Block Diagram

Power supply is a device that supplies electric power to a load.

The block diagram of a d.c. power supply is shown in Fig. 1.1.
Step-down transformer: The high voltage a.c. input (220-240V) is
converted to a low voltage (5V, 9V, 12V etc.) using a step-down
transformer of appropriate turns ratio.
Rectifier: The a.c. output from the transformer secondary is then
rectified using conventional silicon rectifier diodes to produce an
unsmoothed (pulsating d.c.) output.
Reservoir/Filtering Circuit: The unsmoothed output from rectifier
is smoothened by reservoir/filtering circuit (a high value
capacitor). The capacitor helps to smooth out the voltage pulses
produced by the rectifier.
Voltage Regulator: The stabilizing circuit (a series transistor
regulator and a Zener diode voltage reference) stabilizes and
produces a constant voltage.

1.1.1 Rectifiers

A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (ac) to

direct current (dc).
Semiconductor diodes are commonly used for converting ac to
dc.
 Rectifiers can be classified as:
1. Half wave rectifier.

2. Full wave rectifier.

 Bi-phase rectifier.
 Bridge rectifier.

1.1.2 Half wave rectifiers

The simplest form of rectifier circuit uses a single diode and

operates only in positive or negative half cycles of the supply,
known as half-wave rectifier.
Figure 1.2 shows a simple half wave rectifier circuit.

The mains voltage (220 to 240V) applied to primary of step-down

transformer.
Secondary of transformer steps down the 240V rms to 12V rms
(turns ratio 20:1).
Operation: Diode D1 will allow the current to flow in the
direction is shown in fig. 1.3.
D1 will be forward biased during each positive half-cycle &
behaves as a closed switch.
When the circuit current flows in opposite direction, the
voltage bias across the diode will be reversed, causing the
diode to be reverse biased and act like an open switch.
 During the positive half-cycle, the diode will drop 0.6V to 0.7V
forward threshold voltage normally associated with silicon
diodes.
However, during the negative half-cycle the peak ac voltage will
be dropped across D1 when it is reverse biased.
Problem 1.1: A mains transformer having a turns ratio of 44:1 is
connected to a 220 V rms. mains supply. If the secondary output
is applied to a half-wave rectifier, determine the peak voltage that
will appear across a load.
Solution: The rms secondary
voltage is be given by:
Vs = Vp / 44 = 240 /
44 = 5V
The peak voltage developed
after rectification will be
Vpk = 1.414 x 5 = 7.07V
The actual peak voltage dropped across the load will be
(Assuming Silicon diode): VL = 7.07 – 0.6 = 6.47V
Half Wave Rectifier with a Reservoir Capacitor
 Figure 1.4 (a) shows a Half Wave Rectifier with a Reservoir
Capacitor.
During the first positive half-cycle, output from secondary
will charge C1 to peak value seen across RL. Hence C1 charges
to maximum at the peak of positive half-cycle (16.3V).
The time required for C1 to discharge is very much greater
and is determined by the capacitance value and the load
resistance, RL.
During this time, D1 will be reverse biased & will be held in its
non-conducting state.
As a consequence, the only discharge path for C1 is through RL.

C1 is referred to as a reservoir capacitor. It stores charge

during the positive half cycles of secondary voltage and
releases it during the negative half-cycles.
The circuit of Fig. 1.4(a) is thus able to maintain a constant
output voltage across RL.
Fig. 1.4(b) shows the secondary voltage waveform together
with the voltage developed across RL with and without C1
present.

Half wave Rectifier with Smoothing Circuit

Output of reservoir circuit consists of ripple which is undesirable
& shall be removed.
 Figure 1.5 shows half wave rectifier’s circuit with smoothing
filters.
Two components R & C or L & C acts as a filter to remove ripple.

The amount of ripple is reduced by an approximate factor equal

to:

Problem 1.2: The R–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated

half-wave rectifier circuit consists of R1 = 100Ω and C2 = 1,000 F.
If 1 V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine the
amount of ripple appearing at the output.
Solution: The reactance of the capacitor, C2, at the ripple frequency
(50 Hz):

The amount of ripple at the output of the circuit is given by:

1.1.3 Full Wave Rectifiers

The rectifier circuit that can convert both positive and

negative half cycles of ac signal into dc signal are called full
 wave rectifier circuits.
The two basic forms of full wave rectifier are: Bi-phase type and
Bridge rectifier type.

1.1.4 Bi-Phase Full Wave Rectifiers

Fig. 1.6 shows a simple bi-phase rectifier circuit.

Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the primary of the step-down
transformer (T1) which has two identical secondary windings,
each providing 12 V rms.
On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to
point B and point B will be positive with respect to point C. In
this condition D1 will allow conduction while D2 will not allow
conduction. Thus D1 alone conducts on positive half-cycles.

On negative half-cycles, point C will be positive with respect to

point B and point B will be positive with respect to point A. In
this condition D2 will allow conduction while D1 will not allow
conduction. Thus D2 alone conducts on negative half-cycles.
The operation of the bi-phase rectifier circuit with the diodes
replaced by switches is shown in Fig. 1.7. In fig. 1.7 (a) D1 is
shown conducting on a positive half-cycle while in Fig. 1.7 (b)

D2 is shown conducting.
 Bi-Phase Rectifier with Reservoir Circuit
Fig. 1.8(a) shows a reservoir capacitor C1 connected to
ensure that the output voltage remains at, or near, the peak
voltage even when the diodes are not conducting.
The C1 charges to maximum (16.3V) at the peak of the
positive half-cycle and holds the voltage at this level when
the diodes are in their non-conducting states.
The time required for C1 to discharge is very much greater
and is determined by the capacitance value and the load
resistance RL.
During this time, D1 and D2 will be reverse biased and held
in a non-conducting state. As a consequence, the only
discharge path for C1 is through RL.
Fig. 1.8(b) shows voltage waveforms with and without C1 present.

1.1.5 Bridge Rectifier

An alternative to the use of the bi-phase circuit is that of using

a four-diode bridge rectifier in which opposite pairs of diode
conduct on alternate half-cycles.
This arrangement avoids the need to have two separate
secondary windings.
 A full-wave bridge rectifier arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.9.
Mains voltage (240V) is applied to the primary of a step-down
transformer (T1).
The secondary winding provides 12V rms and has a turns ratio of
20:1.
On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect
to point B. In this condition D1 and D2 will allow conduction
while D3 and D4 will not allow conduction.
On negative half-cycles, point B will be positive with respect
to point A. In this condition D3 and D4 will allow conduction

while D1 and D2 will not allow conduction.

Fig. 1.10 shows the bridge rectifier circuit with the diodes
replaced by four switches. D1 & D2 are conducting on positive
half-cycle (fig. a) while D3 & D4 are conducting on negative half
cycle (fig. b).
Bridge Rectifier with Reservoir Capacitor
Fig. 1.11(a) shows a reservoir capacitor C1 connected to ensure
that the output voltage remains at, or near, the peak voltage even
when the diodes are not conducting.
1.1.6 Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator provides a constant DC output voltage

that is independent of AC line voltage variations, load current
and temperature.
A simple voltage regulator is shown in Fig. 1.12.

RS is included to limit
the Zener current to a
safe value when the
load is disconnected.
When a load (RL) is
connected, Zener current
(IZ) will fall as current is
diverted into load
resistance.
 The output voltage (VZ)
will remain at the Zener
voltage until regulation
fails at the point at which
potential divider formed by RS & RL produces a lower output voltage
that is less than VZ.
The Zener voltage is given by:

where VIN is the

unregulated input voltage.
Thus the maximum value for RS can be calculated from:

The power dissipated in the Zener diode will be given by PZ = VZ x

IZ
Hence the minimum value for RS can be determined from the off-
load condition when:

The internal resistance appears at the output of the supply

and defined as change in output voltage to change in output
current

where,
∆VOUT represents a small change in output (load) current
and ∆IOUT represents a corresponding small change in output
voltage.
The regulation of a power supply is given by the relationship:

Ideally, the value of regulation should be very small.

Problem 1.3: A 5 V Zener diode has a maximum rated power
dissipation of 500 mW. If the diode is to be used in a simple
regulator circuit to supply a regulated 5 V to a load having a
resistance of 400 ohms, determine a suitable value of series
resistor for operation in conjunction with a supply of 9 V.

Solution: The maximum value for the series resistor is:

The minimum value for the series resistor is:

Hence a suitable value for RS would be 150 ohms (Midway between

two extremes).
Zener controlled Transistor shunt voltage regulator

Operation
As there is a voltage drop in the series resistance Rseries the unregulated
voltage is also decreased along with it. The amount of voltage drop depends
on the current supplied t the load Rload. The value of the voltage across the
load depends on the zener diode and the transistor base emitter voltage Vbe.
Thus, the output voltage can be
written as Vout = Vzener + Vbe =
Vin – I.Rseries
The output remains nearly a constant as the values of Vzener and Vbe are
nearly constant. This condition is explained below.
When the supply voltage increases, the output voltage and base emitter
voltage of transistor increases and thus increases the base current Ibase and
therefore causes an increase in the collector current Icoll (Icoll = β.Ibase).
Thus, the supply voltage increases causing an increase in supply current, which
inturn causes a voltage drop i the series resistance Rseries and thereby
decreasing the output voltage. This decrease will be more than enough to
compensate for the initial increase in output voltage. Thus, the output remains
nearly a constant. The working explained above happens in reverse if the
supply voltage decreases.
When the load resistance Rload decreases, the load current Iload increases
due to the decrease in currents through base and collector Ibase and Icoll.
Thus, there will not be any

oltage drop across Rseries and the input current remains constant. Thus, the
output voltage will remain constant and will be the difference of the supply
voltage and the voltage drop in the series resistance. It happens in reverse if
there is an increase in load resistance.

Limitations
The series resistor causes a huge amount of power loss.
1. The supply current flow will be more through the transistor than it is
to be through the load.
2. The circuit may have problems regarding over voltage mishaps.

Voltage Multiplier
The voltage multiplier is an electronic circuit that delivers the output voltage
whose amplitude (peak value) is two, three, or more times greater than the
amplitude (peak value) of the input voltage.
The voltage multiplier is an AC-to-DC converter, made up of diodes and
capacitors that produce a high voltage DC output from a low voltage AC input.
Types of voltage multipliers
Voltage multipliers are classified into four types:
1. Half-wave voltage doubler
2. Full-wave voltage doubler
3. Voltage tripler
4. Voltage quadrupler
Half-wave voltage doubler

During positive half cycle:

The circuit diagram of the half-wave voltage doubler is shown in the above
figure. During the positive half cycle, diode D1 is forward biased. So it allows
electric current through it. This current will flows to the capacitor C1 and
charges it to the peak value of input voltage I.e. Vm.

However, current does not flow to the capacitor C2 because the diode D2 is
reverse biased. So the diode D2 blocks the electric current flowing towards the
capacitor C2. Therefore, during the positive half cycle, capacitor C1 is charged
whereas capacitor C2 is uncharged.
During negative half cycle:

During the negative half cycle, diode D1 is reverse biased. So the diode D1 will
not allow electric current through it. Therefore, during the negative half cycle,
the capacitor C1 will not be charged. However, the charge (Vm) stored in the
capacitor C1 is discharged (released).

The diode D2 is forward biased during the negative half cycle. So the diode D2
allows electric current through it. This current will flows to the capacitor C2 and
charges it. The capacitor C2 charges to a value 2Vm because the input voltage
Vm and capacitor C1 voltage Vm is added to the capacitor C2. Hence, during
the negative half cycle, the capacitor C2 is charged by both input supply voltage
Vm and capacitor C1 voltage Vm. Therefore, the capacitor C2 is charged to
2Vm.
Full-wave voltage doubler
The full-wave voltage doubler consists of two diodes, two capacitors, and input
AC voltage source.
During positive half cycle:
During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, diode D1 is forward biased.
So the diode D1 allows electric current through it. This current will flows to the
capacitor C1 and charges it to the peak value of input voltage , Vm.
Diode D2 is reverse biased during the positive half cycle. So the diode D2 does
not allow electric current through it. Therefore, the capacitor C2 is uncharged.
During negative half cycle:

During the negative half cycle, diode D2 is forward biased whereas diodes
D1 and D3 are reverse biased. Hence, the diode D2 allows electric current
through it. This current will flows to the capacitor C 2 and charges it. The
capacitor C2 is charged to twice the peak voltage of the input signal (2Vm). This
is because the charge (Vm) stored in the capacitor C1 is discharged during the
negative half cycle.
Therefore, the capacitor C1 voltage (Vm) and the input voltage (Vm) is added to
the capacitor C2 I.e Capacitor voltage + input voltage = Vm + Vm = 2Vm. As a
result, the capacitor C2 charges to 2Vm.

During second positive half cycle:

During the second positive half cycle, the diode D 3 is forward biased whereas
diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased. Diode D1 is reverse biased because the
voltage at X is negative due to charged voltage V m, across C1 and diode D2 is
reverse biased because of its orientation. As a result, the voltage (2V m) across
capacitor C2 is discharged. This charge will flow to the capacitor C 3 and charges
it to the same voltage 2Vm.

The capacitors C1 and C3 are in series and the output voltage is taken across the
two series connected capacitors C1 and C3. The voltage across capacitor C1 is
Vm and capacitor C3 is 2Vm. So the total output voltage is equal to the sum of
capacitor C1 voltage and capacitor C3 voltage I.e. C1 + C3 = Vm + 2Vm = 3Vm.

Therefore, the total output voltage obtained in voltage tripler is 3V m which is

three times more than the applied input voltage.

Voltage Quadrupler

The voltage quadrupler can be obtained by adding one more diode-capacitor

stage to the voltage tripler circuit.
During first positive half cycle:

During the first positive half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode D 1 is
forward biased whereas diodes D2, D3 and D4 are reverse biased. Hence, the
diode D1 allows electric current through it. This current will flows to the
capacitor C1 and charges it to the peak value of the input voltage I.e. V m.

During first negative half cycle:

During the first negative half cycle, diode D 2 is forward biased and diodes D1,
D3 and D4 are reverse biased. Hence, the diode D2 allows electric current
through it. This current will flows to the capacitor C 2 and charges it. The
capacitor C2 is charged to twice the peak voltage of the input signal (2Vm). This
is because the charge (Vm) stored in the capacitor C1 is discharged during the
negative half cycle.

Therefore, the capacitor C1 voltage (Vm) and the input voltage (Vm) is added to
the capacitor C2 I.e Capacitor voltage + input voltage = Vm + Vm = 2Vm. As a
result, the capacitor C2 charges to 2Vm.

During second positive half cycle:

During the second positive half cycle, the diode D 3 is forward biased and
diodes D1, D2 and D4 are reverse biased. Diode D1 is reverse biased because the
voltage at X is negative due to charged voltage V m, across C1 and, diode
D2 and D4 are reverse biased because of their orientation. As a result, the
voltage (2Vm) across capacitor C2 is discharged. This charge will flow to the
capacitor C3 and charges it to the same voltage 2Vm.

During second negative half cycle:

During the second negative half cycle, diodes D 2 and D4 are forward biased
whereas diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased. As a result, the charge (2Vm)
stored in the capacitor C3 is discharged. This charge will flow to the capacitor
C4 and charges it to the same voltage (2Vm).

The capacitors C2 and C4 are in series and the output voltage is taken across the
two series connected capacitors C2 and C4. The voltage across capacitor C2 is
2Vm and capacitor C4 is 2Vm. So the total output voltage is equal to the sum of
capacitor C2 voltage and capacitor C4 voltage I.e. C2 + C4 = 2Vm + 2Vm = 4Vm.

Applications of voltage multipliers

Voltage multipliers are used in:

 Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs)

 Traveling wave tubes

 Laser systems

 X-ray systems

 LCD backlighting

 hv power supplies

 Power supplies

 Oscilloscopes

 Particle accelerators

 Ion pumps

 Copy machines

Amplifier
An amplifier is an electronic device that increases the voltage, current, or power
of a signal. Amplifiers are used in wireless communications and broadcasting,
and in audio equipment of all kinds. Many different types of amplifier are found
in electronic circuits.
The main types of amplifier are,
1)AC Coupled Amplifier 2) DC Coupled amplifier 3) Large signal Amplifier
4)Small signal Amplifier 5) Audio frequency amplifier 6) Wide Band Amplifier
7)Radio Frequency Amplifier 8) Low Noise Amplifier
AC coupled amplifier
In AC coupled amplifier, stages are coupled together in a such a way that Dc
levels are isolated and all the components of ac signal are transferred from stage
to stage. Application: Biopotential Amplifier(ECG,EMG,CT Scan, Patient
monitoring Device)
DC coupled amplifier
In DC coupled amplifier, DC is not isolated from the stages of an amplifier, Both
DC and AC are pass from one stage to next stage. Application : Low frequency
Amplification such as sensors and Transducers.
Large signal amplifier
Large signal Amplifier are amplified to an appropriate level of signal like 1v to
100v. Application :Used last stage in electronic system
Small signal Amplifier
Small signal Amplifier amplified up to 1v. Application : Designed to reduce the
effect of noise. Sensors such as photo device , to drive relay , loud speaker.
Audio Frequency Amplifier
This amplifier is used to amplify radio signal frequency in the range of 20Hz to
20KHz. Application: : Talking toys, hearing aid
Wide Frequency Amplifier
Amplify very wide of frequencies like tens of frequency to mega Hz of
frequencies. Application : Cable TV , Antenna, CRO
Radio Frequency Amplifier
It amplified radio frequency wave like 100KHz to 1 Ghz. Application :Commercial
and defense avionics , space and deep face , electronic war fare, naval
application , mobile Internet.
Low Noise Amplifier
This amplifier amplify low noise signal like less than 10mv. Application :Radio
Telescope ,cellular Telephone , gps receivers , wireless LAN, Satellite
communication
Gain
It is the measure of the amount of amplification happens on signal. Gain is the
ratio of output voltage to Input Voltage, Output Current to Input Current or
output power to input power
Voltage Gain Av =Vout/Vin
Current Gain Ai =Iout/Iin
Power Gain Ap=Pout/Pin

Iin Iout
Input Output
Vin Vo

Power Gain Ap=Pout/Pin

In terms of voltage and current Ap = Vout *Iout / Vin *Iin
= Vout / Vin * Iout / Iin =Av * Ai
Problem1
An Amplifier produces an output voltage of 2V of an input of 50mV
If in this condition input and output current of 4mA and 200 mA respectively,
Determine
1)Voltage Gain
2)Current Gain
3)Power Gain
Av =2V/50mV=1000/25 =40
Ai =50
Ap=2000

Input Resistance
Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and it is expressed
in ohms. The input of an amplifier is normally purely resistive (i.e. any reactive
component is negligible) in the middle of its working frequency range (i.e. the
mid-band). In some cases, the reactance of the input may become appreciable
(e.g. if a large value of stray capacitance appears in parallel with the input
resistance). In such cases we would refer to input impedance rather than input
resistance.
Frequency response
For any electronic circuit, the behavior of amplifiers is affected by the frequency
of the signal on their input terminal. This characteristic is known as
the frequency response.
Frequency response is one of the most important property of amplifiers. In the
frequency range that amplifiers have been designed for, they must deliver a
constant and acceptable level of gain. The frequency response depends directly
on the components and the architecture chosen for the design of the amplifier.
Frequency response of an amplifier is usually specified in upper and lower cut
off frequencies.
Bandwidth T
he bandwidth represents the amount of frequencies or the band of frequencies
that the amplifier is most effective in amplifying. The bandwidth(BW) of an
amplifier is the difference between the frequency limits of the amplifier. Let
upper limit of frequency be f1 and lower limit be f2 then bandwidth. BW=f1−f2.

Phase shift
Phase shift in an amplifier is the amount by which the output signal is delayed
or advanced in phase with respect to the input signal expressed in degrees.
Negative Feedback
Feedback is the process by which a fraction of the output signal, either a
voltage or a current, is used as an input. If this feed back fraction is opposite in
value or phase (“anti-phase”) to the input signal, then the feedback is said to
be Negative Feedback, or degenerative feedback.
Negative feedback also has effects of reducing distortion, noise, sensitivity to
external changes as well as improving system bandwidth and input and output
impedances.
Negative Feedback is the most common form of feedback control
configuration used in process, micro-computer and amplification systems.
 Vi=Vs−Vf=Vs−βVo

The quantity β = Vf/Vo is called as feedback ratio or feedback fraction.

Let us consider the case of negative feedback. The output V o must be equal to
the input voltage (Vs - βVo) multiplied by the gain A of the amplifier.

Hence,

(Vs−βVo)A=Vo
AVs−AβVo=Vo

Or

AVs=Vo(1+Aβ)
Therefore,
Vo/Vs=A/(1+Aβ)

Let Af be the overall gain (gain with the feedback) of the amplifier. This is
defined as the ratio of output voltage Vo to the applied signal voltage Vs, i.e.,

Af=Output voltage/Input signal voltage=Vo/Vs

So, from the above two equations, we can understand that,

The equation of gain of the feedback amplifier, with negative feedback is given
by

Af=A/(1+Aβ)

Exercise Problems

• Am Amplifier with negative feedback Applied has an open loop voltage

gain 50 and one –tenth of output feedback to its input(β=0.1).Determine
over all voltage gain with negative feedback applied.
Ans:8.33
• In the above problem, amplifiers open loop gain increases by
20%,Determine the percentage increase in overall voltage gain.
Hint: Av= Av+20%Av .Increase in voltage gain expressed as ration
of change in over all gain with respect to the current gain

• AN Integrated circuit that produces open loop gain of 100, is to be used as

an basis of an amplifier stage having precise voltage gain of 20,dtermin
the amount of feedback required.
Hint: Av’=Av/1+ βAv
β = 1/Av’ -1/Av
Multistage Amplifier
If the gain obtained by a single-stage amplifier is not sufficient, then we
will connect multiple transistors to increase the gain of the AC input signal.
Since multiple stages are present between the input and output of this
circuit, it is known as a Multistage amplifier.
In Multi-stage amplifiers, the output of first stage is coupled to the input
of next stage using a coupling device. These coupling devices can usually
be a capacitor or a transformer. This process of joining two amplifier
stages using a coupling device can be called as Cascading.
CC Amplifier
• Its voltage gain is less than unity.
• It is not suitable for intermediate stages.
CB Amplifier
• Its voltage gain is less than unity.
• Hence not suitable for cascading.
CE Amplifier
• Its voltage gain is greater than unity.
• Voltage gain is further increased by cascading.
 • The characteristics of CE amplifier are such that, this configuration is very
suitable for cascading in amplifier circuits. Hence most of the amplifier
circuits use CE configuration.
• The overall gain is the product of voltage gain of individual stages.
• Av=Av1*Av2 = v2/v1 *vo/v2 = vo/v1
• Where AV = Overall gain, AV1 = Voltage gain of 1st stage, and AV2 = Voltage
gain of 2nd stage.

Coupling Devices
In Multi-stage amplifiers, the output of first stage is coupled to the input
of next stage using a coupling device. These coupling devices can usually
be a capacitor or a transformer.
Need of Coupling in Multistage Amplifier
• 1. Coupling in an amplifier is needed to connect multiple successive
stages in a cascade.
2. Proper amplifier coupling is needed to avoid effect in DC biasing when
multiple amplifier stages are connected.
3. Coupling is needed to increase the overall gain of the amplifier.
4. Coupling is needed to reduce noise when multiple amplifier stages are
connected.
5. Proper coupling is needed to reduce the wastage of power.
Types of Coupling in an Amplifier
1)Capacitor coupling
 2)Transformer coupling
3)Direct Coupling

Direct Coupling
When the output of an amplifier stage is directly connected to the input
of the next stage then it is called Direct Coupling. In the Direct Coupling
technique, no coupling device(such as a resistor, capacitor, inductor) is used.
Direct Coupled Amplifier Applications
1. Direct Coupled Amplifiers are used for low-frequency applications, such
as sensors, transducers, etc.
2. Direct Coupled Amplifiers are used to amplify DC signals also.
3. They are used for low current applications such as Buzzer, Tonner, etc.

Advantages of Direct Coupled Amplifier

1. It does not use any coupling elements that's why the circuit is very
simple and easy to make.
2. This circuit is very low-cost.
3. This circuit can amplify both the AC and DC signals.
Disadvantages of Direct Coupled Amplifier
1.It is suitable for low-frequency applications only.
2. It is suitable for low-current applications only.
3. It has a very low bandwidth.
4. The Q-point is not stable due to temperature variations.

RC coupling in amplifier
• C is connected in parallel with resistor R, this is the bypass capacitor used
to provide the low reactance path for unwanted noise signal.
Advantages of RC Coupled Amplifier
1. It is suitable for high-frequency applications.
2. Its Q-factor is stable and has a smooth bandwidth.
3. It provides constant gain over a wide frequency range.
 4. As it uses cheaper coupling devices such as resistors, capacitors, it is
low- cost and economical.
Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

1. The main disadvantage is it has very poor impedance matching

characteristics.
2. Due to the effective load resistance, it provides low voltage and power gain.
3. It is not suitable for Low-frequency applications.
4. These amplifiers become noisy with increasing their age.
Transformer Coupling in Amplifier
When the output of the amplifier stage is connected to the input of the next
stage through a transformer, then it is called a transformer-coupled amplifier.
The transformer used to couple two stages is called a coupling transformer.
Transformer Coupled Amplifier Applications

1. Transformer Coupling in amplifier is mainly used for impedance matching.

2. Transformer coupled amplifiers are used as power amplifiers to drive high
power speaker load.
3. Transformer coupling is used in high power audio amplifiers.

Advantages of Transformer Coupled Amplifier

1. It provides a very high gain.
2. It provides a very good impedance matching property.
3. These amplifiers have high efficiency and low losses.

Disadvantages of Transformer Coupling Amplifier

•
1. These amplifiers have poor frequency response, the gain decreases
with an increase in frequency.

2. These amplifiers are costly because of using the transformer as a

coupling device.
3. Humming noise occurs in the transformer.