Chapter 8

Hypothesis Testing

1
Hypothesis Testing
Three methods used to test hypotheses:
1. The traditional method
2. The P-value method
3. The confidence interval method

2
8.1 Steps in Hypothesis Testing-
Traditional Method
 A statistical hypothesis is a conjecture
about a population parameter. This
conjecture may or may not be true.
 The null hypothesis, symbolized by H0,
is a statistical hypothesis that states that
there is no difference between a
parameter and a specific value, or that
there is no difference between two
parameters.
3
Steps in Hypothesis Testing-
Traditional Method
 The alternative hypothesis,
symbolized by H1, is a statistical
hypothesis that states the existence of a
difference between a parameter and a
specific value, or states that there is a
difference between two parameters.

4
Situation A
A medical researcher is interested in finding out whether
a new medication will have any undesirable side effects.
The researcher is particularly concerned with the pulse
rate of the patients who take the medication. Will the
pulse rate increase, decrease, or remain unchanged
after a patient takes the medication? The researcher
knows that the mean pulse rate for the population under
study is 82 beats per minute.

The hypotheses for this situation are

H 0 : µ = 82 H1 : µ ≠ 82
This is called a two-tailed hypothesis test.

5
Situation B
A chemist invents an additive to increase the life of an
automobile battery. The mean lifetime of the automobile
battery without the additive is 36 months.

In this book, the null hypothesis is always stated using

the equals sign. The hypotheses for this situation are

H 0 : µ = 36 H1 : µ > 36
This is called a right-tailed hypothesis test.

6
Situation C
A contractor wishes to lower heating bills by using a
special type of insulation in houses. If the average of the
monthly heating bills is $78, her hypotheses about
heating costs with the use of insulation are

The hypotheses for this situation are

H 0 : µ = 78 H1 : µ < 78
This is called a left-tailed hypothesis test.

7
Claim
When a researcher conducts a study, he or she is
generally looking for evidence to support a claim.
Therefore, the claim should be stated as the alternative
hypothesis, or research hypothesis.

A claim, though, can be stated as either the null

hypothesis or the alternative hypothesis; however, the
statistical evidence can only support the claim if it is the
alternative hypothesis. Statistical evidence can be used
to reject the claim if the claim is the null hypothesis.

These facts are important when you are stating the

conclusion of a statistical study.

8
Hypothesis Testing
 After stating the hypotheses, the
researcher’s next step is to design the
study. The researcher selects the
correct statistical test, chooses an
appropriate level of significance, and
formulates a plan for conducting the
study.

9
Hypothesis Testing
 A statistical test uses the data
obtained from a sample to make a
decision about whether the null
hypothesis should be rejected.
 The numerical value obtained from a
statistical test is called the test value.
 In the hypothesis-testing situation,
there are four possible outcomes.

10
Hypothesis Testing
 In reality, the null hypothesis may or may
not be true, and a decision is made to
reject or not to reject it on the basis of
the data obtained from a sample.
 A type I error occurs if one rejects the
null hypothesis when it is true.
 A type II error occurs if one does not
reject the null hypothesis when it is false.

11
Hypothesis Testing

12
Hypothesis Testing
 The level of significance is the
maximum probability of committing a
type I error. This probability is
symbolized by α (alpha). That is,
P(type I error) = α.

Likewise,
P(type II error) = β (beta).

13
Hypothesis Testing
 Typical significance levels are:
0.10, 0.05, and 0.01

 For example, when α = 0.10, there is a

10% chance of rejecting a true null
hypothesis.

14
Hypothesis Testing
 The critical value, C.V., separates the critical region
from the noncritical region.

 The critical or rejection region is the range of

values of the test value that indicates that there is a
significant difference and that the null hypothesis
should be rejected.

 The noncritical or nonrejection region is the range

of values of the test value that indicates that the
difference was probably due to chance and that the
null hypothesis should not be rejected.

15
Hypothesis Testing
Finding the Critical Value for α = 0.01 (Right-Tailed Test)

z = 2.33 for α = 0.01 (Right-Tailed Test)

16
Hypothesis Testing
Finding the Critical Value for α = 0.01 (Left-Tailed Test)

Because of symmetry,
z = -2.33 for α = 0.01 (Left-Tailed Test)

17
Hypothesis Testing
Finding the Critical Value for α = 0.01 (Two-Tailed Test)

z = ±2.58

18
19
Procedure Table
Finding the Critical Values for Specific α Values,
Using Table E
Step 1 Draw the figure and indicate the appropriate area.
a. If the test is left-tailed, the critical region, with an
area equal to α, will be on the left side of the mean.
b. If the test is right-tailed, the critical region, with an
area equal to α, will be on the right side of the
mean.
c. If the test is two-tailed, α must be divided by 2; one-
half of the area will be to the right of the mean, and
one-half will be to the left of the mean.

20
Procedure Table
Finding the Critical Values for Specific α Values,
Using Table E
Step 2 Find the z value in Table E.
a. For a left-tailed test, use the z value that
corresponds to the area equivalent to α in Table E.
b. For a right-tailed test, use the z value that
corresponds to the area equivalent to 1 – α.
c. For a two-tailed test, use the z value that
corresponds to α / 2 for the left value. It will be
negative. For the right value, use the z value that
corresponds to the area equivalent to 1 – α / 2. It
will be positive.
21
Example 8-2: Using Table E
Using Table E in Appendix C, find the critical value(s) for
each situation and draw the appropriate figure, showing
the critical region.
a. A left-tailed test with α = 0.10.

Step 1 Draw the figure and indicate the appropriate area.

Step 2 Find the area closest to 0.1000 in Table E. In this

case, it is 0.1003. The z value is 1.28.

22
Example 8-2: Using Table E
Using Table E in Appendix C, find the critical value(s) for
each situation and draw the appropriate figure, showing
the critical region.
b. A two-tailed test with α = 0.02.

Step 1 Draw the figure with areas α /2 = 0.02/2 = 0.01.

Step 2 Find the areas closest to 0.01 and 0.99.

The areas are 0.0099 and 0.9901.
The z values are -2.33 and 2.33.
23
Example 8-2: Using Table E
Using Table E in Appendix C, find the critical value(s) for
each situation and draw the appropriate figure, showing
the critical region.
c. A right-tailed test with α = 0.005.

Step 1 Draw the figure and indicate the appropriate area.

Step 2 Find the area closest to 1 – α = 0.995.

There is a tie: 0.9949 and 0.9951. Average the z
values of 2.57 and 2.58 to get 2.575 or 2.58.
24
Procedure Table
Solving Hypothesis-Testing Problems
(Traditional Method)
Step 1 State the hypotheses and identify the claim.
Step 2 Find the critical value(s) from the
appropriate table in Appendix C.
Step 3 Compute the test value.
Step 4 Make the decision to reject or not reject the
null hypothesis.
Step 5 Summarize the results.
25
8.2 z Test for a Mean
The z test is a statistical test for the mean of a population.
It can be used when n ≥ 30, or when the population is
normally distributed and σ is known.
The formula for the z test is
X −µ
z=
σ n
where
X = sample mean
μ = hypothesized population mean
σ = population standard deviation
n = sample size
26
Example 8-4: Cost of Men’s Shoes
A researcher claims that the average cost of men’s
athletic shoes is less than $80. He selects a random
sample of 36 pairs of shoes from a catalog and finds the
following costs (in dollars). (The costs have been rounded
to the nearest dollar.) Is there enough evidence to support
the researcher’s claim at α = 0.10? Assume σ = 19.2.
60 70 75 55 80 55 50 40 80 70 50 95
120 90 75 85 80 60 110 65 80 85 85 45
75 60 90 90 60 95 110 85 45 90 70 70

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: μ = $80 and H1: μ < $80 (claim)

27
Example 8-4: Cost of Men’s Shoes
A researcher claims that the average cost of men’s
athletic shoes is less than $80. He selects a random
sample of 36 pairs of shoes from a catalog and finds the
following costs (in dollars). (The costs have been rounded
to the nearest dollar.) Is there enough evidence to support
the researcher’s claim at α = 0.10? Assume σ = 19.2.
60 70 75 55 80 55 50 40 80 70 50 95
120 90 75 85 80 60 110 65 80 85 85 45
75 60 90 90 60 95 110 85 45 90 70 70

Step 2: Find the critical value.

Since α = 0.10 and the test is a left-tailed test, the
critical value is z = -1.28.
28
Example 8-4: Cost of Men’s Shoes
A researcher claims that the average cost of men’s
athletic shoes is less than $80. He selects a random
sample of 36 pairs of shoes from a catalog and finds the
following costs (in dollars). (The costs have been rounded
to the nearest dollar.) Is there enough evidence to support
the researcher’s claim at α = 0.10? Assume σ = 19.2.

Step 3: Compute the test value.

Using technology, we find X = 75.0 and σ = 19.2.

X −µ 75 − 80
z= = = −1.56
σ n 19.2 36

29
Example 8-4: Cost of Men’s Shoes
Step 4: Make the decision.
Since the test value, -1.56, falls in the critical
region, the decision is to reject the null
hypothesis.

Step 5: Summarize the results.

There is enough evidence to support the claim
that the average cost of men’s athletic shoes is
less than $80.
30
Example 8-3: Professors’ Salaries
A researcher reports that the average salary of assistant
professors is more than $42,000. A sample of 30
assistant professors has a mean salary of $43,260. At
α = 0.05, test the claim that assistant professors earn
more than $42,000 per year. The standard deviation of the
population is $5230.

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: μ = $42,000 and H1: μ > $42,000 (claim)

Step 2: Find the critical value.

Since α = 0.05 and the test is a right-tailed test,
the critical value is z = 1.65.
31
Example 8-3: Professors’ Salaries
A researcher reports that the average salary of assistant
professors is more than $42,000. A sample of 30
assistant professors has a mean salary of $43,260. At
α = 0.05, test the claim that assistant professors earn
more than $42,000 per year. The standard deviation of the
population is $5230.

Step 3: Compute the test value.

X −µ 43260 − 42000
z= = = 1.32
σ n 5230 30

32
Example 8-3: Professors’ Salaries
Step 4: Make the decision.
Since the test value, 1.32, is less than the critical
value, 1.65, and is not in the critical region, the
decision is to not reject the null hypothesis.

Step 5: Summarize the results.

There is not enough evidence to support the claim
that assistant professors earn more on average
than $42,000 per year.
33
Important Comments
 Even though in Example 8–3 the sample mean
of $43,260 is higher than the hypothesized
population mean of $42,000, it is not significantly
higher. Hence, the difference may be due to
chance.
 When the null hypothesis is not rejected, there is
still a probability of a type II error, i.e., of not
rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false.
 When the null hypothesis is not rejected, it
cannot be accepted as true. There is merely not
enough evidence to say that it is false.
34
Example 8-5: Cost of Rehabilitation
The Medical Rehabilitation Education Foundation reports
that the average cost of rehabilitation for stroke victims is
$24,672. To see if the average cost of rehabilitation is
different at a particular hospital, a researcher selects a
random sample of 35 stroke victims at the hospital and
finds that the average cost of their rehabilitation is
$25,226. The standard deviation of the population is
$3251. At α = 0.01, can it be concluded that the average
cost of stroke rehabilitation at a particular hospital is
different from $24,672?

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: μ = $24,672 and H1: μ ≠ $24,672 (claim)

35
Example 8-5: Cost of Rehabilitation
The Medical Rehabilitation Education Foundation reports
that the average cost of rehabilitation for stroke victims is
$24,672. To see if the average cost of rehabilitation is
different at a particular hospital, a researcher selects a
random sample of 35 stroke victims at the hospital and
finds that the average cost of their rehabilitation is
$25,226. The standard deviation of the population is
$3251. At α = 0.01, can it be concluded that the average
cost of stroke rehabilitation at a particular hospital is
different from $24,672?

Step 2: Find the critical value.

Since α = 0.01 and a two-tailed test, the critical
values are z = ±2.58.
36
Example 8-5: Cost of Rehabilitation
“reports that the average cost of rehabilitation for stroke
victims is $24,672”
“a random sample of 35 stroke victims”
“the average cost of their rehabilitation is $25,226”
“the standard deviation of the population is $3251”
“α = 0.01”

Step 3: Find the test value.

X −µ 25, 226 − 24, 672

z= = = 1.01
σ n 3251 35

37
Example 8-5: Cost of Rehabilitation
Step 4: Make the decision.
Do not reject the null hypothesis, since the test
value falls in the noncritical region.

Step 5: Summarize the results.

There is not enough evidence to support the claim
that the average cost of rehabilitation at the
particular hospital is different from $24,672.

38
Hypothesis Testing
The P-value (or probability value) is the probability of
getting a sample statistic (such as the mean) or a more
extreme sample statistic in the direction of the
alternative hypothesis when the null hypothesis is true.

P-Value

Test Value

39
Hypothesis Testing
 In this section, the traditional method for
solving hypothesis-testing problems compares
z-values:
 critical value

 test value

 The P-value method for solving hypothesis-

testing problems compares areas:
 alpha

 P-value

40
Procedure Table
Solving Hypothesis-Testing Problems
(P-Value Method)
Step 1 State the hypotheses and identify the claim.
Step 2 Compute the test value.
Step 3 Find the P-value.
Step 4 Make the decision.
Step 5 Summarize the results.

41
Example 8-6: Cost of College Tuition
A researcher wishes to test the claim that the average
cost of tuition and fees at a four-year public college is
greater than $5700. She selects a random sample of 36
four-year public colleges and finds the mean to be $5950.
The population standard deviation is $659. Is there
evidence to support the claim at a 0.05? Use the P-value
method.

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: μ = $5700 and H1: μ > $5700 (claim)

42
Example 8-6: Cost of College Tuition
A researcher wishes to test the claim that the average
cost of tuition and fees at a four-year public college is
greater than $5700. She selects a random sample of 36
four-year public colleges and finds the mean to be $5950.
The population standard deviation is $659. Is there
evidence to support the claim at a 0.05? Use the P-value
method.

Step 2: Compute the test value.

X − µ 5950 − 5700
z= = = 2.28
σ n 659 36

43
Example 8-6: Cost of College Tuition
A researcher wishes to test the claim that the average
cost of tuition and fees at a four-year public college is
greater than $5700. She selects a random sample of 36
four-year public colleges and finds the mean to be $5950.
The population standard deviation is $659. Is there
evidence to support the claim at a 0.05? Use the P-value
method.

Step 3: Find the P-value.

Using Table E, find the area for z = 2.28.
The area is 0.9887.
Subtract from 1.0000 to find the area of the tail.
Hence, the P-value is 1.0000 – 0.9887 = 0.0113.
44
Example 8-6: Cost of College Tuition
Step 4: Make the decision.
Since the P-value is less than 0.05, the decision is
to reject the null hypothesis.

Step 5: Summarize the results.

There is enough evidence to support the claim that
the tuition and fees at four-year public colleges are
greater than $5700.
Note: If α = 0.01, the null hypothesis would not be rejected.
45
Example 8-7: Wind Speed


X −µ 8.2 − 8
z= = = 1.89
σ n 0.6 32
46
Example 8-7: Wind Speed
A researcher claims that the average wind speed in a
certain city is 8 miles per hour. A sample of 32 days has
an average wind speed of 8.2 miles per hour. The
standard deviation of the population is 0.6 mile per hour.
At α = 0.05, is there enough evidence to reject the claim?
Use the P-value method.

Step 3: Find the P-value.

The area for z = 1.89 is 0.9706.
Subtract: 1.0000 – 0.9706 = 0.0294.
Since this is a two-tailed test, the area of 0.0294
must be doubled to get the P-value.
The P-value is 2(0.0294) = 0.0588.
47
Example 8-7: Wind Speed
Step 4: Make the decision.
The decision is to not reject the null hypothesis,
since the P-value is greater than 0.05.

Step 5: Summarize the results.

There is not enough evidence to reject the claim
that the average wind speed is 8 miles per hour.

48
Significance
 The researcher should distinguish between
statistical significance and practical
significance.
 When the null hypothesis is rejected at a
specific significance level, it can be concluded
that the difference is probably not due to chance
and thus is statistically significant. However, the
results may not have any practical significance.
 It is up to the researcher to use common sense
when interpreting the results of a statistical test.

49
8.3 t Test for a Mean
The t test is a statistical test for the mean of a population
and is used when the population is normally or
approximately normally distributed, α is unknown.
The formula for the t test is
X −µ
t=
s n
The degrees of freedom are d.f. = n – 1.

Note: When the degrees of freedom are above 30, some

textbooks will tell you to use the nearest table value;
however, in this textbook, you should round down to the
nearest table value. This is a conservative approach.
50
Example 8-8: Table F
Find the critical t value for α = 0.05 with d.f. = 16 for a
right-tailed t test.

Find the 0.05 column in the top row and 16 in the left-hand column.
The critical t value is +1.746.

51
Example 8-9: Table F
Find the critical t value for α = 0.01 with d.f. = 22 for a left-
tailed test.

Find the 0.01 column in the One tail row, and 22 in the d.f. column.
The critical value is t = -2.508 since the test is a one-tailed left test.

Example 8-10: Table F

Find the critical value for α = 0.10 with d.f. = 18 for a two-
tailed t test.

Find the 0.10 column in the Two tails row, and 18 in the d.f. column.
The critical values are 1.734 and -1.734.

52
Example 8-12: Hospital Infections
A medical investigation claims that the average number of
infections per week at a hospital in southwestern
Pennsylvania is 16.3. A random sample of 10 weeks had
a mean number of 17.7 infections. The sample standard
deviation is 1.8. Is there enough evidence to reject the
investigator’s claim at α = 0.05?

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: μ = 16.3 (claim) and H1: μ ≠ 16.3

Step 2: Find the critical value.

The critical values are 2.262 and -2.262 for
α = 0.05 and d.f. = 9.
53
Example 8-12: Hospital Infections
A medical investigation claims that the average number of
infections per week at a hospital in southwestern
Pennsylvania is 16.3. A random sample of 10 weeks had
a mean number of 17.7 infections. The sample standard
deviation is 1.8. Is there enough evidence to reject the
investigator’s claim at α = 0.05?

Step 3: Find the test value.

X − µ 17.7 − 16.3
t= = = 2.46
s n 1.8 10

54
Example 8-12: Hospital Infections
Step 4: Make the decision.
Reject the null hypothesis since 2.46 > 2.262.

Step 5: Summarize the results.

There is enough evidence to reject the claim that
the average number of infections is 16.3.

55
Example 8-13: Substitute Salaries
An educator claims that the average salary of substitute
teachers in school districts in Allegheny County,
Pennsylvania, is less than $60 per day. A random sample
of eight school districts is selected, and the daily salaries
(in dollars) are shown. Is there enough evidence to
support the educator’s claim at α = 0.10?
60 56 60 55 70 55 60 55

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: μ = 60 and H1: μ < 60 (claim)

Step 2: Find the critical value.

At α = 0.10 and d.f. = 7, the critical value is -1.415.
56
Example 8-13: Substitute Salaries
Step 3: Find the test value.
we find
X = 58.9 and s = 5.1.

X −µ 58.9 − 60
t= = = −0.61
s n 5.1 8

57
Example 8-12: Hospital Infections
Step 4: Make the decision.
Do not reject the null hypothesis since -0.61 falls
in the noncritical region.

Step 5: Summarize the results.

There is not enough evidence to support the claim
that the average salary of substitute teachers in
Allegheny County is less than $60 per day.
58
Example 8-16: Jogger’s Oxygen Intake
A physician claims that joggers’ maximal volume oxygen
uptake is greater than the average of all adults. A sample
of 15 joggers has a mean of 40.6 milliliters per kilogram
(ml/kg) and a standard deviation of 6 ml/kg. If the average
of all adults is 36.7 ml/kg, is there enough evidence to
support the physician’s claim at α = 0.05?

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: μ = 36.7 and H1: μ > 36.7 (claim)

Step 2: Compute the test value.

X − µ 40.6 − 36.7
t= = = 2.517
s n 6 15
59
Example 8-16: Jogger’s Oxygen Intake
A physician claims that joggers’ maximal volume oxygen
uptake is greater than the average of all adults. A sample
of 15 joggers has a mean of 40.6 milliliters per kilogram
(ml/kg) and a standard deviation of 6 ml/kg. If the average
of all adults is 36.7 ml/kg, is there enough evidence to
support the physician’s claim at α = 0.05?

Step 3: Find the P-value.

In the d.f. = 14 row, 2.517 falls between 2.145 and
2.624, corresponding to α = 0.025 and α = 0.01.

Thus, the P-value is somewhere between 0.01

and 0.025, since this is a one-tailed test.

60
Example 8-16: Jogger’s Oxygen Intake
Step 4: Make the decision.
The decision is to reject the null hypothesis, since
the P-value < 0.05.

Step 5: Summarize the results.

There is enough evidence to support the claim that
the joggers’ maximal volume oxygen uptake is
greater than 36.7 ml/kg.

61
Whether to use z or t

62
8.4 z Test for a Proportion
Since a normal distribution can be used to approximate
the binomial distribution when np ≥ 5 and nq ≥ 5, the
standard normal distribution can be used to test
hypotheses for proportions.
The formula for the z test for a proportion is
pˆ − p
z=
pq n
where
X
pˆ = ( sample proportion )
n
p = population proportion
n = sample size
63
Example 8-17: Avoiding Trans Fats
A dietitian claims that 60% of people are trying to avoid
trans fats in their diets. She randomly selected 200 people
and found that 128 people stated that they were trying to
avoid trans fats in their diets. At α = 0.05, is there enough
evidence to reject the dietitian’s claim?

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: p = 0.60 (claim) and H1: p ≠ 0.60

Step 2: Find the critical value.

Since α = 0.05 and the test is a two-tailed test, the
critical value is z = ±1.96.

64
Example 8-17: Avoiding Trans Fats
A dietitian claims that 60% of people are trying to avoid
trans fats in their diets. She randomly selected 200 people
and found that 128 people stated that they were trying to
avoid trans fats in their diets. At α = 0.05, is there enough
evidence to reject the dietitian’s claim?

Step 3: Compute the test value.

X 128
pˆ
= = = 0.64
n 200
pˆ − p 0.64 − 0.60
z= = = 1.15
pq n ( 0.60 )( 0.40 ) 200
65
Example 8-17: Avoiding Trans Fats
Step 4: Make the decision.
Do not reject the null hypothesis since the test
value falls outside the critical region.

Step 5: Summarize the results.

There is not enough evidence to reject the claim
that 60% of people are trying to avoid trans fats in
their diets.
66
Example 8-18: Call-Waiting Service
A telephone company representative estimates that 40%
of its customers have call-waiting service. To test this
hypothesis, she selected a sample of 100 customers and
found that 37% had call waiting. At α = 0.01, is there
enough evidence to reject the claim?

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: p = 0.40 (claim) and H1: p ≠ 0.40

Step 2: Find the critical value.

Since α = 0.01 and the test is a two-tailed test, the
critical value is z = ±2.58.

67
Example 8-18: Call-Waiting Service
A telephone company representative estimates that 40%
of its customers have call-waiting service. To test this
hypothesis, she selected a sample of 100 customers and
found that 37% had call waiting. At α = 0.01, is there
enough evidence to reject the claim?

Step 3: Compute the test value.

pˆ − p 0.37 − 0.40
z= = = −0.61
pq n ( 0.40 )( 0.60 ) 100

68
Example 8-18: Call-Waiting Service
Step 4: Make the decision.
Do not reject the null hypothesis since the test
value falls outside the critical region.

Step 5: Summarize the results.

There is not enough evidence to reject the claim
that 40% of the telephone company’s customers
have call waiting.
69
8.5 χ Test for a Variance or a
2

Standard Deviation
The chi-square distribution is also used to test a claim
about a single variance or standard deviation.
The formula for the chi-square test for a variance is

χ2 =
( n − 1) s 2

σ2
with degrees of freedom d.f. = n – 1 and
n = sample size
s2 = sample variance
σ2 = population variance

70
Assumptions for the χ Test for a
2

Variance or a Standard Deviation

1. The sample must be randomly selected from
the population.
2. The population must be normally distributed
for the variable under study.
3. The observations must be independent of
one another.

71
Example 8-21: Table G
Find the critical chi-square value for 15 degrees of
freedom when α = 0.05 and the test is right-tailed.

χ 2 = 24.996

72
Example 8-22: Table G
Find the critical chi-square value for 10 degrees of
freedom when α = 0.05 and the test is left-tailed.

When the test is left-tailed, the α value must be

subtracted from 1, that is, 1 – 0.05 = 0.95. The left side
of the table is used, because the chi-square table gives
the area to the right of the critical value, and the chi-
square statistic cannot be negative.

73
Example 8-22: Table G
Find the critical chi-square value for 10 degrees of
freedom when α = 0.05 and the test is left-tailed.

Use Table G, looking in row 10 and column 0.95.

χ 2 = 3.940
74
Example 8-23: Table G
Find the critical chi-square value for 22 degrees of
freedom when α = 0.05 and a two-tailed test is conducted.

When the test is two-tailed, the area must be split. The

area to the right of the larger value is α /2, or 0.025. The
area to the right of the smaller value is 1 – α /2, or 0.975.

With 22 degrees of freedom, areas 0.025 and 0.975

correspond to chi-square values of 36.781 and 10.982.

75
Example 8-24: Variation of Test Scores
An instructor wishes to see whether the variation in scores
of the 23 students in her class is less than the variance of
the population. The variance of the class is 198. Is there
enough evidence to support the claim that the variation of
the students is less than the population variance (σ2 =225)
at α = 0.05? Assume that the scores are normally
distributed.

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: σ2 = 225 and H1: σ2 < 225 (claim)

Step 2: Find the critical value.

The critical value is χ = 12.338.
2

76
Example 8-24: Variation of Test Scores
An instructor wishes to see whether the variation in scores
of the 23 students in her class is less than the variance of
the population. The variance of the class is 198. Is there
enough evidence to support the claim that the variation of
the students is less than the population variance (σ2 =225)
at α = 0.05? Assume that the scores are normally
distributed.

Step 3: Compute the test value.

χ =
2 ( n − 1) s 2
( 22 )(198 )
= = 19.36
σ
2
225

77
Example 8-24: Variation of Test Scores
Step 4: Make the decision.
Do not reject the null hypothesis since the test
value 19.36 falls in the noncritical region.

Step 5: Summarize the results.

There is not enough evidence to support the claim
that the variation in test scores of the instructor’s
students is less than the variation in scores of the
population.
78
Example 8-26: Nicotine Content
A cigarette manufacturer wishes to test the claim that the
variance of the nicotine content of its cigarettes is 0.644.
Nicotine content is measured in milligrams, and assume
that it is normally distributed. A sample of 20 cigarettes
has a standard deviation of 1.00 milligram. At α = 0.05, is
there enough evidence to reject the manufacturer’s claim?

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: σ2 = 0.644 (claim) and H1: σ2 ≠ 0.644

Step 2: Find the critical value.

The critical values are 32.852 and 8.907.

79
Example 8-26: Nicotine Content
A cigarette manufacturer wishes to test the claim that the
variance of the nicotine content of its cigarettes is 0.644.
Nicotine content is measured in milligrams, and assume
that it is normally distributed. A sample of 20 cigarettes
has a standard deviation of 1.00 milligram. At α = 0.05, is
there enough evidence to reject the manufacturer’s claim?

Step 3: Compute the test value.

The standard deviation s must be squared in the
formula.
( n − 1) s (19 )(1.00 )
2 2

χ =
2
= = 29.5
σ
2
0.644
80
Example 8-26: Nicotine Content
Step 4: Make the decision.
Do not reject the null hypothesis, since the test
value falls in the noncritical region.

Step 5: Summarize the results.

There is not enough evidence to reject the
manufacturer’s claim that the variance of the
nicotine content of the cigarettes is 0.644.
81
8.6 Confidence Intervals and
Hypothesis Testing
 There is a relationship between confidence intervals
and hypothesis testing.
 When the null hypothesis is rejected in a hypothesis-
testing situation, the confidence interval for the mean
using the same level of significance will not contain the
hypothesized mean.
 Likewise, when the null hypothesis is not rejected, the
confidence interval computed using the same level of
significance will contain the hypothesized mean.

82
Example 8-30: Sugar Production
Sugar is packed in 5-pound bags. An inspector suspects
the bags may not contain 5 pounds. A sample of 50 bags
produces a mean of 4.6 pounds and a standard deviation
of 0.7 pound. Is there enough evidence to conclude that
the bags do not contain 5 pounds as stated at α = 0.05?
Also, find the 95% confidence interval of the true mean.

Step 1: State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: μ = 5 and H1: μ ≠ 5 (claim)

Step 2: Find the critical value.

The critical values are z = ±1.96.

83
Example 8-30: Sugar Production
Sugar is packed in 5-pound bags. An inspector suspects
the bags may not contain 5 pounds. A sample of 50 bags
produces a mean of 4.6 pounds and a standard deviation
of 0.7 pound. Is there enough evidence to conclude that
the bags do not contain 5 pounds as stated at α = 0.05?
Also, find the 95% confidence interval of the true mean.

Step 3: Compute the test value.

X −µ 4.6 − 5.0
z= = = −4.04
σ n 0.7 50

84
Example 8-30: Sugar Production
Step 4: Make the decision.
Reject the null hypothesis.

Step 5: Summarize the results.

There is enough evidence to support the claim
that the bags do not weigh 5 pounds.

85
Example 8-30: Sugar Production
The 95% confidence interval for the mean is
s s
X − zα 2 < µ < X + zα 2
n n
 0.7   0.7 
4.6 − (1.96 )   < µ < 4.6 + (1.96 )  
 50   50 
4.4 < µ < 4.8
Notice that the 95% confidence interval of m does not
contain the hypothesized value μ = 5.

Hence, there is agreement between the hypothesis test

and the confidence interval.
86