ◦ C
• In solid α-phase, a very small amount of Sn in
dissolved in Pb. The other solid β-phase, very
small quantity of Pb is dissolved in Sn.
• Both the components dissolves in (α+β)-
phase.
• The phases are (α+β), (α+L), (β+L), α, β and L.
Eutectic point
• Eutectic temperature – temperature along the
horizontal line.
• Eutectic composition – composition at D
• At Eutectic point the degrees of freedom is
zero.
 Binary alloy eutectic system can be classified as:

1. One in which, two metals are completely soluble in the liquid

state but are insoluble in each other in the solid state.
2. two metals are completely soluble in the liquid state but are
partly soluble in each other in the solid state.
1. Two metals completely soluble in the liquid state but
completely insoluble in the solid state.
 Technically, no two metals are completely insoluble in
each other. However, in some cases the solubility is so
restricted that for practical purposes they may be
considered insoluble.
• Alloy-1: 20% Cd and 80% Bi

 Contrary to alloy 3, in this case crystal of pure Bi form

first, enriching the melt with Cd.
 The composition of the melt (or liquid) moves to right
until Ultimately the point E is reached and the remaining
liquid solidifies as eutectic (40% Cd and 60% Bi).

• Alloy-2: 40% Cd and 60% Bi (eutectic alloy)

 No solidification occurs until the melt reaches the

eutectic temperature (140°)
 At the eutectic temperature, the two pure metals
crystallize together to give a characteristically line
aggregate known as eutectic.
 Eutectic consists of alternate layers of Cd and Bi which
form at the eutectic temperature (140°C in this case).
 Alloy-3: 80% Cd and 20% Bismuth.
 As the temperature falls to T1, crystal nuclei of pure
Cd begin to form. Since pure Cd is deposited, it follows
that the liquid becomes richer in Bi; the composition of
liquid moves to left 3’ and as indicated by the diagram,
no further Cd deposits until temperature falls to T2.
 At T2 more Cd is deposited and dendrites begin to
develop from the already formed nuclei.
 The growth of the Cd dendrites, on the one hand, and
the consequent enrichment of the remaining liquid in
Bi, on the other, continues until the temperature has
fallen to 140°C, the eutectic temperature in this case.
 The remaining liquid then contains 40% Cd and 60% Bi,
the eutectic composition.
 Eutectoid Transformation:
 Eutectoid reaction is an isothermal reversible reaction in
which a solid phase (usually solid solution) is converted
into two or more intimately mixed solids on cooling, the
number of solids formed being the same as the number
of component in the system.
Pertectic phase diagram
Pertictoid reaction
The peritectoid reaction
 The peritectoid reaction is the transformation of two solid
into a third solid.
 Mild steel
The Iron-carbon system 0-0.3 wt% C

Bicycle frame
Ship hull
Car body

1410

1150
Medium C steel
0.4-0.7 wt% C

910steel Cast iron Rail wheel

rail axle
rails
725

0.8
0.02 High C steel
0.8-1.4 wt% C

Razor blades
scissors, knives
Phases in Fe-C system
PhaseSymbol Description
Liquid L Liquid solution of Fe and C
-Ferrite  Interstitial solid solution of C in
-Fe (high temperature bcc phase)
Austenite  Interstitial solid solution of C in
-Fe (FCC phase of Fe)
Ferrite  Interstitial solid solution of C in
-Fe (room temperature bcc phase)
Soft and Ductile
Cementite Fe3C Intermetallic compound of Fe and
C (orthorhombic system)
Hard and Brittle
 Invariant Reactions in Fe-C system
A horizontal line always indicates an invariant reaction in binary
phase diagrams

Peritectic Reaction

 (0.1 wt % C)  L (0.5 wt % C)  (0.18 wt % C)

1493o C

Eutectic Reaction

L (4.3 wt % C )   (2.1 wt % C )  Fe3C (6.67 wt % C )

1150o C

Eutectoid Reaction

 (0.8 wt % C )  (0.02 wt % C )  Fe3C (6.67 wt % C )

725o C
 Eutectoid Reaction

   Fe3C
725o C
cool
0.8 0.02 6.67

Pearlite

Ammount of Fe3C in Pearlite

Red Tie Line below eutectoid temp

0.8  0.02 0.78

f pearlite
   0.117
6.67  0.02 6.65
F3C
©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

Figure (a) The eutectoid

portion of the Fe-Fe3C
phase diagram. (b) An
expanded version of the
Fe-C diagram, adapted
from several sources.
Development of Microstructure in Iron - Carbon alloys

Microstructure depends on
composition (carbon
content) and heat treatment.

In the next slide we consider

slow cooling in which
equilibrium is maintained.
 Microstructure of eutectoid steel (II)

When alloy of eutectoid composition (0.76 wt % C) is cooled slowly it forms pearlite,

a lamellar or layered structure of two phases: α-ferrite and cementite (Fe3C)

The layers of alternating phases in pearlite are formed for the same reason as
layered structure of eutectic structures: redistribution C atoms between ferrite (0.022
wt%) and cementite (6.7 wt%) by atomic diffusion.

Mechanically, pearlite has properties intermediate to soft, ductile ferrite and hard,
brittle cementite.
 Microstructure of hypoeutectoid steel (I)

Compositions to the left of eutectoid (0.022 - 0.76 wt % C) hypoeutectoid (less

than eutectoid -Greek) alloys.

γ → α + γ → α + Fe3C
 Microstructure of hypoeutectoid steel (II)

Hypo eutectoid alloys contain

proeutectoid ferrite (formed
above the eutectoid
temperature)
plus the eutectoid pearlite
that contain eutectoid ferrite and
cementite.
 Microstructure of hypereutectoid steel (I)

Compositions to the right of eutectoid

(0.76 - 2.14 wt % C) hypereutectoid
(more than eutectoid -Greek) alloys.

γ → γ + Fe3C → α + Fe3C
 Microstructure of hypereutectoid steel (II)

Hypereutectoid alloys contain

proeutectoid cementite (formed above the
eutectoid temperature) plus pearlite that
contain eutectoid ferrite and cementite.
Ledeburite cast iron micro structure
CLASSIFICATION OF METALS ALLOY
• Iron
– Pig iron
– Cast iron
• white cast iron
• grey cast iron
– Wrought iron
• Iron (Fe) – atomic number 26

• most widely used of all metals as base metal in

steel and cast iron

• Pig iron - the intermediate product of smelting

iron ore with a high-carbon fuel such as coke,
usually with limestone as a flux.
(the visual effect resembles piglets feeding from a
sow)
Pig IRON
 Cast iron – is derived from pig iron
◦ White cast iron is named after its white surface
when fractured, due to its carbide impurities which
allow cracks to pass straight through.

◦ Grey cast iron is named after its grey fractured

surface, which occurs because the graphitic flakes
deflect a passing crack and initiate countless new
cracks as the material breaks.
◦ Wrought iron - iron alloy with a very low carbon
content, in comparison to steel, and has fibrous
inclusions (slag)

◦ tough, malleable, ductile and easily welded

White cast iron
Grey cast iron
Wrought iron
• Steel

– Cast steel

– Stainless steel

– High-speed steel
Cast steel
Stainless steel
High speed steel
• Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron
and has a carbon content between 0.2% and
2.1% by mass

• Carbon is the most common alloying material

for iron, but various other alloying elements
are used, such as manganese, chromium,
vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, etc.
• Stainless steel (inox steel) is a steel alloy with
a minimum of 10.5 or 11% chromium content
by mass.

• It does not corrode, rust, or stain with water

as ordinary steel does.