Tutorial

MTH165
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Rolle’s Theorem
If you connect from f (a) to
f (b) with a smooth curve, f(a)=f(b)
there will be at least one
a b
place where f ’(c) = 0

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 Rolle’s Theorem
Rolle's theorem is an important
basic result about differentiable
functions. Like many basic
results in the calculus it seems
very obvious. It just says that
between any two points where
the graph of the differentiable
function f (x) cuts the horizontal
line there must be a point where
f '(x) = 0. The following picture
illustrates the theorem.
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 Rolle’s Theorem
height are
If two points at the same _______
connected by a continuous,
differentiable function, then there has
at least one place between those
to be ________
two points where the derivative, or
zero
slope, is _____.

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Rolle’s Theorem
If 1) f (x) is continuous on [a, b],
2) f (x) is differentiable on (a, b), and
3) f (a) = f (b)

then there is at least one value of x on (a, b),

call it c, such that f is continuous on [a, b]
f ’(c) = 0. differentiable on (a, b)
f(a) = f(b)

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a b
 Example
Example 1 f ( x)  x 4  2 x 2 on [2, 2]
( f is continuous and differentiable)
f (2)  8  f (2)

Since , then Rolle’s Theorem applies…

f ' ( x)  4 x3  4 x  4 x( x 2  1)  0
then, x = –1 , x = 0, and x = 1

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Rolle’s Theorem
Does Rolle’s Theorem apply?
If not, why not?
If so, find the value of c.
Example 2 f ( x)  4  x 2
[2, 2]

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Rolle’s Theorem
Does Rolle’s Theorem apply?
If not, why not?
If so, find the value of c.
Example 3 f ( x)  x  x
3
[1, 1]

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 Example
Example 4  x, x  0
f ( x) | x |  on [1, 1]
 x, x  0
(Graph the function over the interval on your calculator)

continuous on [-1, 1]
not differentiable at 0
not differentiable on (-1, 1)
f(-1) = 1 = f(1)

Rolle’s Theorem Does NOT apply since

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Rolle’s Theorem
Does Rolle’s Theorem apply?
If not, why not?
If so, find the value of c.
x 4
2
Example 5 f ( x)  2
[2, 2]
x

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Note
When working with Rolle’s make sure you
1. State f(x) is continuous on [a, b] and
differentiable on (a, b).
2. Show that f(a) = f(b).
3. State that there exists at least one x = c in (a, b)
such that f ’(c) = 0.
This theorem only guarantees the existence of an
extrema in an open interval. It does not tell you
how to find them or how many to expect. If YOU
can not find such extrema, it does not mean that it
can not be found. In most of cases, it is enough to
know the existence of such extrema. 12
Mean Value Theorem- MVT
The Mean Value Theorem is one of the most important
theoretical tools in Calculus. It states that if f(x) is defined
and continuous on the interval [a,b] and differentiable on
(a,b), then there is at least one number c in the interval (a,b)
(that is a<c<b) such that
f (b)  f (a)
f ' (c ) 
ba
In other words, there exists a point in the interval (a,b) which
has a horizontal tangent. In fact, the Mean Value Theorem
can be stated also in terms of slopes. Indeed, the number
f (b)  f (a)
ba
is the slope of the line passing through (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)).
So the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem states that
there exists a point such that the tangent line is parallel to
the line passing through (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)). 13
(see Picture)

The special case, when f(a) = f(b) is known as Rolle's Theorem.

In this case, we have f '(c) =0.
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 Mean Value Theorem- MVT
f
If: f is continuous on [a, b],
differentiable on (a, b)
Then: there is a c in (a, b)
a b such that

f (b)  f (a)
f ' (c ) 
ba

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 Example
Example 6 f ( x)  x 3  x 2  2 x on [-1,1]
(f is continuous and differentiable)

f ' ( x)  3 x 2
 2x  2 MVT applies

20
f ' (c )   1
1  (1)
3c 2  2c  2  1
(3c  1)(c  1)  0
1
c   , c 1
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 Mean Value Theorem- MVT

Note:

f '( x)  0 on (a, b) 
f is increasing on (a, b)

( ) The graph of f is rising

a b

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 Mean Value Theorem- MVT

Note:

f '( x)  0 on (a, b) 
f is decreasing on (a, b)

( ) The graph of f is falling

a b

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 Mean Value Theorem- MVT

Note:

f is constant on (a, b)

( ) The graph of f is level

a b

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 Example
Example 7 f ( x)  x 2  6 x  12
f ' ( x)  2 x  6
 2( x  3)
 0 iff x  3

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 Finding a Tangent Line
Example 8 Find all values of c in the open interval
(a, b) such that f '(c)  f (b)  f (a)
ba
x 1 1
f ( x)  , [ 2 , 2]
x
d  1 1
f ' ( x )  1     2
dx  x x

f (2)  f (1 / 2) 3 / 2  3
  1
2 1/ 2 3/ 2
1
f ' (c)   2  1
c
c=1 23
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 Application of MVT
Example 9 When an object is removed from a furnace
and placed in an environment with a constant
temperature of 90o F, its core temperature is 1500o F. Five
hours later the core temperature is 390o F. Explain why
there must exist a time in the interval when the
temperature is decreasing at a rate of 222o F per hour.
Solution
Let g(t) be the temperature of the object.

Then g(0) = 1500, g(5) = 390

g (5)  g (0) 390  1500
Avg. Temp.    222
50 5
By MVT, there exists a time 0 <to <5, such that g’(to) = –22225o F
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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
We start by supposing that f is any function that can be
represented by a power series

f (x) = c0 + c1(x – a) + c2(x – a)2 + c3(x – a)3 + c4(x – a)4

+ ...| x – a | < R

Let’s try to determine what the coefficients cn must be in

terms of f.

To begin, notice that if we put x = a in Equation 1, then all

terms after the first one are 0 and we get

f (a) = c0 4
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
We can differentiate the series in Equation 1 term by term:
f (x) = c1 + 2c2(x – a) + 3c3(x – a)2 + 4c4(x – a)3 + . . .
|x – a| < R

and substitution of x = a in Equation 2 gives

f  (a) = c1
Now we differentiate both sides of Equation 2 and obtain
f (x) = 2c2 + 2  3c3(x – a) + 3  4c4(x – a)2 + . . .
|x–a|<R
Again we put x = a in Equation 3. The result is

f  (a) = 2c2 5
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Let’s apply the procedure one more time. Differentiation of
the series in Equation 3 gives

f ''' (x) = 2  3c3 + 2  3  4c4(x – a) + 3  4  5c5(x – a)2 +

...| x – a | < R

and substitution of x = a in Equation 4 gives

f ''' (a) = 2  3c3 = 3!c3

By now you can see the pattern. If we continue to
differentiate and substitute x = a, we obtain
f (n) (a) = 2  3  4  . . .  ncn = n!cn
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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Solving this equation for the nth coefficient cn, we get

This formula remains valid even for n = 0 if we adopt the

conventions that 0! = 1 and f (0) = f. Thus we have proved
the following theorem.

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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Substituting this formula for cn back into the series, we see
that if f has a power series expansion at a, then it must be
of the following form.

The series in Equation 6 is called the Taylor series of the

function f at a (or about a or centered at a).

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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
For the special case a = 0 the Taylor series becomes

This case arises frequently enough that it is given the

special name Maclaurin series.

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Example 1
Find the Maclaurin series of the function f (x) = ex.

Solution:
If f (x) = ex, then f (n)(x) = ex, so f (n)(0) = e0 = 1 for all n.
Therefore the Taylor series for f at 0 (that is, the Maclaurin
series) is

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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Let’s investigate the more general question: Under what
circumstances is a function equal to the sum of its Taylor
series?

In other words, if f has derivatives of all orders, when is it

true that

As with any convergent series, this means that f (x) is the

limit of the sequence of partial sums.

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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
In the case of the Taylor series, the partial sums are

Notice that Tn is a polynomial of degree n called the

nth-degree Taylor polynomial of f at a.

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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
For instance, for the exponential function f (x) = ex, the
result of Example 1 shows that the Taylor polynomials at 0
(or Maclaurin polynomials) with n = 1, 2, and 3 are

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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
The graphs of the exponential function and these three
Taylor polynomials are drawn in Figure 1.

Figure 1

As n increases, Tn (x) appears to approach ex

in Figure 1. This suggests that ex is equal to
the sum of its Taylor series.
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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
In general, f (x) is the sum of its Taylor series if

If we let

Rn(x) = f (x) – Tn(x) so that f (x) = Tn(x) + Rn(x)

then Rn(x) is called the remainder of the Taylor series. If

we can somehow show that limn  Rn(x) = 0, then it
follows that

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Example 8
Find the Maclaurin series for f (x) = (1 + x)k, where k is any
real number.
Solution:
Arranging our work in columns, we have
f(x) = (1 + x)k f (0) = 1
f  (x) = k(1 + x)k – 1 f  (0) = k
f  (x) = k(k – 1)(1 + x)k – 2 f  (0) = k(k – 1)
f ''' (x) = k(k – 1)(k – 2)(1 + x)k – 3 f ''' (0) = k(k – 1)(k – 2)
. .
. .
. .

f(n) (x) = k(k – 1) . . . (k – n + 1)(1 + x)k – n f(n)(0) = k(k – 1) . . .

(k – n + 1)
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Example 8 – Solution cont’d

Therefore the Maclaurin series of f (x) = (1 + x)k is

This series is called the binomial series.

Notice that if k is a nonnegative integer, then the terms are

eventually 0 and so the series is finite. For other values of k
none of the terms is 0 and so we can try the Ratio Test.

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Example 8 – Solution cont’d

If its nth term is an, then

Thus, by the Ratio Test, the binomial series converges if

| x | < 1 and diverges if | x | > 1.
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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
The traditional notation for the coefficients in the binomial
series is

and these numbers are called the binomial coefficients.

The following theorem states that (1 + x)k is equal to the

sum of its Maclaurin series.

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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
It is possible to prove this by showing that the remainder
term Rn (x) approaches 0, but that turns out to be quite
difficult.

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Taylor and Maclaurin Series
We collect in the following table, for future reference, some
important Maclaurin series that we have derived in this
section and the preceding one.

Important Maclaurin Series and their Radii of Convergence

Table 1
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Multiplication and Division of
Power Series

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Example 13
Find the first three nonzero terms in the Maclaurin series
for (a) ex sin x and (b) tan x.

Solution:
(a) Using the Maclaurin series for ex and sin x in Table 1,
we have

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Example 13 – Solution cont’d

We multiply these expressions, collecting like terms just

as for polynomials:

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Example 13 – Solution cont’d

Thus

(b) Using the Maclaurin series in Table 1, we have

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Example 13 – Solution cont’d

We use a procedure like long division:

Thus
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 Taylor and Maclaurin Series
• It is possible to prove this by showing that the
remainder term Rn(x) approaches 0, but that
turns out to be quite difficult.
 Taylor and Maclaurin Series
• We collect in the following table, for future reference, some
important Maclaurin series that we have derived in this
section and the preceding one.

Important Maclaurin Series and their Radii of Convergence

Table 1
EXAMPLE
Multiplication and Division of Power
Series
 Example 13
• Find the first three nonzero terms in the
Maclaurin series for (a) ex sin x and (b) tan x.
• Solution:
• (a) Using the Maclaurin series for ex and sin x
in Table 1,
we have
 Example 13 – Solution cont’d

• We multiply these expressions, collecting like

terms just as for polynomials:
 Example 13 – Solution cont’d

• Thus

• (b) Using the Maclaurin series in Table 1, we

have
 Example 13 – Solution cont’d

• We use a procedure like long division:

• Thus
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What are indeterminate forms?

◦ In calculus and other branches of mathematical

analysis, limits involving an algebraic combination of
functions in an independent variable may often be
evaluated by replacing these functions by their limits.

◦ If the expression obtained after this substitution does

not give enough information to determine the original
limit, it is said to take on an indeterminate form.

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There are seven types of indeterminate forms :

1. 0/0
2. ∞/∞
3. 0 × ∞
4. ∞ − ∞
5. 00
6. 1∞
7. ∞0

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Limit of the form
are called indeterminate form of the type 0/0.

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L'Hopital's rule is a general method for evaluating the
indeterminate forms 0/0 and ∞/∞. This rule states that
(under appropriate conditions)

where f' and g' are the derivatives of f and g.

Note that this rule does not apply to expressions ∞/0, 1/0,
and so on.
These derivatives will allow one to perform algebraic
simplification and eventually evaluate the limit.

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Rules to evaluate 0/0 form :
1. Check whether the limit is an indeterminate form. If it is
not, then we cannot apply L’ Hopital’s rule.
2. Differentiate f(x) and g(x) separately.
3. If g’(a) ≠ 0, then the limit will exist. It may be finite, +∞
or -∞. If g’(a)=0 then follow rule 4.
4. Differentiate f’(x) & g’(x) separately.
5. Continue the process till required value is reached.

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If , then it is indeterminate
form of type 0/0.

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Limit of the form
are called indeterminate form of the type
0x∞.
If we write f(x) g(x) = f(x)/[1/g(x)], then the
limit becomes of the form (0/0).
This can be evaluated by using L’ Hopital’s
rule.

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Limit of the form
are called indeterminate form of the type
∞-∞.
If we write , then
the limit becomes of the form (0/0) and can
be evaluated by using the L’ Hopital’s rule.

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Limit of the form
are called indeterminate form of the type .

If we write , then the

limit becomes of the form (0/0) and can be
evaluated by using the L’ Hopital’s rule.

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Limit of the form
are called indeterminate form of the type
.
If we write , then the limit
becomes of the form (0/0) and can be
evaluated by using the L’ Hopital’s rule.

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Limit of the form
are called indeterminate form of the type
.
If we write , then the limit
becomes of the form (0/0) and can be
evaluated by using the L’ Hopital’s rule.

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 Observe these graphs
Maximum and minimum are in Maximum and minimum are in
the interior point of interval the end points of interval [a,b]
[a,b]
maximum maximum

minimum
X=b
X=a

X=a X=b

minimum

Maximum and minimum are in the interior point of interval

[a,b] . At x and y slope is not zero. This function is
continuous but not differentiable at m,n. Maximum at end point,
maximum minimum at interior point of
interval [a,b]
maximum
X=b
X=a

minimum
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minimum X=a X=b
There may be many maximas and minimas in an interval Point of
. But there will only one maximum and one minimum. maximum

Point of
maxima

Point of
maxima

Point of
minimum

Point of
Point of minima
minima Point of
minima 5
• For maxima and minima m=dy/dx=tan 0 0=0
• dy/dx = 0 means tangent is parralel to X –axis.

Point of
maxima
Point of
maxima

Point of
minima
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Point of maxima and minima Gradient m =dy/dx (angle formed from
positive direction of X axis. )
see m =dy/dx = tan450 = +1 (positive)
and m =dy/dx = tan1350 = -1 (negative)

Point of
maxima
For maxima and
minima dy/dx=0

1350 1350
450 450

Point of
minima
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 First derivative test for maxima and minima

• If at left of any point dy/dx = +ve and

right of this point dy/dx = -ve then the
point will be point of maxima.

• If at left of any point dy/dx = -ve and right maxima

of this point dy/dx=+ve then the point will
be point of minima.

minima

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 What Does f 
The First Derivative Test isSay
a consequence
About fof?the I/D Test. In part (a), for
instance, since the sign of f (x) changes from positive to negative at c, f
is increasing to the left of c and decreasing to the right of c. It follows
that f has a local maximum at c.

It is easy to remember the First Derivative Test by

visualizing diagrams such as those in Figure 3.

Local maximum Local minimum

Figure 3(a) Figure 3(b)

 What Does f 
Say About f ?

No maximum or minimum No maximum or minimum

Figure 3(c) Figure 3(d)
 Procedure to find point of maxima and minima by
Second derivative test

For knowing point of maxima and minima

a.Find first derivative

b. put dy/dx=0 and find the points for which dy/dx=0

c. now calculate d2y/dx2. If for above any value dy/dx=-ve

then it will be the point of maxima. If it is positive then it
will point of minima.
d. If d2y/dx2 =0 ,then apply first derivative test .

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Example

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Problem

• Find the dimensions of the rectangular field of maximum area which can be
fenced by 36 m fence.

length = x

Field breadth= y

Given 2(x+y) = 36
So x+y =18

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Area A = x.y
A = x(18-x) = 18x-x2
So dA/dx = d/dx(18x - x2) = 18- 2x

Put dA/dx = 0
So 18-2x =0
Or x= 9

Now find d2A/dx2

d2A/dx2 = d/dx(18-2x) = 0-2 = -2 (-ve)

So x= 9 will be the point for which area of field will be

maximum. So maximum area = x(18-x) = 9(18-9) = 81 m2

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Observe it

X+y= 18
Find x.y = maximum
Factors for which x+y = 18 may be
1x17 = 17 (product is minimum
here) 2x16 = 32
3x15= 45
4x14 = 56
5x13= 65
6x12= 32
7x11= 77
8x10= 80
9x9= 81 (product is maximum
here)

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 Uses of maxima and minima

• For marketing purposes we require vessels

of different shapes for which fabrication cost
is less but they could contain more material
e.g. 1 litre container of ghee.
• For getting more rectangular land area when
total perimeter of land is given.
• In factories using resources so that the
fabrication cost of commodity become less.

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