PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 2 Types of Population

1. Target Population – the actual population

LESSON 1: PROBABILITY
2. Accessible Population – the portion of the
SAMPLING population in which the researcher has
Probability Sampling – refers to the selection reasonable access.
of samples from population when the selection
is based on randomization or chance. Sampling – pertains to the systematic process
Simple Random Sampling – the population of selecting the group to be analyzed in study
are given an equal chance to be selected. Sample Size – refers to the group that
Stratified Random Sampling – the population represent the target population.
is divided into strata or groups before selecting Slovin Formula – used for computation of an
the samples which is best when the variables of acceptable sample size.
the study are grouped into classes such as n = N/1+Ne^2
gender and year level.
Cluster Sampling – similar to stratified as it LESSON 3: QUESTIONNAIRE
involves grouping of the population according to Questionnaire – the most commonly used
sub-groups. instrument in research which is a list of
Systematic Sampling – this procedure selects questions about a topic.
samples every nth of the chosen population until Likert Scale – a common scaling technique
arriving at the desire total sample size. which consists of declarative statements that
express a view point on a topic.
LESSON 2: POPULATION AND
SAMPLE SIZE LESSON 4: VALIDITY AND
Chapter 3: RELIABILITY
- Research Design Validity – the ability of a certain tool to
- Respondents of the Study measure what it is intended to measure and to
- Locale of the Study ensure the accuracy of the results of the study.
- Sampling Technique
- Research Instruments
Types of Validity
- Statistical Treatment of Data 1. Face Validity – involves analysis of whether
- Data Gathering Procedure the instrument is using a valid scale
2. Content Validity – the questions are able to
Population – the totality of all the objects,
elicit the necessary information.
elements, persons and characteristics under
3. Construct Validity – concerned with extent
consideration. to which a particular measure relates to other
measures and its consistency with hypothesis.
4. Criterion-related Validity – how scores Threats to External Validity
from tests are correlated with an external - Experimenter Effect
criterion. - Hawthorne Effect
Reliability – refers to the consistency of - Measurement Effect
results.

LESSON 5: STATISTICAL
Methods to Establish Reliability
TREATMENT OF DATA
1. Test-retest – the same test is given to a
Statistics – used in collecting, organizing,
group of respondents twice and the scores in
presenting, analyzing and interpreting data.
the first test are correlated with the second.
Statistical Treatment – the culmination of the
2. Internal Consistency Test – the question is
long process of formulating a hypothesis,
designed to measure a single basic concept and
constructing the instrument, and collecting data.
respondent is assumed to answer correct at
another item that is similar to the first item.
Two Branches of Statistics
1. Descriptive Statistics – involves tabulating,
In planning the collection of data, the
depicting and describing the collected data.
following should be considered:
2. Inferential Statistics – involves making
1. People – secure the approval and
generalizations about the population through a
endorsement of the proper authorities for the
sample drawn from it.
conduct of the study
2. Finances – it is important to properly plan
Common Statistic Tools
the amount for the production of the instrument
Descriptive Statistics
and other expenses in going to venues for your
1. Frequency Distribution – the record of the
study.
number of cases in each category on the scale
3. Schedule – how much time to be consumed
of measurement.
in going from one participant to other
2. Proportion – the total frequency divided by
4. Miscellaneous – what to wear, ensuring
the number of cases in each category.
safety of the participant and how to encourage
3. Percentage – the proportion expressed in
them to answer all items.
percentage.
4. Measure of Central Tendencies – indicates
Threats to Internal Validity
where the center of the distribution tends to be
- Selection Bias
located.
- Maturation
a. Mode – the most frequent occurring score
- History
b. Median – the middlemost value
- Instrumentation Change
c. Mean – exact mathematic center
5. Variability or Dispersion – refers to the a. Chi-square test – a test of difference
extent and manner in which the scores differ between the observed and the expected
from each other. frequencies
a. Range – the difference between the b. Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation
highest value and lowest value. Coefficient – the non-parametric version of
b. Average Deviation – the deviations of the pearson product-moment correlation which
individual score from the mean. measures the strength and direction of
c. Variance – the square of the standard association between two ranked variables.
deviation.
d. Standard Deviation – the square root of LESSON 6: DATA COLLECTION
the quotient of the total square deviation of
AND INFORMED CONSENT
the mean
Quantitative Research Instruments –
Inferential Statistics
comprise questionnaire, interviews, tests and
1. Parametric Tests – require a normal
observation.
distribution which level of measurement must
Informed Consent Form – a document that
either be interval and ratio.
provides information to whether the participants
a. T-test – used to compare two means for
will participate or not in the study.
the means of two independent samples or
Data Collection – involves obtaining relevant
independent groups or the means of two
information regarding the specified research
correlated samples
questions or objectives.
b. Z-test – used to compare two means for
Research Instruments – a questionnaire
the sample mean and the perceived
consists of a series of questions.
population mean.
c. F-test – known as the analysis of variance
Tests – used for assessing various skills and
used when comparing the means of two or
types of behavior and describing some
more independent groups.
characteristics.
d. Pearson product-moment coefficient of
Quantitative Interview – collecting data
correlation – an index of relationship
about individual’s behaviors, opinions, values,
between two variables
emotions and demographic characteristics using
e. Simple linear regression analysis –
numerical data.
used when there is a significant relationship
Observation – can be used in quantitative
between x and y variables.
when the observable characteristics are
f. Multiple regression analysis – used in
quantitative like length, width, height, volume,
predictions
etc.
2. Non-parametic Test – does not require
Useful Online Tools – google forms
normal distribution of scores as it can be utilized
when data is normal or ordinal.
 Guidelines in Writing Your Research

LESSON 7: PRESENTATION AND Conclusion

1. Avoid merely summarizing
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
2. State your conclusion in a clear and simple
Techniques in Data Processing
language
1. Editing
3. Do not just reiterate the discussion of your
2. Coding
results
3. Tabulation
4. Avoid using numerals, figures or simply
repeating the results.
Non-prose Materials – composed of graphs,
5. Indicate opportunities for future research
bars, tables, charts, diagrams, etc.
Research Implications – refers to the logical
Tables – help summarize and categorize data
relations and their result in a given situation.
using columns and rows.
1. Practical Implication – also called as
Graphs – focuses on how a change in one
convenient implication which is a realistic
variable relates to another
explanation of what your research findings
1. Bar Graph – illustrate comparison of
might mean.
amounts and quantities
2. Theoretical Implication – a statement
2. Line Graph – illustrates trends and
that supports or contradicts a theory, previous
changes to data overtime
study findings, or creates something new.
3. Pie Graph – displays the relationship of
parts to a whole.
Research Recommendations
– described as a suggestion regarding the
LESSON 8: SUMMARY FINDINGS, best course of action to take as a result of
CONCLUSION AND your summary of findings and conclusion.

RECOMMENDATION - provide a useful guide that will result in a

successful outcome.
Summary of Findings
- include how to further improve the pertinent
– includes the overall purpose, the main and
variables or treatment used in the study,
specific research problem, the research
suggestions to concerned individuals or
methodology and major findings.
agencies, future researcher and suggest
- it is where you generate conclusions.
variables or research method for future use.
Conclusion – summarizes the main idea for
your readers. It is limited within the main
Two Functions of Recommendations
objective of the study and research questions
1. Identify the areas of concern that needs to be
presented at the beginning.
addressed.
2. How can future studies address the limitation
encountered in your research?