Introduction to Synchronous Machines

Definition:
A synchronous machine is an ac rotating machine whose speed under
steady state condition is proportional to the frequency of the current in its
armature. The magnetic field created by the stator currents rotates at the
synchronous speed ,and that created by the field current on the rotor is
rotating at the synchronous speed also, and a steady torque results. So,
these machines are called synchronous machines because they
operate at constant speeds and constant frequencies under steady-
state conditions. Synchronous machines are commonly used as
generators especially for large power systems, such as turbine generators
and hydroelectric generators in the grid power supply. Because the rotor
speed is equal to the synchronous speed of stator magnetic field,
synchronous motors can be used in situations where constant speed drive is
required. Since the reactive power generated by a synchronous machine can
be adjusted by controlling the magnitude of the rotor field current,
unloaded synchronous machines are also often installed in power systems
for power factor correction or for control of reactive kVA flow. Such
machines, known as synchronous condensers, and may be more
economical in the large sizes than static capacitors.
The bulk of electric power for everyday use is produced by polyphase
synchronous generators( alternators), which are the largest single-unit
electric machines in production. For instance, synchronous generators
with power ratings of several hundred megavolt-amperes (MVA) are
fairly common, and it is expected that machines of several thousand
megavolt- amperes will be in use in the near future. Like most rotating
machines, synchronous machines are capable of operating both as a
motor and as a generator. They are used as motors in constant-speed
drives, and where a variable-speed drive is required ,a synchronous
motor is used with an appropriate frequency changer such as an
inverter. As generators, several synchronous machines often operate
in parallel, as in a power station. While operating in parallel, the
generators share the load with each other; at a given time one of the
generators may not carry any load. In such a case, instead of shutting
down the generator, it is allowed to "float" on the line as a
synchronous motor on no-load.

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Construction of synchronous machines :
The synchronous machine has 3 phase winding on the stator and a d.c. field winding
on the rotor.
1. Stator :
It is the stationary part of the machine and is built up of sheet-steel laminations
having slots on its inner periphery. A 3-phase winding is placed in these slots. The
armature winding is always connected in star and the neutral is connected to ground.
2. Rotor :
The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct current through two slip
rings by a separate d.c. source. Rotor construction is of two types, namely;
(i) Salient (or projecting) pole type .
(ii) Non-salient (or cylindrical) pole type .

(i) Salient pole type:

In this type, salient or projecting poles are mounted on a large circular steel frame
which is fixed to the shaft of the alternator as shown in Fig. (1). The individual field
pole windings are connected in series in such a way that when the field winding is
energized by the d.c. exciter, adjacent poles have opposite polarities.
Low-speed alternators (120 - 400 r.p.m.) such as those driven by water turbines have
salient pole type rotors due to the following reasons:
(a) The salient field poles would cause .an excessive windage loss if driven at high
speed and would tend to produce noise.
(b) Salient-pole construction cannot be made strong enough to withstand the
mechanical stresses to which they may be subjected at higher speeds.
Since a frequency of 50 Hz is required, we must use a large number of poles on the
rotor of slow-speed alternators. Low-speed rotors always possess a large diameter
to provide the necessary space for the poles. Consequently, salient-pole type rotors
have large diameters and short axial lengths.

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 Fig. 1 salient pole rotor

(ii) Non-salient pole(cylindrical) type :

In this type, the rotor is made of smooth solid forged-steel radial cylinder having a
number of slots along the outer periphery. The field windings are embedded in
these slots and are connected in series to the slip rings through which they are
energized by the d.c. exciter. The regions forming the poles are usually left
unslotted as shown in Fig. (2). It is clear that the poles formed are non-salient i.e.,
they do not project out from the rotor surface.

Fig. 2 cylindrical rotor

High-speed alternators (1500 or 3000 r.p.m.) are driven by steam turbines and
use non-salient type rotors due to the following reasons:
(a) This type of construction has mechanical robustness and gives noiseless
operation at high speeds.
(b) The flux distribution around the periphery is nearly a sine wave and hence
a better e.m.f. waveform is obtained than in the case of salient-pole type.

Since steam turbines run at high speed and a frequency of 50 Hz is required, we

need a small number of poles on the rotor of high-speed alternators (also called
turboalternators). We can use not less than 2 poles and this fixes the highest
possible speed. For a frequency of 50 Hz, it is 3000 r.p.m. The next lower speed is
1500 r.p.m. for a 4-pole machine. Consequently, turboalternators possess 2 or 4
poles and have small diameters and very long axial lengths.

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Classification of synchronous machines according to the form of excitation :

1. Brushes excitation systems:

The field structure is usually the rotating member of a synchronous machine

and is supplied with a dc-excited winding to produce the magnetic flux. This dc
excitation may be provided by a self-excited dc generator mounted on the same
shaft as the rotor of the synchronous machine. This dc generator is known as
exciter. The direct current generated inside exciter is fed to the synchronous
machine field winding. In slow-speed machines with large ratings, such as
hydroelectric generators, the exciter may not be self-excited. Instead, a pilot
exciter, which may be self-excited or may have a permanent magnet, activates the
main exciter.

Fig 1 Block Diagram of Excitation system by pilot &main

Fig. 1 Brushes Excitation system for a synchronous machine

2.Brushless systems:
This type of excitation has a shaft-mounted bridge rectifier, that rotate with the
rotor, thus avoiding the need for brushes and slip rings.

Fig.2 Brushless Excitation system for a synchronous machine

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3.static systems:

That have stationary diodes or thyristors, in which the current is fed to the rotor
through slip rings.This type of exctation is widely used in small size alternators.

Advantages of stationary armature ;

The field winding of an alternator is placed on the rotor and is connected to d.c.
supply through two slip rings. The 3-phase armature winding is placed on the stator.

This arrangement has the following advantages:

(i) It is easier to insulate stationary winding for high voltages , because they are not
subjected to centrifugal forces .

(ii) The stationary 3-phase armature can be directly connected to load without going
through large, unreliable slip rings and brushes.

(iii) Only two slip rings are required for d.c. supply to the field winding on the rotor.
Since the exciting current is small, the slip rings and brush gear required are of light
construction.

(iv) Due to simple and robust construction of the rotor, higher speed of rotating d.c.
field is possible. This increases the output obtainable from a machine of given
dimensions.

Cooling :
Because synchronous machines are often built in extremely large sizes, they
are designed to carry very large currents. A typical armature current density
may be of the order of 10 A/mm 2 in a well-designed machine. Also, the
magnetic loading of the core is such that it reaches saturation in many regions.
The severe electric and magnetic loadings in a synchronous machine produce
heat that must be appropriately dissipated. Thus the manner in which the
active parts of a machine are cooled determines its overall physical struc tures.
In addition to air, some of the coolants used in synchronous machines include
water, hydrogen, and helium.

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Damper Bars :
So far we have mentioned only two electrical windings of a synchronous machine:
the three-phase armature winding and the field winding. We also pointed out that,
under steady state, the machine runs at a constant speed, that is, at synchronous
speed. However, like other electric machines, a synchronous machine undergoes
transients during starting and abnormal conditions. During transients, the rotor may
undergo mechanical oscillations and its speed deviates from the synchronous speed,
which is an undesirable phenomenon. To overcome this, an additional set of
windings, resembling the cage of an induction motor, is mounted on the rotor. When
the rotor speed is different from the synchronous speed, currents are induced in
the damper windings .the damper winding acts like the cage rotor of an induction
motor, producing a torque to restore the synchronous speed. Also, the damper bars
provide a means of starting to the synchronous motors, which is otherwise not self-
starting. Fig6 shows the damper bars on a salient rotors

Fig .6 salient pole rotor showing the field winding and damper bars

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 Differences between three phase induction machine and synchronous machine

Three phase induction machine Synchronous machine

Stator phases either star or delta connected Stator phase are star connected only

Rotor windings are not fed by electricity, .Rotor windings are fed by dc source
currents flow through rotor due to induction
.process

Run below synchronous speed, as a motor Run at synchronous speed for both motor and
Run above synchronous speed, as a generator generator

Self starting , as a motor Need damper bars to start , as a motor

Operate with lagging power factor only Operate with lagging, leading, and unity power
factor

Simple in construction , rugged, low .Complex in construction , expensive

maintenance, cheap , especially in squirrel cage
.type

Not active in low speed operation, as a motor Active in both low and high speed operation
as a motor ,

Not active in generating mode Used widely in generation of electricity

Difficult in speed regulation, as a motor Precise speed regulation, as a motor