3.

1 Expansion of functions

3.1.1 The Rolle’s Theorem:

Let f be continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval (a, b) . If

f (a) = f (b) , then there is at least one point c in the interval (𝑎, 𝑏) such that f (c) = 0.
Graphically,

Fig 3.1.1: The Rolle’s Theorem

Example 1: Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 2 , show that 𝑓(𝑥) satisfies Rolle’s theorem in the interval
(-2, 2). Find all values of c such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0.

Solution: Since the polynomial f is continuous and differentiable everywhere, the hypotheses of
Rolle’s theorem are satisfied on the interval [-2, 2]. That is 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on the closed
interval [-2, 2] and differentiable on the open interval (-2, 2). Moreover, 𝑓(−2) = 𝑓(2) = 8, so
we may conclude that there exists at least one c in (-2,2) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0. Setting 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0,
we get 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 4𝑐 3 − 4𝑐 = 0 or, 4𝑐(𝑐 − 1)(𝑐 + 1) = 0 𝑐 = 0, 1, −1.

So, in the interval (-2, 2), the derivative is zero at three different values of 𝑥 , as shown in
figure.

Ref: Calculus of Single Variable, Larson E.

Exercise 3.1

1
 1. Determine whether Rolle’s theorem can be applied to f(x) on the mentioned interval [a,
b]. If Roll’s theorem can be applied, find all values of c in the open interval (a, b) such
that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0. If Rolle’s theorem can’t be applied explain why not.
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3), [2, 3]
(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥), [0, 2]

5
Solution: (a) f '   = 0, (b) f ' (1) = 0.
2

3.1.2 The Mean Value Theorem (MVT):

Let f(x) be continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
f ( b) − f ( a )
Then there is at least one point c in (a, b) such that f ( c ) = .
b−a

Graphically,

Fig 3.1.2: The Mean Value Theorem

*Note: If f ( a ) = f ( b ) , then Mean Value Theorem becomes Rolle’s Theorem.

1
Example 2 : Show that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 𝑥 3 + 1 satisfies the hypothesis of the MVT over
the interval [0, 2], and find all values of c in the interval (0, 2) at which the tangent line to the
graph of 𝑓 is parallel to the secant line joining the points (0, f(0)) and (2, f(2)).

Solution: The function f is continuous and differentiable everywhere because it is a polynomial.

In particular f is continuous on [0, 2] and differentiable on (0, 2), so the hypotheses of MVT are
satisfied with 𝑎 = 0 and 𝑏 = 2. But

𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(0) = 1, 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(2) = 3

3x 2 3c 2 f ( b) − f ( a )
f '( x) = , f '(c) = , so in this case the relation f ( c ) = becomes
4 4 b−a

2
 3c 2 3 − 1
= = 1 or, 3𝑐 2 = 4, which has two solutions 𝑐 = ±2/√3. However, only the positive
4 2−0
solution lies in the interval (0, 2) ; this value of c is consistent with the following figure.

Exercise 3.2
1. Determine whether the Mean Value Theorem (MVT) can be applied to f(x) on the closed
interval [a, b]. If the MVT can be applied, find all values of c in the open interval (a, b)
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = . If the MVT can’t be applied, explain why not.
𝑏−𝑎
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥, [-1, 1]
(b) 𝑓(𝑥) = |2𝑥 + 1|, [-1, 3]

 1   1 
Solution: (a) f '   = 3, f '  −  = 3, (b) not differentiable,
 3  3

3.1.3 Taylor series

The Taylor series of a function f ( x ) that is infinitely differentiable at a real number ‘a’ is the
power series

f (a) f  ( a )
f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) + ( x − a ) + 
2

1! 2!

which can be written as

 f (k ) ( a )
f ( x) =  ( x − a)
k
,
k =0 k!

where k! denotes the factorial of k and f ( k ) ( a ) denotes the k-th derivative of f evaluated at the
point 𝑥 = 𝑎.

3
Example 3: Find the first three non-zero terms in the expansion of the Taylor series of
f ( x ) = sin 2 x about x =  .
4
Solution:

f ( x ) = sin 2 x  
f   =1
4

f ' ( x ) = 2 cos 2 x  
f   = 0
4

f  ( x ) = −4sin 2 x  
f    = −4
4

f  ( x ) = −8cos 2 x  
f    = 0
4

f iv ( x ) = 16sin 2 x  
f iv   = 16
4

 
2 4
 
x−  x− 
So, f ( x ) = sin 2 x = 1 − 4 
4
+ 16 
4
− 
2! 4!

Exercise: 3.3
1. Find the first three non-zero terms of the Taylor series at the indicated point.


(b) cos(3x ) about x =
1
(a) about x = 1, ,
x +1 3

(c) exp(3x + 5) about x = 3, (d) arc ( tan x ) about x = 2,

 x
(e) y = exp ( 3 x ) cos ( 2 x ) about x = 0, and (f) sin   about x = 0 .
4
Answer:

1 1 (𝑥 − 1)2 9 𝜋 2 27 π 4
𝑎) − (𝑥 − 1) + ; (𝑏) − 1 + ( − 𝑥) − ( − 𝑥) ;
2 4 8 2 3 8 3
9 1 2
(𝑐) 𝑒 14 + 3𝑒 14 (𝑥 − 3) + 𝑒 14 (𝑥 − 3)2 ; (𝑑)𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (2) + (𝑥 − 2) − (𝑥 − 2)2 ;
2 5 25

4
 5 𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5
(𝑒)1 + 3𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ; (𝑓) − +
2 4 384 122880

3.2 L' Hoˆ pital Rule : (Indeterminate forms)

3.2.1 Indeterminate forms:

A mathematical expression can also be said to be indeterminate if it is not definitively or

precisely determined. Certain forms of limits are said to be indeterminate when merely knowing
the limiting behavior of individual parts of the expression is not sufficient to actually determine
the overall limit.

0 f ( x)
For example, a limit of the form , i.e., lim where lim f ( x ) = lim g ( x ) = 0 , is
0 x →a g ( x ) x→a x →a

indeterminate since the value of the overall limit actually depends on the limiting behavior of the
x x2
combination of the two functions (e.g., lim = 1 , while lim = 0 ).
x →0 x x →0 x

There are seven indeterminate forms involving 0, 1 and  :

0 
, ,  − , 0  , 00 , 0 and 1
0 

0
ˆ pital Rule : (for
3.2.2 L' Ho indeterminate form)
0

Suppose that f and g are differentiable functions on an open interval containing 𝑥 = 𝑎, except
possibly at x = a , and that lim f ( x ) = 0 and lim g ( x ) = 0 .
x→a x →a

 f ( x )   f ( x)   f ( x ) 
If lim   has a finite limit, or if this is +  or −  , then lim   = lim  .
x → a  g ( x )  x → a  g ( x )  x → a  g ( x ) 

1 − cos x
Example 1: Evaluate lim .
x →0 x2

1 − cos x 0 
Solution: lim
x →0 x2  0 form 

5
 sin x 0 
= lim ˆ
 0 form  [ using L'Hopital rule ]
x →0 2 x

cos x 1
= lim = . ˆ
[ using L'Hopital rule ]
x →0 2 2

tan x
Example 2: Evaluate lim− .
x →0 x2

tan x 0 
Solution: lim
x →0− x2  0 form

sec2 x
= lim− = −. ˆ
[ using L'Hopital rule ]
x →0 2x


ˆ pital Rule : (for
3.2.3 L' Ho indeterminate form)


Suppose that f and g are differentiable functions on an open interval containing x = a , except
possibly at x = a , and that lim f ( x ) =  and lim g ( x ) =  .
x→a x →a

 f ( x )   f ( x)   f ( x ) 
If lim   has a finite limit, or if this is +  or −  , then lim   = lim  .
x → a  g ( x )  x → a  g ( x )  x → a  g ( x ) 

x
Example 3: Evaluate lim .
x → + ex

x  
Solution: lim
x → + e x   form

1
= lim = 0. [ using L'Hopital
ˆ rule ]
x → + ex
0  0
Note: Indeterminate forms other than and , should be reduced to the form either
0  0

or .


*** To apply L’H𝑜̂pital rule the following steps will be executed.

6
 f ( x)
Step1: Check that the limit of ˆ
is an indeterminate form. If it is not, then L'Hopital rule
g ( x)
can not be used.

Step 2: Differentiate f and g separately.

f ( x)
Step 3: Find the limit of . If this limit is finite, +  or −  , then it is equal to the limit
g( x)
f ( x)
of .
g ( x)
Exercises 3.4

2. Evaluate the following limits using L’H𝒐̂pital rule (if possible).

 x 2 − x − 12     2 
49 − x 2 − 7  x − 16 
(a) lim  , (b) lim  , (c) lim  ,
x →4  x − 4  x →0  x  +
x →4 
 x−4 
  
 ex −1  sin 4 x ln( x − 2)
(d) lim  , (e) lim (f) lim ,
x →0  x  x →0 sin 7 x
x →2 + ln( x 2 − 4)

 x2   x 2 − 3x − 3 
(g) lim  , (h) lim  , (i) lim x3e− x ,
 −
x →−  e 
x 
x →  4 x + 5 
2 x →

   ln x 4 
(j) lim  x −  tan x, (k) lim  .
x→
 2 x →  x3 
2
3. Evaluate the following limits using L’H𝒐̂pital rule (if possible).
(a) lim+ 𝑥 ln 𝑥 , (b) lim  csc x −  , (c) lim ( 2 − 2 ),
1 1 cos 4x
𝑥→0 x → 0
 x 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥
1
(d) lim ( sin x ) (e) lim ( sin x ) , (f) lim(1 + x) x ,
tan x x
,
x →0 x →0 x →0

1 1 
(g) lim  − x  .

x →0 x e −1 
Solution
4 1
2. (a) 7, (b) 0,(c) + , (d) 1, (e) , (f)1, (g) 0, (h) , (i) 0, (j) -1, (k) 0.
7 4
1
3. (a) 0 , (b) 0, (c) 8, (d) 1, (e) 1, (f) e, (g) .
2

Ref: Calculus and Analytic Geometry, Howard Anton, IRL Bivens, Stephen Davis