Abstract:

This lab aims to examine how a silicon diode behaves when it’s forward-biased. To do this,
we’ll set up a circuit with a diode, a resistor, and a DC power source. As we slowly increase
the voltage, we’ll record the voltage across the diode (VD) and resistor (VR), calculate the
current (ID), and document our findings. We’ll then repeat this setup using Multisim
simulation software. Finally, we’ll plot the results (ID vs. VD) for both the physical and
simulated experiments on a characteristic curve to analyze the diode’s performance.

Theory:
A diode is used to rectify an AC voltage so that it can be smoothed and converted into a DC
voltage. A rectifier, however, may be used to produce either a constant or variable DC
voltage. A diode rectifier is designed to produce a fixed DC voltage, whereas a Silicon-
Controlled Rectifier (SCR) can be used to produce a variable DC voltage. Diode rectifiers are
classified as follows:
1. Half-wave rectifier
2. Full-wave bridge rectifier
3. Center-tapped full-wave rectifier
A rectifier, however, is not capable of producing a smooth DC voltage. Therefore, the
rectification block, which follows a filter circuit, is used to make the output DC voltage
smoother. In this configuration, the capacitor functions as a smoothing filter so that the output
approximates a DC voltage. Although the filtering process is not perfect, a residual voltage
fluctuation, known as ripple, remains on the output voltage.
A half-wave rectified voltage signal is typically established by a network with a single diode,
which yields an average or equivalent DC voltage level equal to 31.8% of the peak voltage. A
full-wave rectified signal, in comparison, has twice the average or DC level of the half-wave
signal, equating to 63.6% of the peak value.
The working principle of a half-wave rectifier is as follows: In a half-wave rectifier, only
half of the applied AC voltage cycle is utilized. The other half cycle (the negative cycle) is
not used. A single diode is included in the circuit, conducting only during the positive cycle.
The circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier without a capacitor is shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 1: Half-Wave Rectification: (a) conduction in the positive half-cycle

from 0 to T/2; (b) no conduction in the negative half-cycle from T/2 to T.
During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the anode of the diode is made positive
relative to the cathode. The diode becomes forward-biased, allowing current to pass through
it, and a positive cycle is developed across the load resistance R, as shown in Fig. 1(a).
During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, the anode is made negative with respect
to the cathode, causing the diode to become reverse-biased. No current flows through the
diode, resulting in zero output voltage across the load resistance R, as illustrated in Fig. 1(b).
The complete waveform over two cycles is shown in Fig. 2. The average value of the half-
wave rectified voltage signal over a full period T is represented by VDC =0.318Vm

Figure 2: Half-wave rectified signal for two cycles.

The working principle of a full-wave rectifier is as follows: The DC level obtained from a
sinusoidal input can be enhanced by 100% through a process known as full-wave
rectification. In this process, a bridge rectifier circuit is used to convert an AC voltage into a
DC voltage by utilizing both half cycles of the input AC voltage. The bridge rectifier, as
shown in Fig. 3, is the most common network for achieving this function, with four diodes
arranged in a bridge configuration. The AC input voltage is applied across two diagonally
opposite ends of the bridge, while the load resistance is connected across the other two ends.

Figure 3: Full-wave bridge rectifier.

During the period from t = 0 to T/2, which corresponds to the positive half-cycle, the polarity
of the input is represented in Fig. 4. The resulting polarities across the ideal diodes are also
depicted in Fig. 4, indicating that diodes D2 and D3 are conducting, while D1 and D4 remain in
the "off" state. This configuration, as shown in Fig. 4, establishes the current flow and
polarity across the load resistance R. Given that the diodes are ideal, the load voltage vo
equals the input voltage vi, as illustrated in the same figure. The bridge rectifier circuit is
provided in Fig. 3.
 Figure 4: During the positive half-cycle of the input signal, D2 and D3 diodes are forward-biased
and conduct current, while D1 and D4 diodes are reverse-biased and hence conduct no current.
For the negative half-cycle of the input, diodes D1 and D4 conduct, resulting in the
configuration shown in Fig. 5. The key outcome is that the polarity across the load resistor R
remains the same as in Fig. 5, generating a second positive pulse, as illustrated in Fig. 5.

Figure 5: During the negative half-cycle of the input signal, D1 and D4 diodes are forward-biased
and conduct current, while D2 and D3 diodes are reverse-biased and hence conduct no current.

Over one full cycle, the input and output voltages will appear as shown in Fig. 6. The average
value of the full wave rectified voltage signal over a full period (T) is given by,

Figure 5: Input and output waveforms for a full-wave rectifier.

Vdc = 2×0.318𝑉𝑚 = 0.636𝑉𝑚

Apparatus:

SL# Apparatus Quantity

1 Diode 1
2 Resistance (1 k) 1
3 Capacitors (47 and 100 F) 1 each
4 Transformer (220V/12V/9V/6V) 1
5 Project Board 1
6 Function Generator 1
 7 Oscilloscope 1
8 Multimeter 1
9 Connecting Leads 10

Precautions: The following list outlines important safety precautions to consider when
working with diodes:
1. A diode should never be removed from or inserted into a circuit while voltage is applied.
2. It must be ensured that any replacement diode is installed in the correct orientation within
the circuit.
3. Care should be taken to confirm the correct connection of the transformer.
4. When testing a diode, it must be verified that the test voltage does not exceed the diode’s:
 Maximum allowable voltage
 It should be ensured that a replacement diode is installed in the correct direction.

Experimental Procedures:
1. The actual value of the 1 kΩ resistor should be measured.
2. The circuit should be connected as shown in Figure 1 without any capacitors.
3. The AC power supply (function generator) should be turned on with the voltage control
knob set to 0 V.
4. The amplitude control knob should be gradually rotated from 0 V to 10 V (maximum
voltage).
5. The sinusoidal waveform should be selected, and the frequency should be set to 100 Hz.
6. The oscilloscope should be connected to observe the wave shapes of the input and output
voltages in dual channel mode, with no capacitor connected across the load resistance \( R \).
7. The peak AC voltage should be measured from the oscilloscope screen.
8. The output voltage should be measured using a multimeter (in both DC and AC modes)
and compared to the value obtained from the oscilloscope screen.
9. The measured data should be recorded in Table 1.
10. The power supply should be turned off, and 47 μF and 100 μF capacitors should be
connected across the load. The output voltage should be observed and measured using both
the oscilloscope and multimeter, followed by a comparison of the results.
11. The power supply should be turned off, and the measured data should be recorded in
Table 1.
12. The circuit should be connected as shown in Figures 3 and 6 without any capacitors.
Steps 3-11 should then be repeated, with the data recorded in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.
Circuit Diagram:
Experimental Data:
 Output Voltage, Vo (V)
Output Voltage, Vo (V) (By Multimeter)
Capacitance (F)
(By Oscilloscope) DC Mode (VDC, V) AC Mode (Vrms, V)
0
47
100
Table 1 Data Table for the Circuit of Figure 1:

Table 2 Data Table for the Circuit of Figure 3:

Output Voltage, Vo (V)
Output Voltage, Vo (V) (By Multimeter)
Capacitance (F)
(By Oscilloscope) DC Mode (VDC, V) AC Mode (Vrms, V)
0
47
100

Simulation and Measurement: (For Half-Wave Rectifier)

Simulation and Measurement: (For Full-Wave Rectifier)
Discussion & Conclusion:
References:
[1] Robert L. Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9th
Edition, 2007-2008
[2] Adel S. Sedra, Kenneth C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, Saunders College
Publishing, 3rd ed., ISBN: 0-03- 051648-X, 1991.
[3] American International University–Bangladesh (AIUB) Electronic Devices Lab
Manual.
[4] David J. Comer, Donald T. Comer, Fundamentals of Electronic Circuit Design,
John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd., ISBN: 0471410160, 2002.
[5] Resistor values: https://www.eleccircuit.com/how-to-basic-use-resistor/, accessed
on 20 September 2023.